Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56

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Geomorphology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h

Mapping surface mineralogy using imaging spectrometry

Fred A. Kruse ⁎,1
Department of Geological Sciences & Engineering and Arthur Brant Laboratory for Exploration Geophysics, University of Nevada, Reno, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Imaging spectrometry, simultaneous measurement of spectra and images in up to hundreds of spectral
Received 2 March 2010 channels or bands, is a proven technology for identifying and mapping minerals based on their reflectance or
Received in revised form 2 September 2010 emissivity signatures. Also known as hyperspectral imaging or “HSI”, extraction of key spectral signatures
Accepted 8 September 2010
from these data allows direct identification of iron minerals such as hematite, goethite, and jarosite in the
Available online 31 March 2011
visible/near infrared (VNIR); clays, carbonates, micas, sulfates, and other minerals in the short wave infrared
Keywords:
(SWIR); and silicates and carbonates in the long wave infrared (LWIR). The unique capability of imaging
Spectral mineral mapping spectrometry to produce detailed maps of the spatial distribution of specific minerals, mineral assemblages,
Remote sensing geomorphology and mineral variability on the surface of Earth makes it an ideal tool for enhanced geomorphic mapping. Case
Imaging spectrometry histories illustrate the use of HSI for characterizing and mapping active and relict geothermal/hydrothermal
Hyperspectral imagery (HSI) systems and determining relations between mineralogy and derived landforms. Imaging spectrometry, used
3-D geologic visualization in conjunction with complimentary datasets such as InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar), Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), or stereo (photogrammetric-derived) digital elevation models (DEMs),
provides a unique means of visualizing the spatial distribution and association of mineralogy with
topography, thus contributing to the understanding of the relations between geology and landscape and to
improved interpretation of surface geologic processes.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. General
Landforms are physical features on the surface of Earth defined by
surface shape and topographic expression, and location in the
landscape (Hammond, 1954, 1964). They are usually defined on the
basis of homogeneous terrain characteristics and result from the
actions of common geological processes over time (Hammond, 1964;
Dikau, 1989; Bolongaro-Crevenna et al., 2005). Simple examples
include mountains, hills, tablelands, and plains (Hammond 1964).
More recent subdivisions include ridges, valleys, slopes, terraces,
saddles, fans, channels, flood plains, escarpments, basins, etc.
(MacMillan et al., 2000). Other more specific examples are those
associated with selected geologic processes such volcanic activities,
fluvial and glacial environments, wind, the coastal zone, and erosion
and weathering (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landforms).
Considerable recent effort has been expended on developing
approaches and methods for analyzing landforms using digital
elevation models (Dikau et al., 1991; Drăguţ and Blaschke, 2006;
Glenn et al., 2006; Kouli and Seymour, 2006; Santini et al., 2009).
Though terrain characteristics are typically at least partially controlled
by the underlying bedrock and weathering products, and aerial pho-
tography and aircraft/satellite imagery have played significant roles in
studying landforms (Short and Blair, 1986; Way and Everett, 1997),
the bulk of geomorphic analyses still use topography only, and spec-
tral remote sensing has not played a significant role. Recent remote
sensing advances in the area of imaging spectrometry (or hyperspec-
tral imaging, “HSI”) analysis provide new tools, that when linked with
high-quality digital terrain models available from systems such as
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar (InSAR), and stereo-capable optical satellite systems
such as the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer (ASTER), provide additional potential for putting the
landscapes into geologic context and providing new insight into the
geologic processes causing specific configurations of landforms.
1.2. Mineral mapping using imaging spectrometry

The physics of visible/near-infrared (VNIR), short-wave-infrared

⁎ MS 172, Department of Geological Sciences & Engineering and Arthur Brant
Laboratory for Exploration Geophysics, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, United
States. Tel.: + 1 303 499 9471; fax: +1 970 668 3614.
E-mail addresses: fkruse@unr.edu, fred-kruse@comcast.net.
1
Permanent Address: P.O. Box 5775, Frisco, Colorado 80443, United States.
(SWIR) and long-wave-infrared (LWIR) spectroscopy are well known.
Key spectral features in these regions allow identification of a variety
of materials using laboratory and field spectroscopy, including
minerals, vegetation, man-made materials, snow and ice, and water
(Salisbury et al., 1991; Clark et al., 2003, 2007). In geology, electronic

0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.09.032
42 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56

processes at wavelengths less than ~ 1.0 μm allow (in addition to

others) VNIR spectral identification of minerals containing Fe+ 2 and
Fe+ 3 (Hunt et al., 1971a,b) (Fig. 1, left). Molecular vibrational
features, occurring between ~ 1.0 and 2.5 μm in the SWIR, are
diagnostic of minerals containing anion groups such as Al–OH, Mg–
OH, Fe–OH, Si–OH, CO3, NH4, and SO4 (Hunt and Salisbury, 1970,
1971; Hunt et al., 1971a,b, 1972; Clark et al., 2007) (Fig. 1, right).
Silicates, carbonates, and other minerals have primary restrahlen
features in the 8–14 μm (LWIR) wavelength range (Farmer, 1974;
Salisbury et al., 1991) (Fig. 2). Small differences in absorption band
position and shape in the VNIR-SWIR (or emissivity for the LWIR) are
correlated with mineral compositional differences and variability
(Gaffey, 1986; Salisbury et al., 1991; Duke, 1994; Cloutis et al., 2006).
Imaging spectrometry, “the acquisition of images in hundreds of
registered, contiguous spectral bands such that for each picture
element of an image it is possible to derive a complete reflectance or
emissivity spectrum”, is technology that has been available since the
early 1980s (Fig. 3) (Goetz et al., 1985). It has also become known as
“Hyperspectral Imaging” or ‘HSI’. Its utility for detailed VNIR-SWIR
mineral mapping has been effectively demonstrated (Goetz et al.,
1985; Kruse, 1988; Kruse et al., 1993b, 2006; Rowan et al., 2003;
Vaughan et al., 2003; Kruse and Perry, 2009). Though not discussed
here, recent research has also demonstrated mineral mapping in the
LWIR using emissivity spectra like those in Fig. 2 (Cudahy et al., 2001;
Vaughan et al., 2003; Vaughan and Calvin, 2004). Current airborne HSI
sensors provide high-spatial resolution (2–20 m), high-spectral
resolution (10–20 nm), and high signal-to-noise (SNR) (N500:1)
data for a variety of scientific disciplines. The Airborne Visible/Infrared
Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) represents the current state of the art.
AVIRIS, flown by NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), is a 224-
channel imaging spectrometer with approximately 10 nm spectral
resolution covering the 0.4–2.5 μm spectral range (Green et al., 1998).
AVIRIS is flown as a research instrument on the NASA ER-2 aircraft at
an altitude of approximately 20 km, resulting in approximately 20-m
pixels and a 10.5-km swath width. Since 1998, it has also been flown Fig. 2. LWIR emissivity spectra of quartz, carbonates from the John Hopkins University
spectral library (Salisbury et al., 1991). Absorption spectra converted to emissivity.
on a Twin Otter aircraft at low altitude, yielding 2–4 m spatial
resolution. A number of other airborne instruments exist; both
commercial and developed by various governments around the world marked the establishment of VNIR/SWIR spaceborne imaging spec-
(see http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~schaep/research/apex/is_list.html). trometer mapping capabilities. Hyperion is a satellite sensor covering
The launch of the EO-1 Hyperion sensor by NASA in November 2000 the 0.4 to 2.5 μm spectral range with 242 spectral bands at

Fig. 1. Left: Iron mineral VNIR reflectance spectra of hematite, goethite, and jarosite. Right: Reflectance spectra of selected minerals with absorption features in the 2.0–2.5 μm
(SWIR) spectral range. Spectra from USGS spectral library (Clark et al., 2007).
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56 43

Fig. 3. The imaging spectrometer concept. Each pixel of the image yields a continuous spectrum that can be used to measure atmospheric properties and/or to identify the surface
materials (Goetz et al., 1985; Vane, 1985). A: Atmospheric Transmission, B: Minerals, C: Water, D: Green Vegetation. (Modified from http://aviris.jpl.nasa.gov/html/aviris.concept.
html; original source of JPL-modified figure thought to be (Vane, 1985). Atmospheric transmission spectrum courtesy of Rob Green, JPL.

approximately 10 nm spectral resolution and 30 m spatial resolution
from a 705 km orbit (Pearlman et al., 2003). Hyperion captures a
spectrum at each image picture element (pixel) with 242 spectral
bands over a 7.5 km-wide swath perpendicular to the satellite motion
along an up to 160 km path length. Key Hyperion characteristics are
discussed further in (Green et al., 2003) and Hyperion data are
available for download from the U. S. Geological Survey (See the USGS
E0-1 Website: http://eo1.usgs.gov/). Thousands of Hyperion scenes
have been acquired around the world. The EO-1 Science Validation
Team has evaluated and validated the instrument. Selected results
have been published in various venues (Asner and Green, 2001;
Hubbard and Crowley, 2001; Kruse et al., 2003). Also see (Ungar et al.,
2003) for a summary along with associated papers.
2. Approach and methods
The analysis approach described here uses extraction of spectral
signatures from imaging spectrometer data and a variety of signature
matching methods to identify and map specific minerals and mineral
assemblages exposed at the surface of Earth. Calibrated radiance data
delivered by data providers are corrected for atmospheric effects and
representative spectra for key materials (endmembers) are extracted
from the data. A matched-filtering approach modified by a linear
mixing model (Mixture-Tuned-Matched-Filtering, MTMF) is used to
determine mineral occurrence and abundance on a per-pixel basis
(Boardman, 1998; Mundt et al., 2007). Examples below in the results
section principally show mineral maps produced using data from the
Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) with one
example from a commercial sensor “Terra”. Numerous other HSI
sensors are available. Secondarily, the combination of the results of
surface mineral mapping with digital elevation models (DEMs) is used
to generate terrain-delimited mineral maps and 3-D visualizations
leading to enhanced geomorphic mapping and understanding.
Atmospheric correction is a requirement for most imaging
spectrometer analysis applications. Data are routinely calibrated to
radiance by data providers using laboratory measurements validated
by in-flight calibration experiments (Green et al., 2003). Radiance
data are then corrected to reflectance utilizing the measured spectral
images and atmospheric models such as MODTRAN and related
imaging-spectrometer-specific correction software (Gao and Goetz,
1990; Richter and Schläpfer, 2002; Matthew et al., 2003; Kruse, 2004).
This approach produces excellent surface reflectance data without
requiring the use of ground spectral measurements (Kruse, 2004).
Atmospheric water-vapor features near 0.9 and 1.1 μm (which are
44 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56

fully resolved using imaging spectrometer data) are used to estimate
atmospheric water vapor concentration on a pixel-by-pixel basis.
These estimates are used along with data characteristics (band
centers, full-width-half-max response) and acquisition parameters
(ground elevation, flight altitude, site latitude/longitude, date and
time) with the atmospheric model to produce a per-pixel reflectance
corrected dataset. Field validation is often used to finalize results for
detailed site-specific studies.
Spectral signatures in the atmospherically corrected imaging
spectrometer data are used to find what minerals occur at the surface
and how they are distributed. The approach used here involves
reducing the data to just a few key spectra that explain all of the data
spectral variability, the “endmembers” (Fig. 4a for reference).
Geologic materials (and vegetation) mix at the surface (as aerial
mixtures) in such a way that the mixed spectra are linear
combinations of the endmember spectra occurring in a specific pixel
(Boardman, 1993; Boardman et al., 1995). Once the endmembers
have been determined, then the locations and abundances can be
estimated and are mapped using several spectral matching ap-
proaches (Kruse et al., 1993a; Boardman, 1998; Kruse, 2008)

Fig. 4. NDV endmember plot, mineral endmember abundance maps (and color figure combined mineral map) for the northern Death Valley site. a: Spectral Endmember Plot,
b: True-Color-Composite Image (0.65, 0.55, 0.45 μm, RGB), c: Calcite Matched Filter (MF) Abundance Image, d: Dolomite MF Abundance Image, e: Muscovite #1 MF Abundance
Image, f: Muscovite #2 MF Abundance Image, g: Muscovite #3 MF Abundance Image, h: Silica MF Abundance Image, i: Zeolite MF Abundance Image, j: Mineral map produced using
MF abundance images and mixing feasibility (infeasibility) data (Boardman, 1998; Kruse et al., 2000).
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56 45

Fig. 4 (continued).

(Fig. 4a–j). Operationally the method consists of applying the and a mixture feasibility image (infeasibility score) showing the
following steps to the imaging spectrometer data, summarized in spectrally predominant material (Fig. 4j) (Boardman, 1998; Kruse
(Kruse et al., 2000; Kruse and Boardman, 2000): et al., 2000).
(1) Correction of imaging spectrometer data for atmospheric
3. Selected mineral mapping results
effects using a MODTRAN-based atmospheric model such as
ACORN, FLAASH, or ATCOR (Kruse, 2004)
The examples below illustrate the results of mineral mapping for a
(2) Spectral compression, noise suppression, and dimensionality
variety of minerals and geologic environments.
reduction using the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transfor-
mation (Green et al., 1988; Boardman, 1993; Mundt et al., 2007)
3.1. Northern Death Valley, NV/CA (AVIRIS)
(3) Determination of endmember occurrences using convex geomet-
ric methods (Pixel Purity Index – “PPI”) (Boardman et al., 1995)
A site in northern Death Valley (NDV) is used to illustrate the basic
(4) Extraction of endmember spectra using n-dimensional scatter
results of mineral mapping for characterization of hydrothermal
plotting and visualization (Boardman and Kruse, 1994)
systems and exploration and exploitation of metallic ore deposits.
(5) Identification of mineral endmember spectra using visual
This area is approximately halfway between Reno and Las Vegas,
inspection, automated identification, and spectral library
Nevada, USA, directly on the California, Nevada border, within Death
comparisons (Kruse et al., 1993b; Kruse, 2008)
Valley National Park. It has previously been observed by numerous
(6) Production of mineral maps using a variety of mapping
other remote sensing instruments (Kruse, 1988; Kruse et al., 1999;
methods. The “Spectral Angle Mapper” (SAM) produces maps
Kruse and Perry, 2009). PreCambrian bedrock in the area consists of
of the spectrally predominant mineral for each pixel by
limestones, dolomites, and sandstones. A Mesozoic quartz monzonite-
comparing the angle between the image spectra and reference
composition stock was intruded into these at depth, altered by
spectra in n-dimensional vector space (Kruse et al., 1993a).
hydrothermal fluids (quartz-sericite-pyrite or “QSP” alteration), then
“Mixture-Tuned-Matched-Filtering” (MTMF) is a partial linear
eroded to its present surface exposures (Wrucke et al., 1984; Kruse,
spectral unmixing procedure that finds and maps specific
1988). Minor copper mineralization occurs along NW-trending
minerals constrained by mixing with a composite (unknown)
fractures. AVIRIS data collected 9 June 2000 at 20 m spatial resolution
background (Boardman, 1998; Mundt et al., 2007).
were analyzed using the image-based spectral endmember approach
The results from the imaging spectrometer mineral mapping are described above. The data were corrected to reflectance using a
typically presented as multiple gray-scale abundance images (one per MODTRAN-based atmospheric model, ACORN (Kruse, 2004) (http://
endmember) (Fig. 4c–i), and/or combined as a single classified image www.ImSpec.com), endmember spectra were determined, and
utilizing a combination of the Matched Filter (MF) abundance image locations and abundances mapped using MTMF. Minerals signatures
46 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
extracted from the data included calcite, dolomite, three varieties of
muscovite, silica, and zeolites (Fig. 4). The mineral identifications and
mapped distributions are consistent with previous mapping results
using other sensors and verified by spot checking of surface
mineralogy using field and laboratory spectral measurements and
X-Ray diffraction of selected hand samples (Kruse, 1988; Kruse et al.,
1993b; Kruse and Perry, 2009). Of note, the AVIRIS mineral map
clearly shows the NW-trending alteration system (Muscovite #1,
Fig. 4e, j), and the separation of calcite and dolomite in the
Precambrian roof pendant (Fig. 4c, d, and j). Based on all available
information, the AVIRIS mineral map itself is the best mineral map
available for the site.
3.2. Goldfield, NV (AVIRIS)
The Goldfield mining district, located approximately 40 km
(25 mi) south of Tonopah, Nevada, USA, is a volcanic center thought
to be a resurgent caldera (Ransome, 1909; Ashley, 1974, 1979). It has
been described as the type locality for the Epithermal Bonanza deposit
of the enargite-gold or quartz-alunite type (Berger, 1992; Rockwell,
2000). At least two periods of volcanism occurred and extensive
hydrothermal alteration was caused by convective circulation of
hydrothermal solutions along a zone of caldera ring fractures and
linear extensions (Ransome, 1909; Ashley, 1974, 1979, 1990; Rowan
et al., 1974) (Fig. 5). Ore bodies (native gold, enargite and/or luzonite-
group minerals) occurred in silicified zones in advanced argillically
Fig. 5. Goldfield Mining District Alteration Map (from (Ashley, 1990) showing approximate outline of AVIRIS coverage (dark black box).
altered rocks at several locations along the west and north sides of the
inferred ring-fracture system (Wendt, 2003).
AVIRIS data acquired 12 July, 2002 at approximately 20 m spatial
resolution were analyzed using the approaches described above. Data
were corrected to reflectance using the ACORN atmospheric model,
endmembers were determined using the reflectance data, and spatial
distributions were mapped using Mixture-Tuned-Matched-Filtering.
Minerals identified and mapped using the imaging spectrometer data
included alunite, kaolinite, dickite, muscovite, jarosite, silica, and
calcite (Fig. 6). Comparison of on-the-ground mineralogy at Goldfield,
determined using a field spectrometer to the AVIRIS-mapped
alteration, verified the mineralogy and distribution shown in the
imaging spectrometer mineral maps (Fig. 7).
3.3. Beatty, Nevada (Terra HSI)
The Beatty, Nevada study area is located in the southwestern Great
Basin, USA, within the southern portion of the Goldfield structural
block, which is part of the Walker Lane structural zone (Taranik et al.,
2007). Whereas a wide variety of rock types and ages occur in the
Beatty area, it is largely characterized as a Tertiary volcanic
environment. Various tuff and hydrothermally altered rock units are
seen throughout the area (Aslett et al., 2008). Tectonic extension in
the Beatty area began in the mid- to late-Miocene and resulted in
tilting. Additional volcanism and circulation of hydrothermal fluids
resulted in mineralization, currently exposed at the surface. Regional
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
Fig. 6. Left: endmember spectra extracted from the 2002 Goldfield AVIRIS data. Right: MTMF mineral map produced using the endmembers at left. Numbers mark locations of ground
spectral measurements shown in Fig. 7.
geologic studies in this area examined the feasibility of caldera-
related vs. detachment faulting mineralization events and concluded
that the mineralization of mineral deposits was related to detachment
faulting (Sawyer et al., 1994). Beatty and vicinity have multiple hot
springs, caused by increased heat flow related to crustal extension
(Taranik et al., 2007).
High-spatial-resolution imaging spectrometer data were acquired
for the Beatty area during 2007 and 2008 for the University of Nevada,
Reno in support of U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) research (Taranik
et al., 2007). Commercial “Terra” hyperspectral data were collected at
approximately 1 m spatial resolution. The Terra sensor measures 366
spectral bands total in the 0.4–2.5 μm range with approximately 6-nm
spectral sampling (http://www.terraremote.com/). Data are calibrat-
ed to radiance by the data provider and converted to “empirical line
(EL)” reflectance using ground targets. Mineral endmember spectra
were extracted from Terra data acquired 9 and 10 April 2007 and
MTMF mineral abundance mapping was performed (Fig. 8). Minerals
identified and mapped include kaolinite, alunite, muscovite, and silica
along with green and dry vegetation. Field verification was performed
utilizing spot measurements with an ASD FieldSpecPro spectropho-
tometer for selected locations.
3.4. Mineral mapping of active geothermal systems (Yellowstone, WY)
Yellowstone National Park covers nearly 3500 square miles in the
northwest corner of Wyoming and contains the largest concentration of
geothermal features in the world (Rhinehart, 1980). The park contains
around 100 hot springs groups, totaling over 10,000 individual thermal
features (Bryan, 1986). Yellowstone has been the site of extensive
47
volcanism throughout the late Cenozoic (Ruppel, 1972), with the
geyser basins underlain entirely by Quaternary-age rhyolitic rocks
(Breckenridge and Hinckley, 1978). Regional fault systems and the
Yellowstone Caldera control the distribution of thermal features (Eaton
et al., 1975; White et al., 1988). The entire area has been extensively
glaciated, and many of the springs and geysers issue from stream and
glacial sediments derived from the rhyolites (Pierce, 1979).
The Upper, Midway, and Lower Geyser Basins of Yellowstone
National Park occur along the Firehole River in the west central part
of the park (Fig. 9, left). The Upper Basin, containing over 150 hot
springs and geysers, extends approximately 5 km northwest from Old
Faithful along both sides of the river (Breckenridge and Hinckley,
1978). The large majority of thermal features have high flow, alkaline-
composition waters, many of which commonly discharge directly into
the river. Some acid-dominated systems occur along the fringes of the
basin, characterized by low flow and minimal deposition of sinter and
sulfur. Midway Basin occurs downstream along the Firehole River and
contains approximately 30 springs with predominantly alkaline
chemistry, including the largest single hot spring in the world, the
Grand Prismatic Spring, which is more than 100 m across. The Lower
Geyser Basin is the largest of all of the Yellowstone geyser areas,
characterized by large, deep hot springs and alkaline geysers covering
an area of approximately 40 km2. As in the Upper Geyser Basin,
surrounding slopes and ridges characteristically have acid springs,
mud pots, and fumaroles; some of the acid features, however, occur in
close proximity to alkaline hot springs (Bryan, 1986).
AVIRIS data were acquired for portions of Yellowstone National
Park during August 1996 as part of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
efforts to map the national parks using AVIRIS data (Livo et al., 2007).
48
Fig. 7. Goldfield ground spectra measured using an ASD FieldSpecPro spectrophotom-
eter. Key spectral features for specific minerals are indicated. Top: Site#2 spectrum –
Alunite, Kaolinite, and Jarosite. Center: Site #3 spectrum – Kaolinite and Jarosite,
Bottom: Site #6 – Alunite and Goethite. Locations shown in Fig. 6.
F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
These data were calibrated to apparent reflectance using ATREM, an
older MODTRAN-based atmospheric correction method (Gao and
Goetz, 1990; Gao et al., 1993; Kruse, 2004). Data were then analyzed
using the standardized procedures previously described (Kruse et al.,
2000). Reconnaissance mineral mapping results using AVIRIS at 20 m
spatial resolution for the Upper, Midway, and Lower Geyser Basins
(alkaline-dominated with some acid springs) have been previously
described in (Kruse, 1997) and (Livo et al., 2007). Mineral end-
members were extracted from the data and distributions mapped
using the Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM), (Kruse et al., 1993a). These
results are shown in Fig. 9. The AVIRIS mineral mapping results serve
to illustrate the ability of AVIRIS to map hydrothermal silica in sinter
terraces using the SWIR wavelengths and differences in mineralogy
between the silica-rich alkaline basins and more acidic fringing areas
(denoted by kaolinite and alunite). Siliceous sinter, as used here, is a
spectral group of SiO2 minerals including opal, chalcedony, and
cristobalite derived from hydrothermal fluids and (or) the decompo-
sition of rhyolite (Livo et al., 2007).
4. Integration of imaging spectrometer results with
digital elevation models for improved geomorphic mapping
and visualization
4.1. Overview and background
The previous sections and examples along with applications cited
in Section 1.1 demonstrate the unique capabilities of imaging
spectrometers to identify and map minerals. Imaging spectrometer
mineral maps by themselves provide a synoptic overhead view of
surface mineralogy; however, these can be difficult to interpret
without additional information. This section presents examples of
how HSI mineral mapping can potentially be combined with digital
elevation models (DEMs) for improved geomorphic characterization
and mapping. The ancillary use of DEMs from a variety of sources is
demonstrated.
Geomorphology initially started with surface observation, then
incorporated topographic maps into the analyses, and more recently,
digital elevation models (DEMs). For many years, the only source of
DEMs was from hand digitized or scanned maps and from stereo aerial
photography. A wide variety of high-quality DEM sources are now
available, however, including LiDAR, InSAR, and stereo-capable
optical satellites. DEMs are available on a near-global basis through
data generated by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and
the ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM). SRTM DEM data
covering areas from approximately 60 N to 56 S latitude were derived
from Radar data acquired with a C-band interferometric synthetic
aperture radar system flown on the Space Shuttle (Farr et al., 2007).
The ASTER GDEM, covering the surface of Earth between approxi-
mately 83 N and 83 S latitude, was calculated based on photogram-
metric correlation of ASTER stereo pairs (Abrams et al., 2010). LiDAR
data, generated by measuring the ground elevation using a laser pulse
(Wehr and Lohr, 1999), provide another source of high resolution
DEMs (on the order of 15 cm vertical resolution), though currently on
a more limited spatial scale (local sites rather than global coverage).
Combined, these datasets herald a new era of high-quality DEM data
availability that has fostered a wide variety of geomorphic studies
using digital elevation models.
Many efforts at geomorphic mapping still concentrate almost
exclusively on use of DEMs and terrain/topography aspects. Recent
examples include characterization of volcanic (calderas) based on
topography and structure only (Kouli and Seymour, 2006; Prima and
Yoshida, 2010) and digital morphometry for objective characteriza-
tion of fluvial, eolian and neotectonic features (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger
et al., 2008). Other researchers have attempted geomorphic recon-
structions using multispectral remote sensing imagery or imaging
spectrometer data only, without the benefit of DEMs. Selected
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56 49

Fig. 8. Left: Endmember spectra extracted from the Beatty 1 m Terra HSI data, Right: MTMF mineral map for the Beatty area using the endmember spectra at left.
50 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
Fig. 9. Yellowstone National Park AVIRIS: Left: Color Infrared Composite (0.82, 0.65, 0.55 μm as RGB). Right: Mineral Mapping. From (Livo et al., 2007).
multispectral examples include mapping dune sands and morphology
using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data (Pease et al., 1999; Howari
et al., 2007), and general characterization and classification of
periglacial surfaces and geomorphological units in the Lena Delta,
NE Siberia utilizing their field and TM spectral properties (Ulrich et al.,
2009). Hyperspectral examples include those geologic studies cited in
the introduction section above as well as many others. Widespread
availability of high-quality aerial photographs, multispectral remote
sensing data, and DEMs, has naturally led, however, to some
geomorphic studies combining imagery datasets and DEMs. Consid-
erable recent research has used DEMs combined with remote sensing
data for applications such as glacier characterization (Paul et al., 2004)
and landslide inventorying and mapping (Singhroy et al., 1998;
Casson et al., 2003; van Westen and Getahun, 2003). Singhroy used
combined InSAR DEMs and TM data, Casson used aerial photographs
and photogrammetric techniques to study landslide changes over
time, whereas van Westen and Gethahun utilized multitemporal
DEMs and aerial photo interpretation for similar purposes. Another
example demonstrates mapping of landslides using spectral informa-
tion from the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) combined with
DEMs generated using Cartosat-1 data (Martha et al., 2009). Airborne
LiDAR elevation data have been used in fused classification of
multispectral IKONOS images over coastal areas (Lee and Shan,
2003). Numerous other descriptions of various applications exist in
the published literature. Sophisticated GIS-based and quantitative
statistical approaches for combined multispectral and DEM analysis
are now possible (Das et al., 2010). Examples combining imaging
spectrometer data and DEMs for geomorphic analysis are, however,
much more limited. Stream morphology and depth have been
mapped in Yellowstone National Park using the HyMap HSI system
to measure spectra of woody material and linear regression between
reflectance and field-measured depths to calculate stream bathyme-
try (Marcus et al., 2003). A good example combining imaging
spectrometer data (AVIRIS) with DEMs characterizes potential for
debris flows in the context of volcanic hazards (Crowley et al., 2003).
Recent work at Mt Etna, Italy using field spectral measurements, the
Hyperion imaging spectrometer from NASA, and airborne LiDAR data
shows good correspondence between the spectral measurements and
LiDAR intensities related to surface textural features of specific
volcanic materials such as tephra (Spinetti et al., 2009). Similar
efforts utilizing AVIRIS and LiDAR data at Cuprite, NV show some
relationships between mineralogy and LiDAR-derived surface rough-
ness (West and Resmini, 2009).
4.2. Examples utilizing mineral maps and DEMs
Preparation of the results of mineral mapping for geomorphic analy-
sis and/or visualization requires the additional step of geocorrection
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56 51

and registration of the mineral maps (and potentially the HSI data) to a
digital elevation model. Discussion of the approaches and methods used
for actual generation of appropriate DEMs is beyond the scope of this
paper (see general references regarding InSAR, LiDAR, and photogram-
metric methods for generation of DEMs). Many imaging spectrometer
datasets are now available with high precision geolocation information.
Where this is available, imagery results are matched to the DEM by
transforming the data to the DEM map projection and spatial resolution.
Where georeferencing information is not available, it may be necessary
to select ground control points (GCPs) using the DEM, topographic
maps, and/or another georeferenced image. Again, these procedures are
not the main focus of this discussion, and readers are referred to general
textbooks and references on the above topics for additional information
and detailed description of the approaches and methods, e.g.: (Novak,
1992; Schläpfer and Richter, 2002; Richards and Jia, 2006).
4.2.1. Northern Death Valley AVIRIS mineralogy on ASTER DEM
The mineral map for northern Death Valley, shown in Fig. 4, was
coregistered to a 30 m DEM subset derived from the recent, globally
available ASTER GDEM (Abrams et al., 2010). Visualization software,
the “Environment for Visualizing Images (ENVI)” package (ITTVIS,
2009) was used to generate a topography-draped mineralogy image.
This image could then be rotated, zoomed, and panned in 3
dimensions for improved determination of the relations between
mineralogy and topography. The software also allows linking back to
the 2-D mineral map and individual band images and reflectance
spectra to help verify specific mineral associations and variability. The
draped mineral image helps to clarify the relationships between
mineralogy and topography (and geologic structure) at the northern
Death Valley site. Fig. 10 shows the perspective image and
interpretation. The 3-D perspective view makes it possible to easily
intuit the relationships between the quartz-monzonite-porphyry
stock (central oval outlined area) vs. the carbonate roof pendants
(A, B, C, D, Fig. 10). The enclosure of the calcite unit “B” by the
dolomite unit “A” indicates a large-scale fold in the carbonate rocks. It
can also easily be seen that unit “C” is a fan surface derived from the
calcite bedrock exposures. Unit “E”, mapped as zeolite within the
boundaries of the stock, corresponds to an erosional remnant of the
surrounding Tertiary-age volcanic tuffs. Additional structural infor-
mation was derived from the 3-D relationships as enhanced by
interactive rotation of the perspective view. A large fault cuts the
center of the stock and along with several related smaller faults (all
marked “F” on Fig. 10) offsets NW-trending QSP alteration mapped
using the AVIRIS data. A large fan of transported material derived from
highly altered rocks (mapped as Muscovite#1) can also be seen at “G”
and a second fan derived from less altered rocks (mapped as
Muscovite #2) at “H”. Overall, the combined use of the AVIRIS mineral
mapping and the DEM provides a powerful tool for enhanced geologic
interpretation.
4.2.2. Goldfield, NV AVIRIS mineralogy on photogrammetric DEM
The Goldfield, NV AVIRIS mineral maps, produced above and
shown in Fig. 6, were coregistered to a 10 m DEM generated by
photogrammetric methods from orthophotographs. Digital elevation
models like these are available for public download from the National
Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) (http://www.fsa.usda.gov) for
many parts of the USA. Again, the ENVI visualization software was
used to generate the topography-draped mineralogy image. The
ability to dynamically view these data with the DEM contributes to
improved understanding of the association of mineralogy with
caldera structure, topography, and bedrock weathering and transport
(Fig. 11). It becomes a simple task to interpret the ring fracture trace

Fig. 10. This 3-D perspective view of the results of AVIRIS mineral mapping for the northern Death Valley site overlain on AVIRIS Band 30 (0.65 μm) and draped on a subset of 30 m
ASTER GDEM makes it possible to easily intuit the relationships between the mineralized quartz-monzonite-porphyry stock (central oval outlined area) vs. the carbonate roof
pendants (A, B, C, D). The enclosure of the calcite unit “B” by the dolomite unit “A” indicates a large-scale fold in the carbonate rocks. It can also easily be seen that unit “C” is a fan
surface derived from the calcite bedrock exposures. Unit “E”, mapped as zeolite within the boundaries of the stock corresponds to an erosional remnant of the surrounding Tertiary-
age volcanic tuffs. A large fault cuts the center of the stock and along with several related smaller faults (all marked “F”) offsets NW-trending QSP alteration mapped using the AVIRIS
data. A large fan of transported material derived from highly altered rocks (mapped as Muscovite#1) can also be seen at “G” and a second fan derived from less altered rocks (mapped
as Muscovite #2) at “H”. Scale bar is approximate.
52 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56

from the combined AVIRIS mineralogy and DEM perspective, thus,
establishing the clear connection between alunite distribution and the
resistant ridges associated with the ring fracture zone. This also gives
us considerable information about the nature of the hydrothermal
fluids moving through these structures and responsible for gold
mineralization at Goldfield (estimated formation temperatures and
Ph based on mineralogy).
4.2.3. Beatty Terra HSI mineralogy on LiDAR DEM
The Beatty, NV Terra HSI mineral map, shown in Fig. 8, was
coregistered to a 1 m DEM generated from LiDAR data collected 9 and
10 April 2007 using Terra Remote Sensing's proprietary Terrain
Scanning LiDAR system (http://www.terraremote.com) (Fig. 12).
Addition of the terrain perspective helps to clarify relationships
between topography and mineralogy, including associations of
alunite- and kaolinite-dominated hills with mineral variability across
the main highway. Proportions of each mineral (and silica) are
probably indicative of varying acid-sulfate conditions and control the
relief. These probably represent portions of eroded hydrothermal
systems. Several lower relief exposures of apparent silica sinter and
kaolinite/alunite alteration also appear to have morphologies similar
to sinter terraces commonly seen at active and fossilized hot springs.
Finally, there are spatially-distinct, lower relief, less acidic areas
dominated by muscovite mineralogy. The perspective view of the
mineral map also shows the use of the muscovite-rich materials for
road development and the transportation of these materials along the
back roads and onto the highway. Whereas we have performed field
reconnaissance on some of these targets, analysis of these data is in-
progress and further field verification is pending.
4.2.4. Yellowstone, WY AVIRIS on SRTM DEMs
The Yellowstone National Park AVIRIS mineral map (Fig. 9) was
coregistered to two different DEMs, 1) a 30 m spatial resolution SRTM
DEM (derived using Interferometric SAR methods), and 2) a 30 m
spatial resolution ASTER Global DEM (GDEM – derived from ASTER
stereo pairs) and perspective views were generated from each. No
significant differences exist in the appearance of the draped
perspective images on the two different DEMs. Only the SRTM-
draped mineral maps are shown here (Fig. 13). The perspective views
serve to illustrate the association of most of the geothermal alteration
minerals with the valley bottoms and their spatial distribution.
Several large siliceous sinter deposits trend parallel to the Firehole
River (see also (Livo et al., 2007). These are characteristic of those
found in alkaline, active hot-spring environments and are consistent
with the known locations and mineralogy of the systems in the Lower,
Midway, and Upper Geyser Basins of Yellowstone. Kaolinite, indicat-
ing more acidic water, is present principally in the Lower Geyser
Basin, but also occurs in peripheral areas spatially associated with
some flanking hillsides (red on the mineral map, Fig. 9, and
perspective views, Fig. 13). Riparian vegetation is also spatially
associated primarily with the valley bottoms, whereas the coniferous
vegetation is mostly associated with hill slopes. Finally, other
signatures associated with color differences, caused by thermophilic
algae (Kokaly et al., 2007), appear to be spatially adjacent to actively

Fig. 11. Perspective view of the Goldfield Mining District from the southwest showing the overlay of the AVIRIS mineralogy on a digital orthophoto mosaic draped over a 10 m digital
elevation model. Note enhanced ability to relate mineralogy to topography and interpret the ring fracture trace from the combined AVIRIS mineralogy and DEM perspective. A clear
association of alunite exists with the resistant ridges associated with the ring fracture zone. Scale bar is approximate.
 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
Fig. 12. Beatty, NV area Terra HSI mineral map overlain on 1 m LiDAR DEM. Note the association of kaolinite alteration mostly with silica-rich areas. Left: Perspective view looking
north. Right: Perspective view looking south. Scale bar is approximate.
flowing areas such as Grand Prismatic Spring in Midway Geyser Basin,
and other similar areas in Lower Geyser Basin.
5. Summary and conclusions
Imaging spectrometry (or hyperspectral imaging, HSI) has been
established as a robust technology for remotely mapping the
distribution of spectrally active materials at the surface of Earth. A
wide variety of demonstrated applications exist in geology and in
other areas of Earth remote sensing, such as atmospheric measure-
ments, vegetation mapping, snow and ice characterization, and
mapping the littoral zone and other shallow-water occurrences (to
name a few). For geologic applications, key spectral signatures from
these data allow direct identification of iron minerals, such as
hematite, goethite, and jarosite in the visible/near infrared (VNIR);
clays, carbonates, micas, sulfates, and other minerals in the short wave
infrared (SWIR); and silicates and carbonates in the long wave
infrared (LWIR). The unique capability of imaging spectrometry to
produce detailed maps of the spatial distribution of specific minerals,
mineral assemblages, and mineral variability on the surface of Earth
makes it an ideal tool for enhanced geomorphic mapping. Case
histories described here illustrate the use of imaging spectrometry for
characterizing and mapping active and relict geothermal/hydrother-
mal systems and ore deposits. A variety of minerals, including
kaolinite, dickite, alunite, buddingtonite, muscovite, jarosite, hydro-
thermal silica, calcite, dolomite, and zeolites, were mapped in these
systems and verified on the ground. Many other minerals can be
identified and mapped and there are many other demonstrated
geologic applications. These include (among many others) character-
ization of bedrock in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
53
terrains; soil characterization and mapping, determination of geologic
hazards caused by volcanoes and landslides; detection of alteration
associated with petroleum occurrences (seeps), and exploration and
exploitation of metallic mineral deposits. The readers are referred to
the scientific literature for examples.
Recently, imaging spectrometry has been used in conjunction with
complimentary datasets, such as InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar), Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), and stereo
(photogrammetric-derived) digital elevation models (DEMs), to
provide a unique means of visualizing the spatial distribution and
association of mineralogy with topography. The case histories
described here show a small subset of the additional capabilities
provided by combining spectral remote sensing data and DEMs
derived from these sources. The main emphasis of these was on
visualization – using the topography to better understand the
distribution and geologic context of the mineral maps. Specific
examples included improvements in structural mapping – determin-
ing the relationships between mineralogy and features such as faults
and structural zones; characterizing sediment sources and determin-
ing transport based on mineralogy/topography, and discriminating
differences between relict and more recent (active and potentially
active) hot springs systems based on surface morphology with respect
to mineralogy. The combined use of DEM and the results of mineral
mapping provide new perspectives, thus, contributing to improved
understanding of the relations between geology and landscape and to
improved interpretation of surface geologic processes. The examples
shown here, however, do not illustrate quantitative use of the
combined datasets. Some research along these lines is already in
progress, with DEM-derived factors such as elevation, slope, aspect,
surface roughness and texture being extracted and combined with the
54 F.A. Kruse / Geomorphology 137 (2012) 41–56
Fig. 13. Perspective view of color-coded materials map overlain on AVIRIS single-band (0.65 μm) grayscale image and draped on 30 m SRTM DEM for a portion of Yellowstone
National Park. Note spatial associations of alteration minerals with respect to topography. View from the south. Scale bar is approximate.
results of mineral mapping. We expect that future efforts in
combining imaging spectrometer data, other fused datasets, and
high-spatial resolution DEMs will follow these trends.
Acknowledgement
Portions of this research were supported by the University of
Nevada Arthur Brant Laboratory for Exploration Geophysics Endow-
ment, and the Department of Energy's Non-Nuclear Proliferation
Program under contract DE-FG52-08NA28771.
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