Experiment No.

7
Objective:
Visual demonstration of the three modes of boiling.

Apparatus:
Boiling Heat Transfer Unit

Components:
Heating element (copper sleeve), Refrigerant R141b, Thermometer,
Thermocouple, Digital temperature indicator, Glass chamber, Condenser water flow meter.
Condenser coil

Theory:
In pool boiling, vapor is generated at a superheated wall that is small compared to the
dimensions of the pool of nominally stagnant liquid in which it is immersed. The motion of the
liquid is induced by the boiling process itself (analogous to single-phase natural convection at a
heated wall in an unbounded fluid) and the velocities are assumed to be low. These conditions
are convenient for small-scale laboratory experiments and much of the understanding of boiling,
such as the basic division into nucleate, transition and film boiling and studies of bubble
nucleation and motion. However, pool boiling is unusual in industrial equipment. Even if there is
no forced flow of liquid past the heated wall confinement of the liquid and close spacing of
multiple heaters as in kettle reboilers. The heat source is often a hot fluid separated from the
boiling liquid by a thin metal wall, whereas electrical resistance heating is often used in pool
boiling experiments. Consequently, it is important to appreciate the special conditions of pool
boiling experiments and to exercise caution in transferring the information they provide to large-
scale industrial systems in which flow effects are generally significant.
Pool boiling can be classified according to conditions in the pool, the geometry of the heated
wall and the method of heating. These conditions influence the methods used to measure the
primary variables of wall superheat and heat flux that are conventionally used to present boiling
heat transfer performance as a "boiling curve". In saturated pool boiling or bulk boiling the pool
is maintained at or slightly above the saturation temperature by interaction with the vapor
bubbles rising from the superheated boiling surface. (Subsidiary heaters may be used to
compensate for heat lost from the walls of the containing vessel.) The pool has a free surface at
which the bubbles burst; the vapor space is usually connected to a condenser that returns liquid
to the pool. The system pressure is controlled by the cooling applied to the condenser.
In subcooled boiling, the pool temperature distant from the boiling surface is below the
saturation temperature. There can be no escape of vapor from a subcooled pool, unless it is very
shallow, so a heat sink must be provided by cooling regions on the walls of the vessel.
Alternatively, a subcooled experiment can be run for a short period without heat sink, relying on
the thermal capacity of the cold pool. A subcooled pool cannot have a free surface in contact
with its own pure vapor. Either the boiling vessel must be connected to a separate vessel in
which the pressure is controlled, or there must be a gas space above the pool. Use of a cover gas
leads to a concentration of dissolved gas which can influence boiling, particularly by improving
the stability of nucleation sites and reducing the superheat required for their activation. Dissolved
gas can be removed by a preliminary period of saturated boiling, either in the experimental
vessel or in a separate vessel from which the experimental vessel is filled. 
In nucleate boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer surface and then break away and are
carried into the main stream of the fluid. Nucleate boiling significantly improves the ability of a
surface to transfer thermal energy to bulk fluid. The nucleate boiling heat flux cannot be
increased indefinitely. At some value, we call it the “critical heat flux”, the steam produced can
form an insulating layer over the surface, which in turn deteriorates the heat transfer coefficient.
The most common type of local boiling encountered in nuclear facilities is nucleate boiling. But
in case of nuclear reactors, nucleate boiling occurs at significant flow rates through the reactor.
In nucleate boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer surface and then break away and are
carried into the main stream of the fluid. Such movement enhances heat transfer because the heat
generated at the surface is carried directly into the fluid stream. Once in the main fluid stream,
the bubbles collapse because the bulk temperature of the fluid is not as high as the heat transfer
surface temperature where the bubbles were created. Nucleate boiling at the surface effectively
disrupts this stagnant layer and therefore nucleate boiling significantly improves the ability of a
surface to transfer thermal energy to bulk fluid. This heat transfer process is sometimes desirable
because the energy created at the heat transfer surface is quickly and efficiently “carried” away.

Immediately after the critical heat flux has been reached, boiling become unstable and transition
boiling occurs. The transition from nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as the “boiling
crisis”. The nucleate boiling heat flux cannot be increased indefinitely. At some value, we call it
the “critical heat flux” (CHF), the steam produced can form an insulating layer over the
surface, which in turn deteriorates the heat transfer coefficient. This is because a large fraction of
the surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an thermal insulation due to the low thermal
conductivity of the vapor relative to that of the liquid. Immediately after the critical heat flux has
been reached, boiling become unstable and transition boiling occurs. The transition from
nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as the “boiling crisis”. Since beyond the CHF point the
heat transfer coefficient decreases, the transition to film boiling is usually inevitable.
The Leidenfrost point, which corresponds to the minimal heat flux, is of practical interest since
it represents the lower limit for the heat flux in the film boiling regime. If the heat flux drops
below this minimum, the film will collapse, causing the surface to cool and nucleate boiling to be
reestablished. Therefore, at this point, return to nucleate boiling (RNB) occurs. The terms
quenching, minimum heat flux, return to nucleate boiling, departure from film boiling, film
boiling collapse, and Leidenfrost point have been used interchangeably to refer to various forms
of rewetting, but they are not exactly synonymous. Using the stability theory, Zuber derived the
following expression for the minimum heat flux (and corresponding Leidenfrost point) for a
large horizontal plate:

In film boiling, heat flux causes a film of vapour to fully cover the surface. This significantly
reduces the convection coefficient. Film boiling occurs when the pressure of a system drops or
the flow decreases. In this case the bubbles cannot escape as quickly from the heat transfer
surface. Likewise, if the temperature of the heat transfer surface is increased, more bubbles are
created. As the temperature continues to increase, more bubbles are formed than can be
efficiently carried away. The bubbles grow and group together, covering small areas of the heat
transfer surface with a film of steam. The nucleate boiling heat flux cannot be increased
indefinitely. At some value, we call it the “critical heat flux” (CHF), the steam produced can
form an insulating layer over the surface, which in turn deteriorates the heat transfer coefficient.
This is because a large fraction of the surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an
thermal insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapor relative to that of the liquid.
Immediately after the critical heat flux has been reached, boiling become unstable and transition
boiling occurs. The transition from nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as the “boiling
crisis”. Since beyond the CHF point the heat transfer coefficient decreases, the transition to film
boiling is usually inevitable.

A rigid panel supports a vertical glass cylinder containing a horizontally mounted heating element
immersed in the liquid. The heat input can be varied to control the heat flux and hence the mode of
boiling. At the top of the cylinder is a coil through which cooling water flows. This condenses the vapor
produced by the heat input and the liquid formed returns to the bottom of the cylinder for re-evaporation.
Control of the cooling water flow maintains a constant pressure during experiment. The standard
instrumentation consists of a surface temperature thermocouple plus four glass thermometers, wattmeter,
pressure gauge and water flowmeter. These enable all relevant heat transfer calculations to be made.
Procedure:
Turn on the electric and water supplies and adjust power to very low settings (20
Watts). Allow the digital temperature indicators to stabilize. Observe the digital temperature and the
liquid temperature at frequent intervals. Carefully watch the liquid surrounding the heater. Convection
currents will be observed, and at the same time liquid will be seen to collect and drip on the condenser
coils, indicating that evaporation is proceeding although at a low rate. Increase the power in increments,
keeping the vapor pressure at any desired constant value by adjusting the condenser water flow rate by
the control valve. Nucleate boiling will soon start and will increase until vigorous boiling is seen, the
temperature difference between the liquid and metal being still quite moderate (<20K). Increase the
power input, and at between 300 and 400 Watts the nature of the boiling will be seen to change
dramatically and at the same time the metal-liquid temperature difference will rise quickly. The rate of
evaporation falls to a low level and the condenser water flow rate must be reduced to maintain a steady
condenser pressure. The heat input should now be reduced to about 40 Watts. Careful examination of
the heater surface will show that it is now enveloped in an almost unbroken film of vapor and this is the
cause of the reduced heat transfer rate. The heat input should now be reduced to zero. It will be found
that as the metal-liquid temperature difference falls to about 80K the boiling suddenly becomes
vigorous as film boiling reverts to nucleate boiling.

Application:
 The measurement of acoustic noise due to boiling has permitted
various researchers to study hydrodynamic instabilities in heated
channels and to diagnose the different regimes of boiling.
  Pressure transducers have typically been incorporated in an
experimental apparatus where flow oscillations are to be studied
 Piezoelectric accelerometers to measure vibrations associated with
parallel channel, density wave, and acoustic oscillations in a flow
boiling loop.
 Burnout detectors have been used by a number of investigators to
protect the test sections from destruction as the CHF is approached.

Precautions:
 Safety glasses are to be worn whenever working with acids, bases, or any
flammable materials.
 Let the instructor know immediately about any glassware breakage or chemical
spills that may occur so that proper cleanup procedures can be instituted.
 Use pipet fillers whenever pipeting any fluid.Whenever working with acids or
bases, have the chemicals available at your work station, do not carry pipets
with fluid across the room.
 When diluting acids, pour the acid into the water, NOT water into acid as this
may cause spattering of the acid.
 When acid is mixed with another reagent, an exothermic reaction may occur
which heats up the container, This is natural, so do not panic and spill contents.
 All volatile materials must be handled in a hood with the exhaust fan on.When
refluxing any solutions, perform this operation under a hood, and use boiling
beads in the reflux vessel to prevent any excessive "bumping" and possible
glass breakage.
 Use heat-resistant gloves and/or tongs when handling hot glassware, chinaware,
etc.
References:
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/heat-transfer/boiling-and-
condensation/transition-boiling-partial-film-boiling/
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/heat-transfer/boiling-and-
condensation/boiling-boiling-characteristics/film-boiling/
https://www.thermopedia.com/content/1046/
http://www.fresnostate.edu/engineering/civil-geomatics/civil/chemical-safety.html