Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Module 1

 What Is a GMO?
o All living organisms are genetically modified in some way. In sexually reproducing
organism, the process of reproduction intentionally modifies the genetic material so
there is variation in the offspring.
o If you are an organism that does not reproduce sexually, such as bacteria, there are
often random genetic mutations that introduce variation.
o However, in society, the terms genetic engineering, genetic modification, and
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are often associated with human-introduced
modifications to plants and animals,.
 GMO or Transgenic?
o What Is a GMO?
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a GMO is an “organism(s) in
which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur
naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.”
 In other words, the variation in a GMO is the result of genetic manipulation in a
laboratory environment.
 A Short History of GMOs
o Selective Breeding : humans interfering with the natural reproduction of species to
produce something beneficial to humans.
 Selective Breeding
o The plant shown on the left is teosinte, a grass native to what is now Mexico. Starting
around 8,700 years ago, farmers in this region began breeding strains of teosinte to
select for plants that produced edible, and more abundant, seeds (kernels).
o Through selective breeding, early farmers were able to select characteristics of teosinte
(left) to produce what we now recognize as corn (right).
(left):vainillaychile/Shutterstock; (right):Zeljko Radojko/Getty Images
 First GMOs
o The first GMO approved for human consumption was a tomato called Flavr-Savr.
o invented in 1994 to solve the problem of fruit over-ripening,
o researchers disabled a gene in the tomato that caused it to soften.
 What are Some Examples
of Genetically Modified Bacteria?
 o bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified. This is primarily due to the
small size of a bacterial genome, the presence of plasmids (small pieces of circular DNA),
and their rapid generation time, which make them ideal for genetic manipulation.
 Genetically modified bacteria
o Produce biotechnology products. GM bacteria produce human insulin. vaccines for
hepatitis B, clotting factors for hemophilia, human growth hormone, and interferons
used in cancer treatment
o Protection of plants. Bacteria have been engineered to produce proteins that protect
plants from the effects of freezing. Chemicals produced by the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
bacteria have been inserted into plants to protect them from insect predation.
o Bioremediation. GM bacteria can be used to break down toxic chemicals in the
environment. This approach has been used successfully for large oil spills, and against
toxic levels of mercury.
o Synthesis of organic chemicals. GM bacteria are able to produce biofuels and other
organic chemicals for use in manufacturing.
 Genetically Modified Animals?
o Models for human disease: By inserting human genes associated with a disease—for
example, cancer and cystic fibrosis—researchers are able to develop animal models for
use in studying new treatments.
o Biotechnology products: GM animals—such as goats, mice, and chickens can be
developed that express proteins or pharmaceutical compounds in their meat, milk, or
eggs.
o Increased nutritional value: Animals are being genetically modified to increase their
nutritional value to humans. This can be done by reducing their susceptibility to disease,
increasing their rate of growth, or improving the quality of their meat or milk.
o Xenotransplantation: By genetically engineering pigs, scientists are investigating ways
of providing organs (such as liver, kidney, and bone marrow) for human transplants.
 Why Do We Need GMOs?
o An increase in our global population and passing through periods of industrial and
technological development has placed strenuous demands on the finite resources of the
planet.
o Increasingly, scientists have turned to the development of genetically modified
organisms to address these challenges in an effort to conserve the resources of Earth
and provide basic human needs.
 Climate change
o We need crops able to deal with drought, increased heat or rain etc…
 Pest management
o The Challenge of Pest Management

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  Historically, the application of chemicals such as organophosphate insecticides
are used to eliminate the insect population.
 these approaches rarely remove 100% of the population, and the resulting
survivors pass the resistance on to the next generation.
 Insecticide resistance is a form of natural selection and evolution that, over
time, results in an inability of the chemical to control the pest population.
 Added to this are concerns about the effects of these chemicals on humans and
livestock.
 We need more food
o Currently, the human population stands at around 7.7 billion, an increase from 6 billion
in 1999. An additional 82 million humans are added to our planet each year, which is
about a 1.07% growth rate per year
o the annual population increase creates some severe challenges in the area of food and
biotechnology products.
 How Do We Improve Plants?
o Make what we grow now, have a longer shelf life
o To prevent over-ripening of fruits and vegetables, growers picked a crop before it was
ripe and then shipped it to its destination, where the crop was then exposed to plant
hormones, such as ethylene, to promote ripening before being purchased by
consumers.
o The browning reaction is caused by exposure to chemicals in the fruit called
polyphenols.
o An enzyme in the fruit, polyphenol oxidase (PPO), facilitates a reaction between the
polyphenols and oxygen, causing the fruit to brown.
 Improve crop yield
o With almost 7.5 billion people on the planet, and only a limited amount of farmable
land, humans have a real need to increase the amount of food produced per acre, also
referred to as crop yield.
o Reduce pest and weed issues
 Improve plant nutrition
o In the early 1990s, a group of researchers realized it may be possible to produce a
variety of rice that included vitamin A.
o It is estimated that over 600,000 children die annually due to vitamin A deficiencies.
o Because rice is a staple food source for a large part of the human population, it was
ideal as a method for delivering the nutrient.

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 o It was necessary to genetically modify its existing metabolic pathways to allow it to
manufacture the compound. This process involved the addition of two genes : one from
a daffodil; the other from a soil bacterium.
o Only legally grown since 2013.
 What are Some of the Risks of GMOs?
o What are the Concerns Regarding Gene Transfer?
 One concern of genetically modified plants is the transfer of genes associated
with glyphosate resistance from transgenic crop species to weed species in
effect creating a "super-weed" that can no longer be controlled using
herbicides.
 Health concerns
o Allergic reactions.
 Some examples of this have occurred, namely in 2000, when a woman had an
allergic reaction after eating taco shells that contained a protein called Cry9C.
Cry9C was placed in non-food corn to repel certain types of insects, but had
never been approved for human consumption. Unfortunately, the wrong corn
was used to make the taco shells, and the woman was sensitive to the Cry9C
protein.
 Impact on Non-Pest Species?
o concern has arisen that the genetically modified plants may be harming beneficial insect
populations as well.
o The majority of studies of the effects of genetically modified crops on non-target species
has focused on plants containing the Bt endotoxin.
 Potential GMO: fungi to kill mosquitos

 Drought and heat resistant plants