SEMINAR

ON
USE OF COMPUTERS IN
TEACHING, LEARNING,
RESEARCH AND NURSING
PRACTICE

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY

Dr. Mini George Ms. Nisha Titus
Principal M.Sc (N) 1st Year
CON CON
ILBS ILBS

Date of Submission: 05 July, 2021

 CONTENT

Introduction to Computers

 Major historical perspective of nursing and computers

Introduction to Computer
Computer:
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future use.

Functionalities of a computer:
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
 Takes data as input.
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output.
 Controls all the above four steps.

Computers are used in hospitals to keep, maintain and retrieve patient records, to facilitate
billing and to maintain an updated inventory of medical supplies. In addition, computers are
used to store information about employees, record the admittance of patients, as well as to
monitor their condition, administer some treatments and to track their release. This facilitates
the efficiency and quality of healthcare, while greatly reducing the time spent in procuring
medical services.

With the global shortage of medical personnel, computers help professionals to monitor the
progress of several patients simultaneously. These sensors are programmed to give accurate
yet timely feedback. The computers in turn process the information to effectively detect any
challenges that the patient could be undergoing. The computers are fitted with electronic
alarms to send distress calls to the personnel manning the equipment. There are even
computers that remind patients and doctors to administer doses of medication.

 Science has bestowed health care delivery system with excellent technological innovations.
One such innovation is the computerization of the entire health care delivery system.
Computerization has contributed enormously towards the reduction of medical errors and the
problems associated with such errors. Computerization of health care delivery includes
computerization of the medical records popularly known as the Electronic Medical Record
System (EMR), Electronic Prescriptions, Personal Digital Assistants, Computer Automated
Cancer Detection and Computerized Theatre Management Applications.
 The computer is the most powerful technological tool to transform the nursing profession
prior to the new century. The computer has transformed the nursing paper-based records to
computer-based records. The computer and the internet have become essential to the modern
day which functions a lot. “Computer” is an encompassing term referring to information
technology (IT), computer systems, and when they are used in nursing information systems
(NISs), nursing applications, and/or nursing informatics (NI).
“NI” has emerged as new term encompassing these technologies enabling nurses to manage
health care and patient care more efficiently and effectively and, at the same time, make
nurses more accountable. Computers in nursing care are used to manage information in
patient care, monitor the quality of care, and evaluate the outcomes of care. Computers and
networks are now used for communicating (sending/receiving) data and messages via the
Internet, accessing resources, and interacting with patients on the World Wide Web.

Major historical perspective of nursing and computers

 
Computer technology emerged in nursing in response to the changing and developing
technologies in the health care industry and in nursing practice. It is analysed according to:
(1) Six time periods: prior to the 1960s, the 1960s, the 1970s, the 1980s, the 1990s and post-
2000.
(2) Four major nursing areas: nursing practice, administration, education, and research; 
(3) Standards initiatives: nursing practice, nursing data, and health care data standards; 
(4) significant landmark events.
(5) major landmark milestone chart listing those events that influenced the introduction
of computers into the nursing profession including the key “computer/informatics”
nurse that directed the activity.

1. SIX TIME PERIODS.

 Prior to the 1960s

Starting in the 1950s, and as the computer industry grew, the use of computers in the health
care industry also grew. During this time, there were only a few experts who formed a cadre
of pioneers that attempted to adapt computers to health care and nursing. During this time,
the nursing profession was also undergoing major changes. The image of nursing was
improving, nursing practices and services were expanding in scope and complexity, and the
number of nurses was increasing. These events provided the impetus for the profession to
embrace computers. 
 The 1960s.
During the 1960s the uses of computer technology in health care settings began to be
questioned. Questions such as “Why computers?” and “What should be computerized?” were
discussed. Nursing practice standards were reviewed, and nursing resources were analysed.
Studies were conducted to determine how computer technology could be utilized effectively
in the health care industry and what areas of nursing should be automated. The nurses’ station
in the hospital was viewed as the hub of information exchange, the most appropriate centre
for the development of the computer applications.
 During this period, computer technology advanced, while the number of health care facilities
increased. The introduction of cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals, online data communication,
and real-time processing added important dimensions to the computer systems providing
more accessible and “user-friendly” machines.
 The 1970s.
In the 1970s, the inevitable continued integration of computers into nursing. Nurses began to
recognize the value of the computer for their profession. During this decade, giant steps were
taken in both dimensions: nursing and computer technology. Nurses recognized the
computer’s potential for improving the documentation of nursing practice, the quality of
patient care, and the repetitive aspects of managing patient care. They assisted in the design
and development of nursing applications for the HISs and other environments where nurses
functioned.
During this period, several states and large community health agencies developed and/or
contracted for their own computer-based management information systems. Generally, public
health MISs provided statistical information required by local, state, and federal agencies for
specific program funds, whereas home health agencies provided billing and other financial
information required for reimbursement of patient services by Medicare, Medicaid, and other
third-party payers.
 The 1980s.
 During the 1980s, the field of informatics emerged in the health care industry and nursing.
NI became an accepted specialty and many nursing experts entered the
field. Technology challenged creative professionals and the use of computers in nursing
became revolutionary. As computer systems were implemented, the needs of nursing took on
a cause-and-effect modality; that is, as new computer technologies emerged and as computer
architecture advanced, the need for nursing software evolved.
 During this period, many mainframe HISs emerged with nursing subsystems. These systems
documented several aspects of the patient record; namely, order entry emulating the Kardex,
results reporting, vital signs, and other systems that documented narrative nursing notes via
word-processing packages. Discharge planning systems were developed and used as referrals
to community health care facilities in the continuum of care.
        In the 1980s, the microcomputer or personal computer emerged. This revolutionary
technology made computers more accessible, affordable, and usable by nurses and other
health care providers. PCs brought computing power to the workplace and, more importantly,
to the point-of-care. PC s served not only as terminals linked to the mainframe computers but
also as stand-alone systems (workstations). They were user-friendly and allowed nurses to
create their own applications.
 The post-2000.
The early years of the new millennium continued the torrid pace of hardware and software
development and growth. This growth is reflected in healthcare and nursing, with
developments such as wireless point-of-care, serious consideration for open source solutions,
regional database projects, and increase IT solutions targeted at all healthcare environments.
Further, clinical information systems became individualized in the electronic patient record
(EPR) and patient specific systems considered for the lifelong longitudinal record or the
electronic health record (EHR).
 Information technologies continued to advance with mobile technology such as with wireless
tablet computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and smart cellular telephones. The
development and subsequent refinement of voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) promises to
provide cheap voice communication for health care organizations. Post-2000 also witnessed
the continued impact of legislation on the U.S healthcare industry.
 

Four major nursing areas

 NURSING PRACTICE
 Nursing practice has evolved and changed radically. It has become an integral part of the
EHR. Computer systems with nursing and patient care data, nursing care plans are no longer
separate subsystems of the computerized HISs, but rather integrated into one interdisciplinary
patient health record in the EHR. The need for an interdisciplinary EHR resulted because of
many initiatives proposed and promoted by the nursing profession as well as by other health
care providers. They all require patient care data to track the care process. Further nursing
practice data emerged with the introduction of several nursing terminologies that were
recognized by the ANA as coded terminologies usable for the EHR. They are used to assess
problems, document care, and track the care process, and measure outcomes. Thus, the
electronic version nursing practice – the computer – has revolutionized and transformed
nursing practice.
 NURSING ADMINISTRATION
Nursing administration in hospitals has also changed with the introduction of the computer
that links nursing departments together. Most policy and procedure manuals are accessed and
retrieved by computer. Further, workload measures, acuity systems, and other nursing
department systems are online and integrated with the hospital or patient's EHR system or in
separate nursing department systems. The Internet is being used by nurses to access digital
libraries, online resources, and research protocols at the bedside.
 NURSING EDUCATION
The computer has radically changed nursing education. Most universities and schools of
nursing offer computer enhanced courses, online courses, and/or distance education. They are
becoming universities without walls where students can attend a university anywhere in the
world without being present. Campus-wide computer systems are available for students to
communicate via e-mail, transfer data files, access the digital libraries, and retrieve online
resources of millions of Internet WWW sites (Saba, 1996). These new educational strategies
require different methods of teaching. Today, most faculty members use the Internet to teach
courses via the Web and communication with their students via e-mail. They require new
tools, techniques, and a full array of multimedia strategies to stimulate their students. The
students on the other hand, have to be more active and assume more responsibility for their
education. Time, distance, and cost are no longer barriers to educational programs
 NURSING RESEARCH
Nursing research provides the impetus to use the computer for analyzing nursing data.
Software programs are available for processing both quantitative and qualitative research
data. With the advancement of computer technology databases supporting nursing research
emerged, principally for online searching and retrieving information from the electronic
bibliographic literature systems or other databases that contain relevant health care content,
such as drug data. The Internet also provides online access to the millions of Web resources
around the world which have increased the capabilities and expanded the field of nursing
research. 

Uses of Computer in Teaching and Learning

In the traditional way of teaching and learning, higher education institutions designed a
program based on the text book and lecture which is framed with time and place for students.
In this model, the main purpose is to satisfy requirement for mastery of a body of knowledge
for a lifelong career. Explosion of technologies in the education and work places have
changed the requirements in education for a successful career. In addition to mastery of a
body of knowledge a college graduate must develop specific competencies and abilities. With
the help of technology, learning these abilities can be included in the process of teaching and
learning.
Critical thinking ability - computer resources and applications is form of case study,
simulation, problem solving, and intelligent system can help to extend this ability. This
ability is very important quality for the success in the information society.
Process design ability   -   finding the correct way to communicate and access needed
resources is very important in the accomplishment of assignment. Learning to design and
effective process for accessing and analyzing information is very essential for students in
today’s multi-resource environment. Students need to design process with a clear strategies
for accessing, manipulation, and utilization of information in order to accomplish the desired
tasks.
Team work   - In today’s work places accomplishment of all the assignments are based on
the team work. Students should learn how to be a team member, how to contribute to the
process, how to use computer for communication with team members, and understand what is
the role of the other members in the team.
Outcome oriented process – In today’s multi-resources environment, it is important for
students to design process based on the expected outcome (down-to-top design), from
expected outcome to process.
Communication skills - knowledge of how to use computer and communication tools and
how to utilize them for accomplishment of process are very important part of students’
competency. In addition to electronic communication, students should develop human
communication skills as a team member.
Computer and communication technologies can solve two of the strongest barriers to the
teaching and learning, where (place) and when (time). Computer-based education is gaining
more and more popularity and role in the higher education institutions. Most of higher
education institutions are active in the offering computer-based classes for distance education
students. My prediction is in a few years the traditional students also will have the
opportunity to choose some courses independent of place (campus) and time (class schedule).
Technology not only brought new way of teaching and learning, but also provided
opportunity for everybody from anywhere to teach and learn (virtual classroom).
In the future, the individual objective of students, their desired outcome, their styles of
learning are going to have major roles in the design of curriculum. With internet and advent
of information superhighway, a new definition of teaching and learning is easier to design
and implement. Finally, technology provided the following changes for a more realistic and
productive teaching and learning environment.
o It allows students to have an active role in the teaching and learning process.

o It provides teachers with more options to teach and more time to evaluate progress of
activities.
o It prevents barrier such as when, where, and limited resources.
o It changes teacher-centered to teacher-student-centered or student-centered education.
o It changes from process oriented to outcome-oriented teaching and learning.
o It helps students to be ready for the tough global economy.

o It helps students to be a more effective member of the information society.

o It provides opportunity for virtual university.

o It provides opportunity for joint study of researchers from around the world.

 Role of Technology in Education

Technology power can provide us with opportunity in designing process of teaching and
learning which so far only dreamed about it. Among many educational goals, three cognitive
outcomes are that students should be able to remember, understand, and use information.
Computer can play an important role in enhancing the efficiency of the language teaching
process, making students more creative and providing them with an individualized learning
environment. Amongst all teaching strategies, Computer Assisted Teaching is perhaps the
best because it offers individualized instruction.
1. Effective interaction with the learners
2. Immediate feed back
Advancement in the telecommunication and computer technology has brought a new
expectation and hope for learners, organizations, universities, and society. Expectation of
new generation of learners is much higher from higher education than the current generation
of students. We must provide the best tools in the classroom, dorms and labs, we must
arrange best support group for application development, we must provide high quality
workshops and training for teachers and students, we must provide hassle free and
comfortable environment for using technology in teaching and learning, we must change
form administrative- centered to academic-centered university, we must provide desired
outcomes for the good of our students and work places, we must change from stereotype
leader and power holder to team leader and coach, we must accept in higher education
everybody is leader and everybody is follower, we must appreciate and encourage innovative
way of using technology, we must try to make reality our dream processes, we must evaluate
critically our performances and contributions, we must change curriculum form process-
oriented to outcome-oriented, we must get the best use from our technology, and we must
accomplish our assignments and commitment to the students, and society.
3. Computer in Language Teaching:
Computer helps the learners to understand the language quickly. They can learn the language
very easily with their own pace and independently without the help of their teachers. It
provides the opportunity for self-learning. Computer can be used -
o to test the ability to comprehend the subject taught clearly

o to increase the students’ ability in recognizing written forms of language

o to enable the students to know the spelling and pronunciation of each words

We use computers to conduct proficiency test for students, which help them to answer the
questions and finally they will get their score and they can evaluate themselves. Also, they
can get the answers immediately after getting the score. This helps the students to develop
their knowledge as well as they can have self-correction. We train the students by giving
sounds of different words. This helps them to understand pronunciation better. This helps the
students understand the concept of the language easily. Also, it helps the students to develop
the listening skill.
Finally, I conclude that machines mean relief from the mechanical aspects of the teacher’s
work. So, computer is not to exclude the teacher from the classroom. They cannot replace the
teachers; instead the computer can assist the teacher for effective teaching and learning in
classrooms.

Ways in which faculty are using computers to assist in teaching and learning
To replace writing on the chalkboard/white board/overhead:
 Instead of writing on the board, instructor or a student takes notes on the computer
and projects this onto the screen so the whole class can see this.
- Enables the students to read what has been written more easily than
instructor's handwriting.
- This can then be saved as a record of class then e-mailed to the whole class or
posted on the course web page.
- Students can work in small groups and use laptop computers to take notes on
their group's discussions (replacing the use of poster paper or handwritten
overhead transparencies). When they share their group's findings with the
whole class, they copy their work to disk and bring it up to the front of the
class to project using the instructor's computer.
PowerPoint - to replace slides, pre-prepared overhead transparencies and video:
 Creating own presentations for class.
 Creating own presentations for class and uploading these to course web page.
 Using presentations that come on CD with textbook.
 Having students create PowerPoint presentations to give presentations in class and for
presenting assignments
 Creating presentations but printing them out and creating overhead transparencies of
the slides.
Course web pages:
 Having a collection of pages for each course that includes some or all of the
following: syllabus, class schedule, assignments, links to readings, on-line class
discussion, posting of student work, on-line testing.
Internet:
 Outside of class:
- Required readings (having students read specific web pages as assignments).
Especially useful: on-line journals.
- Student research (for sites on specific topics)
 In-class use:
- Instructor integrating web sites into teaching of lesson.
- Having students use specific sites during class, either working in groups, using their
laptops, or in computer lab, with one or two students per computer.
- Having students integrate web sites into class presentations so that as students present
to the class, they project the web site onto the screen and use this as part of their
presentations.
Online discussion forums:
Using Top Class, Web Crossing
- Students to continue class discussions outside of class
- Outside "speakers" can join in class discussions online.
- Using folders within the discussion forum, students can "meet" online to do group
projects.
- Distance education classes can meet online.
Student created web pages:
- students creating on-line portfolios of their work.
- class developed "clearinghouse" on particular tasks or topics.
- as a means of students sharing their work with peers or with the instructor.
Class e-mail:
- For instructor to provide updates and reminders to students.
- To e-mail students copies of work developed in class (e.g. instead of writing on the
board, instructor or a student takes notes summarizing class discussion or group work,
and then this is e-mailed to the whole class).
Obstacles /concerns about using computers as teaching and learning tools:
Classroom set-up:
- Room arrangement/size makes it difficult to bring in a computer cart or for all
students to be able to see the screen.
- Lighting:
o too light so screen can't be seen (no blinds/curtains).

o can only turn all lights on or all off. All on is too bright, and all off is too dark
(students can't see instructor, each other, and/or their notes).
- No internet connections for students, so they cannot access the Internet during class
for purposes of group or individual work.
Equipment:
- InFocus projector controls locked in cabinet and instructor doesn't have key; too time
consuming to have to get key before every class.
- No permanent InFocus projector in class, so instructor has to check one out each time.
- No time to pick up check-out computer carts before class (especially for instructors
with little time between classes).
- InFocus projectors on carts are not always ready to use (cables are not attached or
may be missing).
- Because of variety of InFocus projectors, instructors may not be familiar with using
all of them and thus have difficulty configuring their laptop to work with the
projector.
- Resolution of Mac Computers with most of the InFocus projectors is not very clear.
- Takes too long to set up the equipment if instructor have to bring own laptop and
connect it. This is an issue for instructors who have back-to-back classes in different
 rooms or who have to wait for another class to leave the room before they can go in
and set up for their class.
Internet issues:
- Connection to Internet may be slow or unreliable. Instructors need to be able to make
connections to access course site, outside sites, and server.
- Quality of web sites: Students are still not discerning consumers and are not
differentiating between reputable and poor sites.
- Students' over reliance on the Internet for research (many not using the library at all).
- Students are plagiarizing work from the Internet.
Accessibility and equity issues:
- Not all students have access to the Internet off campus (and even on campus) and are
thus being disadvantaged by classes they place heavy emphasis on use of the Internet.
- For some commuters from outside of the region in rural areas dealing Internet Service
Provider is a long-distance call and thus becomes very costly.
- Not all students are comfortable using computers (in and out of class).
Instructor use:
- Creating computer-based materials for class is very time consuming, especially for
beginning users.
- Learning the necessary skills and keeping up-to-date is very time consuming.
- Even once an instructor has a course web site online, maintaining it is time consuming
(especially checking to see that external links are working and monitoring online class
discussions).
- Over reliance or inappropriate use of computers as a teaching tool can compromise
teaching and learning effectiveness.

Uses of Computer in Research

Computers have always assisted to solve the problems faced by the mankind. Since
the time of invention, the size of the computers has drastically reduced from that of a
room to that can be accommodated in a human palm.

The word computer means “something which computes or a machine for performing
calculations automatically”. But today computer means not merely a “calculator”. It
does vast variety of jobs with tremendous speed and efficiency. Computers have
become a subject of study at schools. Electronic computers have now become an
indispensable part of every profession: so, do research.

A computer has three basic components. They are:

1) An input device (keyboard and mouse)
2) A central processing unit (CPU)
3) An output device (monitor and/or printer)

Important characteristics of a computer:

 1. Speed: computers can perform calculations in just a few seconds that a human
being would need weeks to do.
2. Storage: end number of data can be stored in the computer and retrieved when
needed. Whereas a human mind can remember limited information and unimportant
data can be forgot sometimes.
3. Accuracy: the computer’s accuracy is consistently high. Almost without exception,
the errors in computing are due to human rather than to technological weakness. i. e.
due to imprecise thinking by the programmer or due to inaccurate data or due to
poorly designed system.
4. Automation: the computer programmes are automatic in nature. Individual
instructions to perform which programme is needed sometimes.
5. Diligence: being a machine computer does not suffer from human traits of tiredness
and lack of concentration. A computer can perform n number of calculations
continuously with the same accuracy and speed.

Computers in Research:
The computers are indispensable throughout the research process. The role of
computer becomes more important when the research is on a large sample. Data can
be stored in computers for immediate use or can be stored in auxiliary memories like
floppy discs, compact discs, universal serial buses (pen drives) or memory cards, so
that the same can be retrieved later.
The computers assist the researcher throughout different phases of research process.

Phases of Research Process

There are five major phases of the research process. They are:
1) Conceptual phase
2) Design and planning phase
3) Empirical phase
4) Analytic phase
5) Dissemination phase

1)Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase

The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review of literature,
theoretical frame work and formulation of hypothesis.
Role of Computers in Literature Review: Computers help for searching the literatures and
bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the world-wide webs. It can thus
be used for storing relevant published articles to be retrieved whenever needed. This has the
advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters
at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
2) Role of Computers in Design and planning phase
Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research variables,
sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study. Role of Computers for Sample Size
Calculation: Several software’s are available to calculate the sample size required for a
proposed study. NCSS-PASSGESS is such software. The standard deviation of the data from
the pilot study is required for the sample size calculation.
3) Role of Computers in Empirical phase
Empirical phase consists of collecting and preparing the data for analysis.
Data Storage: The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word files or
excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the
whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time consuming in case of
writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data editing, data management
including follow up actions etc.
Computers also allow for greater flexibility in recording the data while they are collected as
well as greater ease during the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and
inputting data is the most labour-intensive and time-consuming aspect of the work. Typically,
the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or record form suitable for its acceptance
by the computer. To do this the researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the
programmer, will convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel spreadsheet. These
spreadsheets can be directly opened with statistical software for analysis.
4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis
This phase consists of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of results.
Data Analysis: Many software’s are now available to perform the ‘mathematical part’ of the
research process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods.
Software’s like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the widely used. They
can be like calculating the sample size for a proposed study, hypothesis testing and
calculating the power of the study. Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out
the most intricate statistical analyses. Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses,
but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are collected.
5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination
This phase is the publication of the research study. Research publishing: The research article
is typed in word format and converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or
published in the World Wide Web.
6)FURTHER USES OF COMPUTERS
Medical record linkage in longitudinal studies:
In a more comprehensive way medical record linkage provides continuous record of
individual patients from birth to death, including illnesses hospitalization, operation, allergies
and so on. Prior to the use of computers, the linking together of different events in an
individual's medical case history was extremely difficult. Individual events (treatment by
family doctor, stay in hospital, etc.) were, and indeed usually still are, recorded separately at
different locations with no systematic procedures to bring together these elements of a case
history into a single record. With computer-based recording systems, such linking becomes
more feasible, medical records can be put to better use and information stored efficiently;
moreover, this information can be retrieved more rapidly than before. Cumulative files for
individuals can be compiled and assembled into family groups, socio-economic categories,
and so on, for purposes of analysis. Longitudinal studies, which involve following up a given
group of cohorts over a period of time, are a well-established application of the concept of
medical record linkage, and the large and comprehensive computerized databases established
through record linkage open up a wide range of potential research studies. For performing
Meta-analysis and systematic reviews: The results from systematic reviews are graded as the
level I evidence. These are obtained by the meta-analysis of the data from various studies.
This is made easy by the use of specialized software’s for the purpose.

Uses of Computer in Nursing Practice

Computerization has contributed enormously towards the reduction of medical errors and the
problems associated with such errors. Computerization of health care delivery includes
computerization of the medical records popularly known as the Electronic Medical Record
System (EMR), Electronic Prescriptions, Personal Digital Assistants, Computer Automated
Cancer Detection and Computerized Theatre Management Applications. The implementation
of voice recognition technology in mobile healthcare settings is yet another recent innovation.

Electronic Medical Records Systems

An Electronic Medical Record (EMR) is a medical record in digital format. Electronic
Medical Record keeping facilitates access of patient data by nurses at any given location,
building automated checks for drug and allergy interactions, clinical notes and laboratory
reports.
The term Electronic Medical Record can be expanded to include systems which keep track of
other relevant medical information. Although an EMR system has the potential for invasion
of a patient's medical privacy, EMRs can serve a great purpose when monitored effectively.
Five levels of Electronic Health Care Record (EHCR) keeping has been classified .
1. The Automated Medical Record, which is a paper-based record with some computer-
generated documents.
2. The Computerized Medical Record (CMR), which makes the documents of level 1
electronically available.
3. The Electronic Medical Record (EMR) which restructures and optimizes the documents
of the previous levels ensuring inter-operability of all documentation systems.
4.The Electronic Patient Record (EPR) which is a patient-centred record with information
from multiple institutions.
5.The Electronic Health Record (EHR) that adds general health-related information to the
EPR that is not necessarily related to a disease. The development of standards for EMR
interoperability is vital because of the fact that without interoperable EMRs, practicing
nurses, physicians, pharmacies and health care institutions cannot share patient information,
which is necessary for timely patient-centred care.
There are many software programs specially developed for Electronic Record Keeping with
integrated appointment scheduling billing, prescription writer, transcription module,
document management and workflow management.
Electronic Prescriptions
Nurse Practitioners have prescriptive authority in the United States and prescription error is a
problem in current nurse practice. Communication has been cited as the single biggest block
in such prescription errors leading to wrong reading by the pharmacist. Errors seem to be
more in the dose of the medicines prescribed. Electronic prescription systems have been
designed as a total remedy to this problem.
Personal Digital Assistants
   Personal Digital Assistants popularly known as PDA are literally handheld computers that
help patient management. Using a PDA, a nurse can access a patient's laboratory reports and
refer the latest information on relevant therapies, tests and treatments. The PDA can also be
used for billing and updating patient visits. The PDA can also provide map and directions to
the patient's homes. Using a PDA, a nurse can instantaneously transfer prescriptions to the
patient's pharmacy, answer patient e-mail, refer to medical textbooks, drug databases,
journals and updates.
Computer Automated Cancer Detection
A ThinPrep Processor Model 2000 has been recently approved by the FDA for the automatic
preparation of PAP slides making it easier for screening atypical cells in female patients
suspected with Cancer of the cervix. The ThinPrep System has been found to be especially
effective for detecting low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions known as SILs and severe
lesions. The ThinPrep System provides for better detection of Cancer cell. 
Computerized Theatre Management Application
Theatre Management Applications automatically record patient information like demographic
and financial data, visit history with dates, procedures, performing and attending providers,
care records with clinical highlights and patient status, surgical data including proposed, type,
actual, severity and risks stored for reference in the event of future surgical procedures. The
most important aspect of such applications is that they facilitate the management of patient
supplies with associated refill lists. These systems help to monitor and track the use of
implant and surgical items utilized during operative procedures. The applications allow the
theatre nurses to create lists which give full information on the necessary equipment’s and
surgical instruments required in the operating theatre for a surgery specific to a surgeon or
specialty.
Conclusion
Computerization has contributed enormously towards the reduction of medical errors and the
problems associated with such errors by providing timely access to client information and by
assisting nurses with client monitoring, decision making and bedside documentation. But, the
real challenge lies in utilization of features, functions, input and output modalities that nurse
would find most useful.
Computer and its related technology have completely revolutionized our lives. Now,
information technology is important in every walk-in life. Undoubtedly, computer and
information technology great impact in our education system. Various technologies have
been used to improve the teaching and learning process. Information technology makes our
education system interested and effective. Students can learn better without getting bored and
frustrated. This paper presents the current scenario of information technology-based
education system.
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