Major Roman Gods, Goddesses,

And Their Family Tree

POSTED BY: DATTATREYA MANDAL MARCH 20, 2018

Like many contemporary cultures, the ancient Romans tended to view
their mythological traditionas being borne by history rather than legends,
with the central themes related to politics, morality, and heroism. And since
we are talking about history, while a perceptible scope of the ancient Roman
gods and religion had its roots in native Italic traditions, a significant part of
the institution (before Christianity) was inspired by the Greek
mythology, partially fueled by the proximity of the Greek colonies in both
Italy and Sicily (and later absorption of mainland Greece into the Roman
Republic).
In any case, beyond origins and influences, the ancient Romans tended to
venerate twelve major gods and goddesses in their pantheon, known as the Dii
Consentes. We have covered all them and more, including few examples of
both primeval and syncretic deities. So without further ado, let us take a
gander at 15 major Roman gods and goddesses you should know about.
1) Saturn – The God of Time (Equivalent of Greek Kronos)

‘Saturn Cutting off Cupid’s Wings with a Scythe’ by Ivan Akimovich

Akimov, 1802. The State Tretyakov Gallery, Public Domain.

Alluding to a primeval deity among the ancient Roman

gods, Saturn (Saturnus in Latin) was regarded as the ruler of the earth
during the ‘lost’ Golden Age that epitomized the balance between peace,
harmony, stability, and prosperity. Essentially, Saturn’s story replicates the
lore of Cronus in Greek mythology, thus making Saturn the god of time, who
in turn proceeds to create the genealogy of other Roman gods, including being
the father of Jupiter – the most important ancient Roman deity (discussed in
the next entry). According to 1st century BC Stoic philosopher Quintus
Lucilius Balbus (as noted by Cicero in his book De Natura Deorum or ‘On
the Nature of the Gods’) –
By Saturn, they seek to represent that power which maintains the
cyclic course of times and seasons. This is the sense that the Greek
name of that god bears, for he is called Kronos, which is the same as
Chronos or Time. Saturn for his part got his name because he was
“sated” with years; the story that he regularly devoured his own
children is explained by the fact that time devours the courses of the
seasons and gorges itself “insatiably” on the years that are past. Saturn
was enchained by Jupiter to ensure that his circuits did not get out of
control, and to constrain him with the bonds of the stars.
However, at the same time, Saturn also bore many similarities with the Greek
goddess Demeter, wherein he was venerated as the god of sowing (or seed),
agriculture, wealth, generation, and even renewal. Simply put, the Romans
possibly merged the aspects of time and nature, thus leading to the
epitomizing of revitalization and regeneration via the entity of Saturn. And
thus he was celebrated in the most famous of Roman festivals –
the Saturnalia, during which people took part in general revelry, carnivals,
parties, and role-reversals (like in the case of masters playfully serving their
slaves).
2) Jupiter – The God of Sky and Thunder (Equivalent of Greek Zeus)

Image Source
Considered as the supreme deity among the Roman gods, Jupiter (Iūpiter in
Latin) was portrayed as a bearded male entity who personified the light,
thunder, and sky; while representing the divine being that was responsible for
protecting the Roman state and its laws. Interestingly enough, when it comes
to history, Jupiter was one of the personalized deities of the Etruscan kings,
who later made way into the triad of gods (consisting of Jupiter, Mars,
and Quirinus – the deified Romulus) worshipped by the ‘first’ citizens of the
Roman state. And by the time of the Roman Republic, Jupiter was regarded as
the highest of the divine entities who watched over the Romans – and thus
was venerated as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the Best and Greatest.
The high status enjoyed by Jupiter, often perceived as the equivalent of
Greek Zeus, was mirrored by the impressive Temple of Jupiter erected on
the Capitoline Hill (possibly by circa 509 BC). To that end, Roman warlords
and later generals led their triumphal processions to the temple after securing
noteworthy victories, thus outlining Jupiter’s personification as one of the
major Roman gods of violence and courage. On the other hand, as we
fleetingly mentioned before, Jupiter was also regarded as the patron of
politics, oaths, treaties, laws, and possibly even sports – since the chief games
of Ludi Romani, were observed in his honor.
3) Juno – The Queen of Gods (Equivalent of Greek Hera)

Roman statue of Juno Sospita. Source: Wikimedia Commons

Regarded as the wife of Jupiter – the chief among the Roman gods, Juno was
thus the queen of the ancient Roman deities, who was given the title
of Regina. In the mythological genealogy, she was also the daughter
of Saturn (which in turn also made her the sister of Jupiter) and the mother of
various other Roman gods like Mars, Vulcan, and Juventas. More
importantly, she was also considered as an esteemed member of
the Capitoline Triad (Juno Capitolina) that replaced the earlier so-named
Archaic Triad, and her place of worship was possibly centered on the Quirinal
Hill in Rome.
Now when it comes to her attributes, Juno has been often likened to Hera, the
queen of the ancient Greek pantheon of gods. And while the Roman goddess
does share some of her Greek-counterpart’s divine qualities, the entity of Juno
is far older than the Roman occupation of the Greek peninsula, which further
led to ‘counter’ Hellenic influence on the Italian peninsula.
To that end, the first of foremost role of Juno was that of the protector of the
state, and by extension of that role, Juno was also perceived as a deity who
presided over all the matters of women, ranging from childbirth to legal
statuses. Interestingly enough, she was often depicted wearing a goatskin
while carrying a spear and shield, thus also signifying the possible influence
of Athena. In any case, Juno’s own festival was known as Matronalia. And
while the day celebrated her son Mar’s birthday, husbands were actually
expected to give their wives gifts during the occasion.
4) Neptune – The God of Seas (Equivalent of Greek Poseidon)

Triumph of Neptune standing on a chariot pulled by two sea horses

(Latin: hippocampes). Source: Wikimedia Commons
Regarded as the brother of Jupiter, Neptune (Neptunus in Latin) was the
god of both freshwater and the sea in the ancient Roman pantheon.
Interestingly enough, while Neptune was long considered as one of the major
Roman gods (along with his female counterpart, Salacia) of freshwater
springs and inland water bodies – possibly by virtue of the entity’s Indo-
European origins, his specific association with the sea was probably the result
of the deity’s identification with the Greek mythological counterpart
of Poseidon, by circa 399 BC.
Suffice it to say, inspired by these later associations, Neptune was often
depicted like Poseidon with his characteristic trident, especially in the
artworks of North Africa. And much like his Greek counterpart, Neptune was
also worshiped as one of the Roman gods of horses – in the form of Neptunus
Equester, the patron deity of horse-racing. Interestingly enough, while Rome
only had a single temple dedicated to Neptune (near Circus
Flaminius), Neptunalia possibly was an important (though somewhat
obscure) festival celebrated in the height of summer. During the occasion,
when water levels were at their scarcest, people were devoted to the
conservation and draining of superficial waters, while ritually participating in
drinking spring waters and wine.
5) Minerva – The Goddess of Wisdom and Arts (Equivalent of
GreekAthena)

Art by Tohmo (DeviantArt).

A Roman deity of varying avenues – ranging from wisdom, poetry, medicine

to art, crafts and commerce, Minerva was aptly called the ‘goddess of
thousand works’ by Ovid. When it comes to the genealogy of Roman gods,
Minerva was said to come out from Jupiter’s forehead after the supreme god
swallowed her mother Metis. Interestingly enough, according to the mythic
narrative, Jupitercommitted such a bizarre act in the first place out of fear of a
prophecy that Metis‘ child would one day challenge his order in the pantheon.
Pertaining to this episode, Minerva was also considered as the patron of war,
more specifically strategic warfare – though this attribute was possibly a later
addition in 2nd century BC, which made Minera the equivalent of the Greek
goddess Athena.
However, when it comes to history, most scholars agree that like many Roman
gods and goddesses, Minerva had older origins. In her case, the indigenous
Italic predecessor was probably the Etruscan goddess Menrva, while the name
in itself is derived from meminisse, meaning ‘to remember’. She was also the
third member of the Capitoline Triad and the patron of the Quinquatras. 
This festival, while marking the starting of the campaign season for the
Roman army, was known for its four days of gladiatorial contests. Essentially,
Minerva epitomized the aspects of both warfare and its consequences –
including possible peace, as opposed to the more direct allusion to war (like in
the case of Athena). However, in spite of her more complex attributes,
Minerva was depicted as being draped in her simple attire in the form of
a chiton (an ancient Greek garment), while wearing a helmet and carrying a
spear and a shield.
6) Mars – The God of War (Equivalent of Greek Ares)

Source: Posters4Teachers

Considered as the second in importance after Jupiter in the pantheon of

Roman gods, Mars was the deity of war (and possibly agriculture). And while
the aspect of military conflict often brings out the inevitable comparison with
his ancient Greek equivalent Ares, Mars was arguably far more complex when
it came to his martial attributes. In essence, as opposed to the sheer
impulsiveness and chaotic nature of warfare, Mars was perceived as a more
composed and judicious entity who took up the role of the protector of Rome
and its way of life. He was also venerated as the defender of the city and state
borders, and all these aspects suggest how the embodiment of warfare was
central to the collective consciousness of the Romans.
The mythical narrative rather reinforced the association of (practical) war to
the early Romans, with Mars being portrayed as the father of the legendary
founders of Rome – Romulus and Remus. To that end, the month of March
(named after him, derived from Latin Martius) was reserved for the beginning
of military campaigns, while also corresponding to many of the festivals of
Mars. Furthermore, the altar of Mars in Campus Martius (Field of Mars) was
uniquely dedicated to the god of war by the seemingly peace-loving Numa, the
legendary second king of Rome. All of these cultural factors make Mars one of
the exclusive ancient Roman gods who possibly had no parallel in the
proximate Greek culture (in spite of sharing some qualities with Ares).
7) Venus – The Goddess of Beauty and Love (Equivalent of
GreekAphrodite)

‘Venus and Adonis’ by Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, Siegen 1577–1640

Antwerp). Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art
The ancient Roman deity of beauty, love, desire, and sex, Venus is often
perceived as the equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite. However, like in
the case of some of the earlier mentioned Roman gods, Venus as a divine
entity possibly epitomized more aspects than her Greek counterpart – since
she was also regarded as the goddess of victory and fertility (and possibly even
prostitution). In any case, it was the embodiment of the concepts of beauty,
sex, and desire that formed the core of her attributes, so much so that
the Latin noun venus also meant ‘sexual love’ or sexual desire.
Given the overtones of sexuality and fertility, it doesn’t come as a surprise that
Venus bore many children when it comes to the scope of her mythical
narrative. For example, her illicit love affair with Mars produced the
twins Timor (Phobos in Greek) and Metus (Deimos in Greek), the
personifications of fear and terror respectively, Concordia (Harmonia in
Greek), the goddess of harmony and concord, and Cupids (Erotes in Greek),
the famed winged deities of love. Ovid provided his narrative on how Venus
(or rather Venus-Aphrodite) was also the mother
of Hermaphroditos (compound of his parents’
names Hermes and Aphrodite), while Fortuna, the goddess of luck and fate,
was regarded as the offspring of Venus and Jupiter (or Hermes).
8) Apollo – The God of Light and Prophecy (Similar to Greek Apollo)

‘Apollo Pursuing Daphne’ by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1755/1760.

Source: NGA
Hailed as one of the most important of Olympian deities when it came to the
pantheons of both ancient Greek and Roman gods, Apollo, the archetype of
the beardless, youthful being (kouros), was considered as the divine entity of
light, music, prophecy, poetry, medicine and even archery. Now interestingly
enough, Apollo can be counted among the rare Roman gods who had directly
originated from the Greek mythology (thus having no Roman equivalent),
with the cult centers of the entity in Delphi and Delos being in existence since
8th century BC.
And even the origins of Apollo in the Greek pantheon is mired in mystery,
with the etymology of the word Apollon (‘Apollo’ is the Latin form of Greek
‘Apollon’) possibly harking back to a pre-Greek era. For example, a
Hittite entity Apaliunas is mentioned in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, which in
turn might have been derived from Aplu Enlil – meaning the son of
the Mesopotamian god Enlil.
In any case, coming back to the Roman scope, Apollo, regarded as the son
of Jupiter, was often venerated with the epithet of Phoebus (derived
from Phoibos, meaning ‘bright’) and his first temple was possibly established
by late 5th century BC in the Flaminian fields. However historically, it was
Augustus who encouraged the worship of Apollo as one of the major Roman
gods, especially after his victory at the Battle of Actium (circa 31 BC) that
fought near the sanctuary of the deity. During his reign as the first Roman
emperor, Augustus went on to institute the quinquennial games in the honor
of Apollo, while also building a new temple dedicated to the god on the
Palatine Hill.
9) Diana – The Goddess of Hunt and The Moon (Equivalent of
GreekArtemis)

Source: Pinterest
A female deity characterizing the hunt, wildlands, nature, and the moon
among the ancient Roman gods, Diana was also regarded as an entity who
was antithetically the virgin goddess of childbirth and women. In essence, she
belonged to the triad of female Roman goddesses (along
with Minerva and Vesta) who were maidens; and the mythical narrative often
portrayed her as the twin sister of Apolloand daughter of Jupiter.  And while
she is often equated to her Greek counterpart Artemis, the origins of Diana
probably harked back to an indigenous Italic (or older Indo-European) entity.
Ist century BC Stoic philosopher Quintus Lucilius Balbus (noted by Cicero in
his book De Natura Deorum or ‘On the Nature of the Gods’), discussed –
people regard Diana and the moon as one and the same. … the
moon (luna) is so called from the verb to shine (lucere). Lucina is
identified with it, which is why in our country they invoke Juno Lucina
in childbirth, just as the Greeks call on Diana the Light-bearer. Diana
also has the name Omnivaga (“wandering everywhere”), not because
of her hunting but because she is numbered as one of the seven planets;
her name Diana derives from the fact that she turns darkness into
daylight (dies). She is invoked at childbirth because children are born
occasionally after seven, or usually after nine, lunar revolutions…
Interestingly enough, as was virgin Diana’s paradoxical connection to
childbirth, the goddess also embodied other seemingly conflicting aspects,
ranging from the purity and serenity of woods and wildlands to the
unpredictable and ever-changing nature of the moon. On occasions, she was
also considered as one of the Roman gods of the dark world of the dead, thus
being the equivalent of Greek goddess Hecate.
10) Vulcan – The God of Fire and Metallurgy (Equivalent of
GreekHephaistos) 

Source: SpeakSlovak

One of the oldest of Roman gods, the figure of Vulcan (Vulcānus in

Latin) possibly harks back to Rome’s archaic times, circa 7th century BC. As
for his attributes, Vulcan was considered as the Roman god of fire (including
volcanoes), metallurgy, and forges. Pertaining to the latter, Vulcan’s own
forge was believed to be situated beneath Mount Aetna in Sicily. Now
interestingly enough, the oldest sanctuary of Vulcan, known as
the Vulcanal (or Volcanal) was probably situated at the foot of the Capitoline
Hill, and this site revealed a Greek pottery fragment (dated to circa 6th
century BC) that possibly depicted Hephaestus (or Hephaistos), the Greek
god of fire and metalworking. In essence, Vulcan was probably one of the
earlier Roman gods who was equated to an ancient Greek counterpart. At the
same time, Vulcan also matched the aspects of Sethlans, an ancient Etruscan
god.
Quite intriguingly, in spite of the word ‘volcano’ being derived from
Latin Vulcānus, scholars are divided in their hypotheses when it comes to the
origins of the word Vulcānus itself. To that end, according to some the word is
derived from Latin fulgur, with connections to lightning and flames, while
others have conjectured that the term originates
from Cretan Minoan god Velchanos. In any case, the Romans
celebrated Vulcanalia, the festival of Vulcan, at a time in the year (in August)
when the crops and grains had the greatest chance of catching fire from the
heat. So in a bid to appease the god of fire, the citizens made ceremonial
bonfires – into which sacrificial fishes and small animals were thrown in.
11) Vesta – The Goddess of Domesticity (Equivalent of Greek Hestia)

Source: MythDancer

The daughter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter, Vesta was paradoxically

considered as the oldest and youngest of Roman gods, since she was the first
to be swallowed by Saturn (or Greek equivalent Cronus) and last to be
released from the ‘confines’ of her father. And in the mythical narrative, in
spite of being beautiful, she rejected the advances of other divine suitors
like Apollo and Neptune.
Instead, she appealed to Jupiter to allow her to remain a virgin. Thus Vesta
came to be associated as the Roman goddess of the hearth, home, and
domestic scope – and her Greek equivalent was Hestia, the ancient entity
representing domesticity, family, and architecture. Interestingly enough, the
Latin term for hearth is focus (which in English means ‘the center of interest
or activity’), thus suggesting how the fire burning in this particular area of the
house figuratively signified the ‘convergent spirit’ of the entire family.
The fire also played an important role in the shrine of Vesta in the Roman
Forum, where it was perpetually burned and tended to by the Vestal Virgins
(Vestales in Latin), the priestesses of the deity. As their name suggests,
these Vestal Virgins, chosen at a young age of six to ten, were to remain chaste
for a service period of 30 years. And such was the nature of this guarded scope
of worshipping that the shrine of Vesta was not opened to the public, except
during the festival of Vesta, known as Vestalia(celebrated in June) – during
which barefooted matrons visited the sanctuary to give their offerings. And
quite intriguingly, the eminence of Vesta among the Roman gods is mirrored
by the fact that her cult was one of the last pagan institutions to be disbanded
by the Christian emperor Theodosius I in 391 AD, after almost a thousand
years of the burning of the sacred fire.
12) Mercury – The God of Wealth (Equivalent of Greek Hermes)

‘Pandora carried off by Mercury’ by Jean Alaux (1786–1864).

Credit: Ibidem

One of the relatively ‘later’ ancient Roman gods, Mercury was possibly the

composite of various earlier di indigites (indigenous Roman gods) who
represented wealth and trade. In essence, Mercury (Mercurius in Latin,
possibly derived from merx or ‘merchandise’) was considered as the Roman
deity of commerce and financial gains, whose attributes also stretched to
various other avenues like communication, divination, eloquence, thievery,
and gymnastics. And in spite of being related to Etruscan god Turms, by the
time of the Roman Republic (circa 3rd century BC), Mercury was often
equated to his ancient Greek counterpart Hermes (the messenger god), which
resulted in his depiction with apparels like the winged sandals (talaria) and a
winged hat (petasos).
Interestingly enough, Mercury was also among the Roman gods whose aspects
were played a syncretic role when it came to the scope of worship of similar
deities from other ancient cultures. For example, Julius Caesar mentioned
how Mercury was a rather popular divine entity in Gaul and Britain. This may
have been due to the Roman cultural trait of interpretatio Romana, wherein
the Romans tended to interpret various native divine entities in accordance
with their own pantheon. To that end, Mercury might have been equated to
the Celtic god Lugus, who in spite of being the god of light, also bore aspects
that symbolized trade and commerce. By virtue of the same cultural trait,
Tacitus mentioned how Mercury also the chief god of the Germanic people,
possibly being the equivalent of native Wotan.
13) Ceres – The Goddess of Agriculture (Equivalent of Greek Demeter)

Source: BewitchingNames

A female entity representing agriculture, crops, fertility and mother

relationships, Ceres was venerated as a kind and benevolent deity among the
ancient Roman gods. When it comes to the mythical narrative, Ceres was
considered as the daughter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter, but the main
element of her worship and veneration was focused on the relationship
between Ceres and her own daughter Proserpine. Essentially, this translated
to a tragic story in which Ceres lost her daughter when she was kidnapped
by Pluto, the god of the underworld. And even after the intervention of other
gods, including their leader Jupiter, Proserpine was only allowed to return to
earth and spend time with her mother from spring to autumn, thus essentially
symbolizing how her parting caused the leaves to fall and stunted nature’s
growth – until the cyclic arrival of next spring.
The aforementioned narrative mythology does mirror the Greek mythology
concerning the goddess Demeter and her daughter Persephone, thus partially
making Ceres the Roman equivalent of Demeter. And when it comes to
history, there was an ancient Roman festival of Cerealia that was held for 7
days in April in honor of Ceres. And on the occasion (according to
Ovid’s Fasti), people used to tie blazing torches to the tails of foxes, who were
then ceremoniously let loose into the expansive space later known as Circus
Maximus – as a symbolic punishment for the creatures’ yearly forays into
Roman croplands that were sacred to Ceres. (*also check this citation).
The festival was also marked by what can be termed as collective cosplay with
Roman women dressing in white attires to mimic Ceres, who wandered
through the earth in lamentation for her abducted daughter Proserpine.
Furthermore, pertaining to one of the most commonly uttered words by
parents in the mornings of the Western Hemisphere, the term ‘Cereal’ also
comes from Ceres.
14) Bacchus – The God of Wine and Revelry (Equivalent of
GreekDionysus)

Photo Credit: Derek Key/Flickr

While the aforementioned Apollo maintained his compatible name in the
pantheons of Greek and Roman gods, Bacchus was a straight-up Romanized
equivalent of the Greek god Dionysus. To that end, Bacchus could be
perceived as a latent ‘copy’ of Dionysus, thus being associated with similar
mythical narratives (albeit with Romanized characters, like being considered
as the son of Jupiterinstead of Zeus) and traits.
In essence, Bacchus was the Roman god of both wine and winemaking, while
also embodying the fascinating (and rather mysterious) aspects of ritual
madness and religious ecstasy. Pertaining to the latter
characteristics, Bacchanalia was the blanket term for the Roman festivals
dedicated to this god. Possibly centered around the Dionysian mysteries
(involving intoxicants and trance-inducing moves like rhythmic dancing), the
initiates of such private ceremonies were bound to secrecy.
Consequently, the ancient rites of Bacchus in some part remain mysterious
and were rather scandalous during their time, as was attested by Livy, who
talked about how the cults practiced wine-fueled violence and rampant sexual
promiscuity, accompanied by cacophonous music – thus giving way to the
term ‘bacchanalian’, meaning a ‘drunken feast’. Intriguingly enough, Bacchus
was later associated with the indigenous entity of Liber Pater (‘the free
Father’), one of the Roman gods of viticulture and wine, fertility, and freedom.
During his festival (Liberalia – which later merged with bacchanalian
practices), the feast marked the coming-of-age of the Roman teenagers who
crossed the threshold of 14 or 15 years. And in an interesting ritual, the
teenager as a mark of his new-found manhood had to place a lock of hair from
the first shave of his stubble inside a bulla (pendant) on an altar.
15) Honorable Mention – Mithras: The ‘Syncretic’ God
 A statue of the Roman god Mithras. Courtesy British Museum.
Source: The National
Mithra was incipiently a Zoroastrian divine entity (yazata), thus having his
origins in the religious system of ancient Persia and related Indo-Iranian
traditions. However, pertaining to a fascinating example of cross-cultural
syncretism, a mystery religion centered around a particular Greco-Roman
deity known as Mithras (a figure which was inspired by Mithra) was
practiced in the Roman Empire, with its heydays ranging from 1st to the 4th
century AD – thus possibly being one of the early ‘rivals’ to Christianity. And
while the name and the initial divinity of Mithras were influenced by
its Easterncounterpart, the imagery of this enigmatic deity among the
Roman gods along with the related belief system was distinct from the
original Zoroastrian entity.
Mainly practiced by the members of the Roman military, this mystery religion
of Mithraism (possibly transmitted by the merchants from the east) was
primarily introduced into the upper echelons of the society, circa 1st century
AD. And by the 3rd century AD, the cult, probably open to only males,
percolated into different sections of the society, with one of the major bastions
being the eternal city itself – Rome.
These male initiates, known as syndexioi, probably met in underground
temples called mithraea. Quite intriguingly, while the imagery of Mithras is
well known with the god’s depiction as a youth wearing an Anatolian attire
and a Phrygian cap in a bull-slaying scene, historians are still perplexed by a
lion-headed figure often encountered in Mithraic temples. Known
as Arimanius (a Latinized form of the name Ahriman – a demonic entity in
the Zoroastrian pantheon), the cryptic deity possibly represented Cronus or
his Eastern equivalent.
Family Tree of Roman Gods and Goddesses –

Credit: Kowan Briggs

Featured Image Source: Imperial College London

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