2018
International Symposium on Power Electronics,
Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion
Design and Sizing of Energy Storage for Grid
Connected PV Power Plants
L. Palma
Universidad de Concepción
Edmundo Larenas 219, Concepción, Chile
palma@ieee.org
Abstract—By their nature PV power generation can be
considered static. This means they do not have inertia as rotating
machines do, and thus, they cannot handle transient load demands
that go over their instantaneous maximum power point. In
addition, when compared to traditional generators their power
ramp rate is much steeper, being able to reach values of 90% per
minute and higher. Both characteristics have an impact on power
system operation, especially in the case of large PV plants. For
example, due to their lack of inertia, a PV plant cannot participate
in primary frequency regulation, injecting active power during
system faults. Further, the rapid power ramp rate exhibit by PV
plants can also affect system stability due to the fast increase or
decrease in generated power, which usually cannot be
compensated by the rest of the generators in the grid. In this
regard, it has been shown that these two issues can be mitigated by
the addition of energy storage elements to the PV plant power
conditioning system. However, to do so proper sizing, interfacing
and control of the energy storage is required. To tackle this issue,
analysis of energy storage requirements for a grid connected
power plant is performed in this paper. As a result, sizing
guidelines and a design procedure for the required battery bank
are developed. In addition, a control strategy to regulate the power
ramp rate of the system is presented and its effectiveness verified
through computer simulations.
Keywords— Energy Storage, photovoltaics, power ramp rate
regulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Environmental concerns coupled with the ever-increasing
energy demand is moving power generation towards renewable
energy sources such as wind, geothermal and solar. Among
these, the latter, is becoming one of the fastest development due
to the nature of the prime resource and its availability [1-3]. In
particular; photovoltaics is gaining wide acceptance due to the
direct energy conversion and continuous price drop of its
components.
One of the advantages of photovoltaics is the absence of
moving parts, which reduces tear and wear and their associated
maintenance costs. This however, introduces an important issue
from the electrical perspective when compared to traditional
rotating generators. In which, the inertia associated to the
spinning rotor in the generator serves as energy storage which
contributes to the stability of the power system during transients
and faults. On the contrary, PV systems do not have an intrinsic
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877
energy storage that can compensate for these short-term power
disturbances and can only generate power depending on their
instantaneous solar irradiance [4-7].
Usually in residential and commercial applications this
drawback is not relevant, as the size of the photovoltaic system
is small compared to the grid. However, as solar generation
increases, the amount of small scale generation turns more and
more important, resulting in that the lack of short term energy
reserves can become a problem. On the other hand, in the case
of utility scale photovoltaic plants, the lack of inertia is a relevant
issue for power system operation. As the relative size of the PV
generation is not small, and therefore the lack of energy reserves
to contribute with active power during faults can compromise
system stability. Moreover, due to the nature of the solar
resource, PV plant power rises or drops quickly as function of
instantaneous insolation [8-9]. For this reason, the rate of change
of power injected to the grid is much faster than that achieved
by traditional rotating generators. This is a relevant issue from
system stability point of view since this can produce a sudden
excess or lack of power in the grid that cannot be compensated
by other slower sources in the system.
750V
Inverter #1
Array #1 500 kW
Step-up
transformer
380/ 20kV
750V
Array #2
Inverter #2
500 kW
Figure 1. Typical 1 MW photovoltaic system
In utility scale photovoltaic power plants, the preferred
power conversion architecture uses several three-phase string
inverters connected to a step-up power transformer to interface
the photovoltaic array to the grid (fig 1). In such single stage
power conditioning topology options for adding energy storage
elements to the system are limited. Moreover, there are two
types of energy storage elements that can be used in this sort of
application, supercapacitors and batteries. Thus, depending on
the amount of energy storage required one type can be more conditioner should have stored;
advantageous than the otter [10-15].
To compensate for these drawbacks, analysis of energy ߱௣௥௜௠௔௥௬௙௥௘௤௨௘௡௖௬௖௢௡௧௥௢௟
(2)
storage requirements for short term energy storage and power ൌ ͲǤͲͷܲ௡௢௠௜௡௔௟ ο‫ݐ‬ሾ‫ܬ‬ሿ
ramp rate compensation in utility scale photovoltaic plants is
where; Pnominal is the nameplate power of the PV system, and ∆t
performed in this paper. In addition, different options for energy
corresponds to the time interval defined by grid standards for
storage integration are investigated and compared. Further, an
primary frequency control. Typically, regulations in this respect
appropriate control structure for the selected energy storage
define that the generator must have sufficient energy reserves to
integration topology is presented. Results are validated through
contribute to primary frequency control for a minimum period
computer simulations to show the effectiveness of the proposed
of 15 minutes. Thus, it can be calculated that the energy reserve
solution.
associated with this function is of 45 seconds of nominal power.

II. ENERGY STORAGE REQUIREMENTS

Conventional rotating generators due to their nature, have
energy stored in the rotating mass of the rotor, which can
contribute to supply power during events like motor starting and
other short time system transients. In addition, system
regulations typically require that generators must contribute to
frequency regulation injecting active power in what is known as
primary and secondary frequency regulation, which can last
from few seconds to 15 minutes. Due to their duration, this
compensation requirement cannot be covered by the energy
associated with rotor inertia, and typically is achieved by
increasing the output of the primary source; i.e. increasing
throttle in the combustion engine or water flow in hydraulic Figure 2. 160 MW PV power plant daily generation profile installed in northern
Chile showing steep up and down power ramps [20].
plants.
Another aspect that requires the use of an energy storage
On the other hand, photovoltaic systems, being static in
element is limiting the power ramp-up and ramp-down of the
nature, do not have inertia, and the only energy storage is
photovoltaic plant during the mornings and afternoons
provided by the relative small size of the DC link capacitor in
respectively (fig. 2). This aspect is problematic since as the sun
the inverter. Moreover, since there is no control over the primary
appears in the morning, power produced by the photovoltaic
source, the sun, there cannot be additional active power injection
plant rises much faster than conventional thermic plants can
to participate of primary or secondary frequency regulation. Due
reduce its power generation level. The consequence of this is that
to these reasons, there is a need to incorporate energy storage to
overall generation on the power system differs from demand,
a PV system. This is especially true in the case of large scale
and therefore grid frequency tends to increase. A similar effect
plants, where contribution to system stability is required by grid
occurs during the sunset, as power generated by the photovoltaic
operators.
plant drops rapidly and power generation needs to be taken over
Inertia emulation can be achieved by adding an energy by conventional generation. Moreover, the same effects can be
storage element to the power conditioning system. The amount observed when the solar array is partially or completely
of energy that needs to be stored depends on a time constant obstructed by passing clouds or other obstructions, where rapid
which is given by the dynamic response of an equivalent size power fluctuations in both directions are generated as the array
rotating generator, and by the allowable rate of change of system is covered and uncovered.
frequency. Taking this into account it was shown in [16] that the
Conventional power generators have power ramp rate values
energy storage requirement associated with inertia emulation is
that vary depending on the type of prime mover, and that can be
given by:
anywhere from 3% per minute up to 5% per minute. In contrast,
ο݂ PV plants have much faster ramp rates which range between 70
߱௜௡௘௥௧௜௔௘௠௨௟௔௧௜௢௡ ൌ ʹ߬௜௡௘௥௧௜௔ ܲ௡௢௠௜௡௔௟ ሾ‫ܬ‬ሿ (1)
݂௡௢௠௜௡௔௟ and 90 % per minute [21]. In this respect, it has been suggested
that to avoid disrupting grid operation ramp rate of PV power
plants should be limited to a maximum value of 10% per minute
where: τinertia is the inertial time constant, Pnominal the generator
[22]. Therefore, to effectively follow this restriction it is required
nominal power, fnominal the system nominal frequency, and ∆f that the power conditioner must stop following the maximum
the change in system frequency. Since typical values for τinertia power point of the array, reducing energy harvesting and thus
range from 2 to 10 seconds and considering that the maximum revenue. An alternative to his approach is to divert generated
frequency deviation allowed is typically in the range of +4% power to or from an energy storage element, hence controlling
and -6%, it can be calculated that the maximum energy the amount of power that is injected to the grid. If the latter is
requirement is of 1.2 seconds of nominal power. Similarly, [16] done, the amount of energy storage required can be calculated in
also showed that for contribution to primary frequency control terms of the difference between PV generated power and power
(2) can be used to calculate the amount of energy that the power delivered to the grid following the maximum allowed ramp rate
(fig3).

878
 PV available power III. ENERGY STORAGE INTERFACING TOPOLOGY
In utility scale PV generation systems, power conversion is
commonly done using a single stage approach in which sections
Power [p.u] of a large array are connected to a string inverter which typically
has a DC link voltage around 750V. Several of these inverters
Power injected to the grid
at maximum ramp rate are connected in parallel to reach the desired power level,
forming a common AC bus which connects to a step-up power
transformer which in turn connects to the grid (fig1).
There are mainly two possible options to interface an energy
storage element to such a system. One is the connection of the
t1 t2
time [minutes]
energy storage element in parallel with the array by means of an
auxiliary DC-DC converter (fig4). This approach has the main
Figure 3. Difference between power generated by the array and maximum advantage of being of simple control. However, this approach
allowed ramp rate has several drawbacks, being one of them the fact that the energy
From fig 3, power produced by the array and delivered to the storage must be divided between several inverters in order to
grid under ramp rate limitation are given by (3) and (4) as avoid exceeding their maximum power limit during charge and
discharge. In addition, connection of the energy storage element
follows.
to the inverter DC link perturbs normal operation of the
݉௣௩ ܲ௢ ‫ ݐݐ‬൑ ‫ݐ‬ଵ (3) maximum power point tracking system, due to the its slower
ܲ௉௏ ൌ ൜ ሾܹሿ dynamics.
ܲ௢ ‫ ݐ‬൐ ‫ݐ‬ଵ
݉୫ୟ୶ ̴௥௔௠௣ ܲ௢ ‫ ݐݐ‬൑ ‫ݐ‬ଶ (4)
ܲ௢௨௧ ൌ ൜ ሾܹሿ
ܲ௢ ‫ ݐ‬൐ ‫ݐ‬ଶ
where, Po is the nominal power of the array, mpv the rate at 750V
which array power ramps up (or down), mmax_ramp the maximum
allowable ramp time, and t1 and t2 the times at which maximum Inverter
Array
values are reached. The difference between available and

Bi-directional
delivered power is the power that should be stored or delivered Energy

by the storage elementοܲ ൌ ܲ௉௏ െ ܲ௢௨௧ . Taking this into
account the required energy storage size can be calculated by
integrating οܲ over the time period in which power should ramp
up resulting in (5), whit ko=60 which allows expressing the result
in Joules instead of watt minute.
௧మ
߱௥௔௧௘௖௢௠௣௘௡௦௔௧௜௢௡ ൌ ݇௢ න οܲ݀‫ ݐ‬ሾ‫ܬ‬ሿ
଴ interfacing strategy is more complex, it is more advantageous
Considering the ramp rate limits given above it can be
calculated that the amount of energy storage required to
compensate for the rapid ramping up and down is of 267 seconds
of nominal power.
A comparison of the required energy storage for each of the
three contingencies analyzed is shown in Table I. As can be seen
the case of power ramp compensation is the most energy
demanding, and thus, if a system has this amount of energy
stored it can supply power in all three cases. Therefore, the value
obtained for power ramp compensation can be used as a design
criterion for the required energy storage element resulting in an
element that can cover all the energy requirements of the system.
DC-DC
Storage
Figure 4. Energy storage addition through an auxiliary DC-DC converter
Alternatively, the energy storage element can be
incorporated directly at the common AC bus through an
(5) additional inverter as shown in fig 5. Although control of this
since energy storage can be concentrated into one block
facilitating the implementation of charging and discharging
strategies. Additionally, this approach has the advantage of
using a dedicated inverter to interface with the system, which
ensures that its operation won’t interfere with the optimal power
generation of the PV array. Moreover, this approach can be used
as an add-on solution for exiting PV plants, which is also
advantageous.
750V
Step-up
transformer
380/ 20kV

Inverter #1
Array #1 500 kW

TABLE I. ENERGY STORAGE REQUIREMENT COMPARISON

Type of contingency [J] [Wh]
Inertia emulation 1.2 Pnominal 3.34x10-4 Pnominal
Auxiliary
Inverter

Energy
Primary frequency control 45 Pnominal 12.5x10-3 Pnominal 750V Storage

Power ramp compensation 267 Pnominal 74.2x10-3 Pnominal

Inverter #2
Array #2 500 kW

Figure 5. Energy storage addition through an Inverter

879
As a result of the preceding analysis the second approach is
selected in this case for interfacing the energy storage element.
IV. ENERGY STORAGE BANK SELECTION AND DESIGN
To meet the energy storage requirements calculated in the
previous sections two types of storage elements can be used,
supercapacitors and batteries. Each of them has advantages and
disadvantages as can be seen from Table II. For example, the
use of supercapacitors to implement the energy storage bank
provides fast charge and discharge times due to their high-
power density which is 10 kW/kg, and an elevated cycle life
(≈1.000.000). However, their main disadvantages are their low
energy density which is around 10 Wh/kg, and reduced cell
voltage which is of 2.7 V. These characteristics make
supercapacitors a good solution for short term energy storage
ranging from several seconds to few minutes. On the other
hand, batteries are characterized for somewhat higher cell
voltage, which ranges from 1.2 V/cell for Nickel-Metal and
Nickel-Cadmium to 3.6 V/cell for Li-Ion. Moreover, the energy
density of batteries is higher, ranging from 20 Wh/kg for Lead-
acid to 150 Wh/kg Li-Ion, with a cycle life around 400-2500.
All these characteristics make batteries a good alternative for
long term energy storage.
Thus, for example for a system with a nominal power of 500
kW the energy requirement calculated using (5) considering
that the maximum ramp rate is of 10%/minute, and that the PV
plant has a ramp rate of 90%/minute, is of 133.500 [kJ]; which
translates to 37.1 kwh. If the energy storage bank is
implemented using Li-ion batteries which have a DOD of 80%
and a close cycle efficiency of 92%; and considering a bank
voltage of 750 V, results from (6) that the capacity of the
required battery bank is of 67.2 Ah.
V. CONTROL SCHEME
As discussed in the previous sections, to minimize the
impact on grid operation the power ramp rate of the PV plant
needs to be limited. This is done by storing excess energy in a
battery bank connected to the common AC bus when PV power
ramps up, and by delivering the sored energy when PV power
ramps down. To achieve this, the energy storage system
controller needs to detect the ramping up and down of the power
generated by the PV plant and to produce adequate switching
signals for the battery interfacing inverter. To achieve these
goals the control logic shown in fig 6 is proposed. In this
scheme power produced by the PV plant is calculated by means
of voltage and current of the PV array.

TABLE II. ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENT COMPARISON Measure IPV VPV

Type of energy Energy Power Cell Cycle life
storage density density voltage
[Wh/kg] [kW/kg] [V] Calculate P
Supercapacitor 10 10 2.7 1.000.000
Lead Acid battery 20 0.18 2.1 400 Calculate Discharge
Li-ion battery 150 0.34 3.6 2.500 'P/'t BESS
no

Taking into consideration these characteristics and the no |'P/'T|>

yes yes
Charge
'P/'T >0
energy storage requirements listed in the previous sections, it threshold BESS

becomes clear that for inertia emulation and primary frequency

control the use of supercapacitors as energy storage is a good
solution since these require fast response and are transients that
require between 1.2 and 45 seconds of nominal power injection.
However, their use for ramp rate regulation is not suitable, due
to their low energy density. Conversely, batteries are a good
option to meet the energy storage requirement set by ramp rate
regulation which demands several minutes of nominal power
worth of energy storage. In addition, the use of a battery can
also supply energy for the other two transients which are not of
daily occurrence. Therefore, for implementation of the required
energy storage, the use of a battery bank is the most convenient
option.
Sizing of the battery bank can be done in terms of the
required energy storage (Zrate_compensation), the bus voltage (Vbatt),
the maximum allowed deep of discharge (DOD) of the selected
battery type, and its round cycle efficiency (ߟ௕௔௧௧ ሻ, by using (6):
Figure 6. Control logic for detecting a ramp up or down event
The calculated power is then used to determine its rate of
change. If this value is larger than a preset threshold, then the
system classifies the situation as a ramping event which can
either be of up or down type. The decision of charging or
discharging the battery bank to compensate for this event is then
done depending on the sign of the calculated rate of change. If
the sign is positive the event corresponds to a ramping-up event;
and then, excess energy should be stored in the battery bank.
On the other hand, if a negative value is obtained, then the event
corresponds to a ramping-down, and energy stored in the
battery bank is injected to the system to regulate the ramp rate.
To implement this logic in the energy storage system the
following scheme is proposed.
Calculate 'P/'t Charge/Discharge
Power Calculation sign

߱௥௔௧௘̴௖௢௠௣௘௡௦௔௧௜௢௡ (6) comparator

‫ܥ‬௕௔௧௧௘௥௬̴௕௔௡௞ ൌ IPV sT |x| +
ߟ௕௔௧௧ ή ‫ ܦܱܦ‬ή ܸ௕௔௧௧ S Baterry enable
- Q
VPV 'P threshold delay R

Figure 7. Power ramp detection scheme

880
 In this scheme the instantaneous power produced by the PV the results are scalable to different time scales without mayor
plant is calculated in terms of the array voltage and current. The differences.
resulting power is then fed into a differentiator block to obtain Operation of the system without the energy storage is shown
its rate of change, and whose magnitude and sign are then in fig. 9. As can be observed under this condition power
calculated in the following blocks. These results indicate produced by the two arrays ramps up rapidly at a rate higher
whether the PV generator is increasing or decreasing its power than 90% per second. And further, in the same fashion, power
output, and thus determines if the battery must be charged or injected by the PV plant to the grid follows.
discharged. Next the resulting magnitude of the power rate of
change is compared against a preset threshold in the comparator Ppvo1 Ppvo2 -Pgrid
[W]
block to decide if the battery is to be used. If the comparison is
25000
positive, a pulse is generated to command the battery Pgrid
20000
interfacing converter to operate. The duration of the charge or
discharge of the battery is preset according to the slope of the 15000
Ppvo_1
ramp rate defined by the grid codes. The power that the battery 10000
Ppvo_2
converter must absorb during the charging process or to deliver 5000
during discharge is calculated by the subsystem shown in fig. 8. 0
0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3
In this scheme, when the battery enable signal is received from Time (s)
the power ramp detection block, the corresponding maximum
allowed ramp rate signal is activated. This signal is then Figure 9. Power generated by the PV array and injected to the grid without
multiplied by the nominal power of the PV plant to generate the energy storage
active power reference signal, which is in turn fed into the PQ Next the simulation was repeated, adding the battery bank
controller of the inverter used to interface the battery bank with and interface converter to the power conditioning system. Fig.
the AC bus. 10 shows the control signals obtained from the power ramp
detection scheme. As can be seen, as power produced by the PV
abc feedback array increases, its rate of change raises rapidly (fig 10b). When
currents
this value goes above a preset threshold level, which in this case
Q reference is of 400 W/sec, a ramp up event is detected (fig 10c). This
Ramp
reference
abc reference signal in turn sets up the gating signal to start charging the
PQ signals for
controller inverter y bank (fig.
battery g 10d).
Baterry modulation
enable
P reference

PV plant
nominal power

Figure 8. Reference generation for battery interfacing converter

VI. SIMULATION RESULTS

Simulations were carried out to verify the validity of the
energy storage sizing procedure and control structure
developed. For this, the test system shown in fig. 5 was
implemented in PSIM setting up two 10 kW PV arrays
connected to a common 380 V, 50 HZ AC bus by means of two
individual three phase inverters. Active and reactive power
injected by each individual inverter is regulated by a PQ
controller following the MPP of each array using the perturb
and observe algorithm. The energy storage element is
implemented by a 750 V battery bank connected to the common
AC bus through a three-phase inverter. The size of the battery
is calculated according to (5) and (6) which results in 3.22 Ah.
Further, connection to the grid is done through a step-up
transformer with a Y-' configuration.
Due to computational limitations, simulation time is limited
to a few seconds instead of minutes. Thus, the ramp rate of the
Figure 10. Power ramp detection control signals a) PV array power, b) power
power injected to the grid is set to 8.8% per second. However, rate of change, c) ramp up detection, d) battery charge enable signal

881
 Operation of the system under this condition is shown in
figure 11. As can be observed power generated by the arrays
follows the same fast rate of change as in the previous operation
condition exhibiting a ramp rate higher than 90%. On the other
hand, power injected to the grid follows the preset ramp rate of
8.8% per second. The difference between generated power and
delivered power is absorbed by the battery bank, which initially
absorbs all the power produced by the PV array. Moreover, as
power delivered to the grid increases, power absorbed by the
battery bank is reduced until it reaches zero.
[W] Ppvo1 Ppvo2 P_batt -Pgrid
30K Pgrid
20K
10K
0K
-10K
-20K Ppvo_1 and Ppvo2
-30K P batt
0 5 10 15
Time (s)
Figure 11. System operation under PV array up and down ramps.
PV plant ramping down process can also be observed from
fig. 11. As power produced by the PV array drops quickly,
energy stored in the battery bank is delivered to regulate the
ramping down of the power conditioning system to an 8.8% per
second rate.
VII. CONCLUSION
PV power plants are limited by the instantaneous power
produced, and therefore do not have overload capability or
inertia as conventional rotating generator do. In addition, PV
plants can exhibit rapid ramp up and down power
characteristics which can be several times faster than
conventional power plants. All these characteristics interfere
with normal grid operation, and can impact its stability and
reliability, especially in the case of high power PV generation
plants.
It is shown in this paper that to mitigate these issues, the
addition of energy storage elements to the power conditioning
structure of the PV power plant becomes necessary. Moreover,
a method to calculate and properly size the required energy
storage element is presented. Further, a control scheme to
manage the charge and discharge of the energy storage bank to
limit the PV plant power ramp rate is introduced.
The validity of the of the proposed method is verified by
computer simulations, showing that it can effectively limit the
power ramp rates to 8.8% per minute. Thus, achieving the
recommended values set by the industry.
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