Combine Talhar Part

Chapter 5
Commercial and industrial application of hybrid stepper motor and Control
5.1 Applications
Hybrid stepper motor (HSM) drives exhibit advantages like open loop position and speed control
capabilities, high torque density and lower cost with respect to other brushless servo alternatives.
They are used in several industrial applications, mainly for positioning applications. However, the
typical performance of conventional open loop stepper motor drives is limited, making them
unsuitable where high speeds, fast dynamics and smooth motion is required. In fact due to its inertia,
the rotor oscillates around the final position before stabilizing. In addition, they are also easily prone
to stall (i.e. the motor can lose steps if the variation of the load torque is fast) and usually produce
strong audible noise. Due to the availability of lower step resolutions 0.9°, 1.8° or 3.6°, the standard
being 1.8°, hybrid stepper motor exhibit high static and dynamic torque characteristics ( response for
starting, stopping, and reversing )[5]. Hence, hybrid stepper motors are used in various industrial
and domestic applications like,
 Floppy disk drive
 Automatic Sun-Tracking System
 Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor
 Smart Dish
 CNC Machines
 Motorized Moving Stage
 Delta 3D Printer
 Inkjet Printer
Ref[5]:https://www.electricaldeck.com/2021/01/hybrid-stepper-motor-construction-working-
applications.html
5.1.1 Floppy disk drive
A floppy disk drive (FDD), or floppy drive, is a hardware device that reads data storage information.
The stepper motor used for running the disk in the floppy disk drive are generally hybrid stepper
motor. It is used for rotating the disk in clock-wise and anticlockwise[5.1]. When the floppy disk
drive is first powered up, the rotary actuator and the index sensor both work together to place the
read/write heads over track 0 (starting track on a floppy disk). Once the sensor has reached this
starting track, the computer is now ready to retrieve or write files onto the floppy disk. As the drive
begins to receive information from the computer, or from the disk when retrieving files, the rotary
actuator moves the suspension arm out track by track depending on the number of step signals it
receives from the computer system. It is very interesting to note that the motor that moves the heads
is an open loop system – contrary to hard disk drives, which use a closed loop system , i.e., it
doesn’t know if it positioned the heads on the right location! When the floppy disk drive is first
accessed, the heads are retracted down to track zero, so the controller (located on the motherboard,
not the one inside the drive) knows that the heads are in the correct place. Floppy disk drives have
two motors, one for moving the heads which is a hybrid stepper motor and another for rotating the
disk at a fixed speed.[5.2]
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Figure 5.1.1.1: Position of read head relative Figure 5.1.1.2: Read write element used to
to disk track. read a floppy disk.
[5.1]Ref:http://ronslaunch.blogspot.com/2010/11/how-to-use-floppy-drive-stepper-motor.html
Figure5.1.1.1Ref:
http://www.mit.edu/course/2/2.972/www/reports/floppy_drive_read_write/index.jpg
Figure5.1.1.2Ref:http://www.mit.edu/course/2/2.972/www/reports/floppy_drive_read_write/hdsid6
40.gif
[5.2]Ref: https://www.hardwaresecrets.com/anatomy-of-a-floppy-disk-drive/
5.1.2 Automatic Sun-Tracking System
Microprocessor controlled sun-tracking units use mathematical formula to predict the sun location
and need not sense the sunlight. To determine position, they use hybrid stepper motors. The
principle involved in the design of the automatic tracking system is to sense the sun light with two
LDRs. The differential signal representing the angular error of the panel is used to rotate the panel in
such a way that the angular error is minimized.
Figure 5.1.2.1: Sun pointing actuator principles. Figure 5.1.2.2: Circuit diagram of
the
LDR .
Figure 5.1.2.1 shows the schematic diagram of the differential light sensor mechanism which is used
to detect the direction of the sun. Four LDRs are used as the light sensor unit and they are fixed on a
four sided pyramid structure and connected to the microcontroller. As shown in Figure 5.1.2.2,
when both LDRs are equally illuminated, their respective resistances are the same and hence the
voltage applied across them is equal. When any of the LDRs falls in shadow, the voltage applied
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across them is n ot the same and hence the microcontroller activates the motor in such direction to
bring both LDRs under even illumination. Orrientation drive units in dynamic sun tracker are
responsible for positioning the solar array normal to the sun for extracting maximum power. These
mechanisms consist of a one-axis or two-axis gimbals, and a motor/controller drive system. The
drive motors are configured to provide sufficient torque to autonomously track the sun during the
arrays life as well as to reach a faster slew rate when desired. The gimbals mechanism must provide
the required strength and stiffness to accommodate all array loads. Drive motors for these devices
have evolved throughout the years. The positioning systems have been traditionally implemented
using DC motors due to the relative ease in controlling them. This ease of control is due to the fact
that the system equations describing a (separately excited) DC motor are linear. However, there are
still disadvantages in using such motors for positioning systems. In particular, for high speed
repetitive motion, the brushes are subject to excessive mechanical wear and consequently lead to a
decrease in performance. Also, due to the repetitive motion there is a problem of armature winding
overheating. Since the winding are on the rotor, the heat does not have a direct path to the outside
environment, but instead must be dissipated through the stator. Finally, the torque to inertia ratio is
relatively low, again due to having the armature winding on the rotor. For the reasons just
enumerated, the positioning system is implemented using hybrid stepper motors. Hybrid stepper
motors are the ideal choice for those applications where power is small and position control is
required to be sharp and fast. Due to the lack of rotor windings, the rotor weight, and inertia are
highly reduced. Moreover, reliability, lack of contact aging, mechanical ruggedness, and availability
of torque at zero speed are attractive features for aerospace and servo applications. The
microcontroller in this system is used to detect quickly the location of the sun at any time by
comparing the voltage drop on each LDR, drive the system to the correct position in shortest way
and smallest time control the rotation of each motor and verify at each sample time that the system
is at correct position[5.3].
[5.3]Ref:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330209474_Analysis_and_Control_of_Hybrid_S
tepper_Motor_for_Automatic_Sun-Tracking_System
5.1.3 Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor
Electrohydraulic valves are commonly used in many branch of industries, such as mining or plastic
processing. They can be controlled by the low value power electrical signals and produce high
forces. For this reason, they represent a serious alternative to electric and pneumatic drives.
Hydraulic drives are controlled by valves with many types of valves in the control stages, most of
the currently used servo drives based on the proportional valves and servo valves. Because of the
specific design and precision of the prefabricated elements used in the construction of the servo
valves, they are characterized by a high price. For this reason, they are designed for the most
demanding applications, such as, for example, the aero-control systems in airplanes. In less
demanding applications requiring the use of hydraulic systems with less dynamics, proportional
valves are typically used. Sliders in this
type of valves are most often positioned by the cooperation between electromagnets and springs.
The
use of a hybrid stepper motor as an alternative to electromagnets.
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Figure 5.1.3.1: Structure of the valve
The stepper motor was connected to the spool by the flexible coupling bellows (Figure 5.1.3.1). This
ensures the rotation and axial translation of spool placed in the casing. The window opening is
relative to angular motor position and pitch of thread. The rotation determines direction of spool
translation and opening of valve gaps. Motor working in open loop control system. The resolution
was scaled to 1000 pulses/rev. The motor is equipped with additional incremental encoder, to
protect the system against loss of step and to determination of the base position in the event of
emergency power off. The picture below (Figure 5.1.3.2) presents a picture of the assembled valve.
The use of the bellows coupling marked in the drawing ensures the concentricity of the motor shaft
and the valve slide. In addition, it is not susceptible in the rotary axis, precisely transferring the
entire beveling torque[5.4].

Figure 5.1.3.2: View of valve with hybrid stepping motor
MODEL OF THE VALVE WITH STEPPER MOTOR
In order to understand the valve's operation, its mathematical model was built. The model is divided
into two part: hydraulic and stepper motor. The mathematical model of the stepper motor is built
based on following formula:
e A =−k m ω sin ( N r . θ ) … … … … .5 .1 .3.1
e B =k m ω cos ( N r .θ ) … … … … .5.1 .3 .2
v A −Ri A −e A )
i A=∫ (( L )
dt … … … … … .5 .1.3 .3
( v B−Ri B −e B )
i B =∫ ( L ) dt … … … … ….5 .1 .3 .4
dω
J + Bω=T e … … … … … ..5.1.3.5
dt
4
eA eB
(
T e =−k m i A −
Rm ) (
sin ( N r . θ ) +k m i B − )
Rm
cos ( N r .θ )−T d sin ( 4 N r .θ ) … … … … ..5.1.3.6
dθ
=ω …………..5.1.3.7
dt
where: e A and e B - the back electric and magnetic fields induced in the A and B phase windings, i A
andi B - the A and B phase winding currents, v A and v B - the A and B phase winding voltages, k m- the
motor torque constant, N r - the number of teeth on each of the two rotor poles, R - the winding
resistance, L - the winding inductance, Rm - the magnetizing resistance, B - the rotational damping, J
- the inertia, ω - the rotor speed, θ - the rotor angle, T e - the generated torque,T d - the detent torque.
The hydraulic part of the model include the square root characteristics of the flow through the gap,
displacement of the slider and flow coefficient which is dependent on the density of the used oil and
the Reynolds number .The flow through the valve can be described by the following formula:
x>0,
Q a= K q √( P −P (t ) ) . x ( t ) … … … ….5 .1 .3.8
0i a
Q b= K q √( P ( t ) ) . x ( t ) … … … … … .5 .1.3 .9
b
X<0,
Q a= K q √( P ( t ) ) . x ( t ) … … … … … .5 .1.3 .10
a
Q b= K q √( P −P (t ) ) . x ( t ) … … … … … …5.1 .3 .11
0i b
where: x – displacement of the slider,Q a – flow through the A gap,Q b– flow through the B gap, K q –
flow factor, Pa , Pb– pressure in A and B gap, P0 – supply pressure on valve input port Taking into
i
account the inertia and pressure drop the supply pressure is equal to:
P0
P0 =¿ ……………5.1.3.12
i
Ts+1
where: T – time constant, P0– supply pressure in output of the hydraulic power supply.
The Matlab Simulink model was divided on the hydraulic and electrical part. Electrical part consist
hybrid stepper motor and the controller. Elements marked as: Stepper motor controller and Stepper
motor are Subsystems described by means of equations [5.1.3.1-7]. The digital input pulses get on
step and direction inputs provides open-loop control. If a stepper motor with an encoder is used, it is
possible to use a closed feedback loop. However, due to the limited speed of the motor motion and
the selection of it in such a way that the torque exceeds the torque required for the displacement and
displacement of the slider, the risk of losing steps is minimized. The motor was powered by
24VDC[5.4].
5
Smart Dish Controller Hybrid
Software(Java (Arduino stepper Dish
program) Nano) motors
Figure 5.1.3.3: Matlab Simulink simulation model of the valve.
[5.4] Ref: https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.5066530
5.1.4 Smart Dish
Smart Dish is a Dish which connected with two hybrid stepper motors, Arduino and stepper motor
drivers. It adjust its position according to the satellite’s position to receive the signal, the Arduino
takes the data from the software then processes it and applies it on the hardware (steppers) ; which
makes the steppers moves to reach the desired point. The Smart Dish plays the role of the human in
adjusting the Dish’s position or angle, which gives the best signal from the satellite without making
an effort. The steppers are in two axis (x,y) so the Dish moves Vertically and Horizontally - the
steppers are connected with drivers that’s form a link between the steppers and the controller.
Figure 5.1.4.1: represent the system block diagram
In this block data comes from the software as input to the controller, the controllers receives the data
and processes it then applies it on the steppers (hardware), according to this the steppers operates
and moves the Dish to the desired location that user had defined it and this preform the output of this
block diagram[5.5].
Smart Dish Software

It’s a software written by java program language. It consist of two main parts:
- Graphical User Interface (GUI)
- Back End
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

It’s the part of the software that appears on the screen to the user, it form the shape of the software.
It is also consist of three parts :
- Work space
- Buttons
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- Signal columns
Work space
Figure5.1.4.2: represent graphical user interface
It‟s the display screen for the software that shows the actual position of the Dish and the desired
position. For example our actual position in the point (10, 20) in figure (5.1.4.2) where 10 is the
position of the first stepper an x-axis and 20 is the position of the second stepper in y-axis and our
desired position on the point (20,20) , so we need to move our first stepper in x-axis to the point 20 ,
to make our Dish reach the desired position in the point (20,20) [5.5].
Buttons
In (GUI) we have 6 buttons (U→Up, D→Down, L→Left, R→Rright, A→Auto, M→Manual)
theses are control buttons which control in the position of the hardware (steppers).
Figure 5.1.4.3: represent buttons in smart dish software
A→Auto
When enabling this button the rest of the buttons are disabled and our steppers moves automatically
to our desired position when locating the point in the work space.
M→Manual
Signal columns
When enabling this button all the buttons are enabled exept the (A) button, and moving to our
desired position becomes manually.
There is two columns for the signal of the Dish – one represents the strength of the signal and the
other represents the quality of the signal.
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Figure 5.1.4.4: represent signal columns
Back End
Second part of the software is back end – the code that operates all the function in (GUI) – and
without it the program won’t function. In most of the software of the programs the (GUI) and the
back end are written in different language , here both of them are written in java language[5.5].
[5.5]Ref: Saleh, Akram Yassir Mohammed Ahmed; Saad, Alamin Omer Alamin; Ahmed,

Mohamed Abdulrahman Salih; sir elkhatem, Wael Nasr Eldin; Supervisor, -Gaffer Babiker. “A
Stepper Motor Application in Smart Dish”,1 November 2018
5.1.5 CNC Machines
Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) Machines have been historically and primarily developed
to achieve accurate and precise positioning of tool and work-piece in relation to each other. This
whole positioning system is simply based on the coordinates of the machine work space or envelop.
In order to achieve these coordinates for the positioning or movement of the tool and / or machine
table (or work-piece), a CNC machine provide commands to the various electrical drives through
various CNC codes and data supplied by the operator in the form a part-program. Thus, the accuracy
and precision of these CNC machines and hence the performance of the CNC machines is primarily
dependent on the accurate and precise movement of the tool and/or machine table (or work-piece)
generated by these electrical drives and associated mechanisms. These movements of tool or work-
piece takes place along some axis of the CNC machine and thus the various electrical drives
affecting these movements are referred as axes drives. For axes drives, the CNC machines mainly
use two types of motors viz. Stepper Motors and Servo Motors. Each of these classes of motors has
several variants and each have their advantages and disadvantages. Servomotors are not a specific
class of motor although the term servomotor is often used to refer to a motor suitable for use in
closed-loop control systems that require feedback mechanisms. A stepper motor is a pulse-driven
motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in steps and is widely used in low cost, open
loop position control systems that require no feedback mechanisms. In CNC system a dedicated
computer is used to perform all the essential functions as per the executive program stored in the
computer memory. The system directs commands to servo drives to drive the servo motor & other
output devices like relays, solenoids, etc. to initiate the operations such as motor starting &
stopping, coolant on & off, tool changing, pallet changing, etc. and other miscellaneous functions.
Once the system gives, it becomes necessary to ensure that the particular function has been
completed. This is done by “Feed Back Devices.” Continuous feedback device like linear scale,
encoder, resolver, etc. are used as position feedback of the motor. Some sensors like proximity
switch, limit switch, pressure switch, flow switch, and float switch, etc. are used as feedback devices
to monitor the different operations. Thus all operations of the CNC machine are monitored
continuously with appropriate feedback devices. So that CNC system is called as “Closed Loop”
system. In case of failure in any failure feedback, the system generates a “Fault Message”. In its
most simplified explanation, CNC takes a series of numbers, sorts them out, and converts them into
electrical signals that move motors. The series of numbers comes from a program. Humans are
able to read a program because it is made up of letters, numbers, and symbols that we are familiar
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with. Machines are able to read a program because it is stored digitally in binary form. That is,
each of the letters, numbers, and symbols are made up of ones and zeros. When the machine “sees”
a series of ones and zeros that fit a particular pattern, it initiates a pre-determined sequence of
actions[5.6][5.7].
Figure 5.1.5.1: Basic CNC Schematic
[5.6]Ref:http://www.manufacturinget.org/home/4476-computer-aided-manufacturing/introduction-
to-cnc/
[5.7]Ref:https://www.cncwmt.com/latest-news/what-is-the-working-principle-of-a-cnc-and-types-
of-cnc-controllers/
Figure 5.1.5.1 Ref: http://www.manufacturinget.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/fig1.png
5.1.6 Motorized Moving Stage
A motorized moving stage with submicron precision is needed to support cellular manipulation e.g.
in vitro fertilization in cattle breeding industry. an automatic moving stage prototype which has two
degrees of freedom using hybrid stepper motor connected mechanically with rails of the microscope
moving stage. Microscope stage movement is fully controlled using main software which connected
logically to ATMEGA 8 through serial communication chip proxy FT232RL. Cellular manipulation
in assisted reproduction requires supporting equipment to help livestock industry researcher and
practitioner performs gamete cells micromanipulation with less error. The presence of submicron
precision automatic moving stage in livestock breeding industry which can be fully controlled
automatically using software is expected to reduce gamete fusion failure probability in assisted
fertilization.
THEORETICAL BASIS
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Hybrid Linear Actuator (HLA)
HLA is a linear actuator consisting of hybrid stepper motor with extended rotator shaft paired with
screw cap to convert rotational movement into linear movement. Figure 5.1.6.1 shows the physical
appearance of HLA external type.
Figure 5.1.6.1: Physical appearance of Figure 5.1.6.2: Converting Mechanism

of
HLA external type. Rotary Movement into Translation
Movement in HLA.
Figure 5.1.6.2 shows converting mechanism from rotational movement into translational movement
in HLA threaded shaft. Assuming all of rotational steps can be perfectly transformed into linear
steps, amount of the linear displacement can be calculated using
ι= ( DN ) n … … … … … ..5.1 .6 .1
r
ι is amount of linear displacement came from rotational movement, D is distance between

corresponding screw “teeth” (see Figure 5.1.6.2), is number of full turning steps are needed by
system to make one full rotation (360∘) and is number of steps generated from stepper motor.
Amount of can be calculated using
360∘
N= ……………….5.1.6.2
u
Equation (5.1.6.2) shows that depends on u value which represents smallest full step resolution
which can be generated by stepper motor without has a slip and without microstep driving
emulation[5.8].
ATMEGA 8 Microcontroller
10
Microcontroller is electronic devices which can be programmed to execute specific application
routine. Physically, microcontroller is an integrated circuit consisting of main processor, Random
Access Memory (RAM), permanent memory (ROM) and input/output pin which can be utilized to
make communication with external devices. ATMEGA 8 is an 8-bit microcontroller produced by
ATMEL Corp. and come with 8 Kbyte Flash PEROM (Programmable and Erasable Read Only
Memory) used to store main code. ATMEGA 8 processor can work up to 16 MHz clock frequencies
and designed using RISC (Reduced Instruction-Set of Computing) processor architecture named
ATMEL AVR ® [5.8].
CONSTRUCTION OF MICROSTEP DRIVING MECHANISM
The single axis model of micro-step driver consists of four main parts: displacement-to-pulse
accumulation converter to translate set point displacement into its associative pulse amount, pulse
generator, micro-step movement controller and hybrid linear actuator which driven by hybrid
stepper motor to handle micro-step’s movement on each stage axis. Movement control mechanism is
designed without feedbacks assuming HLA is loaded under its holding torque limit to avoid any
slips step. Figure 5.1.6.3 shows micro-step movement control algorithm. Motorized moving stage
consists of software and hardware parts which can be communicated each other through USB
(Universal Serial Bus) as shown in Figure 5.1.6.4. Main software is used to make set point input for
control system, set HLA’s motion speed and calculate associative amount of pulse needed to make
precision movement using constants calibration which has been recorded in software code.
Hardware is used to generate real pulse signal as ordered from software and realize it into physical
movement steps with submicron precision. An anti-backlash mechanism is attached on HLA to
minimize translational hysteresis emerging at movement conversion process as shown in Figure
5.1.6.5.
Anti-backlash mechanism using spring elasticity properties to give initial force on a pair of linear
actuator nut to reduce spatial clearances area which occurs in mechanical contact area between
threaded shaft’s surface and nut inner surface. This anti-backlash mechanism has been built to
increase HLA’s precision movement. HLA is driven by two phases-hybrid stepper motor with
dimension code: NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) 11 as shown in Fig.41.
Stepper motor has working voltage 4.0V/0.95A per phase and has full turning step resolution
1.8°±5%. Movement converter attached on HLA’s shaft with theoretical value
∂ι
3.175 µm per full step ( 1.8∘ ) [5.8].
∂ nr
11
Figure 5.1.6.3: Control Algorithm of Single Figure 5.1.6.4: Block Diagram of Motorized
Axis Motorized Moving Stage. Moving Stage Control.
Figure 5.1.6.5: Anti-Backlash Principle
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Figure 5.1.6.6: HLA Installation on Microscope Moving Stage (X-Axis and Y-Axis)
Each step movement of HLA’s motor is controlled using micro-step driver which pre-programmed
using de-numerator constant value as listed in Table I. Theoretically, micro-step driver can handle
stepper motor current up to 1.5 A per phase at maximum working frequencies (20 KHz). Figure
5.1.6.7 shows HLA installation in XZS HLA-107BN biological light-microscope.
Table 1. Implications of De-numerator Constant Setting upon Linear Resolution Movement
De-numerator Constant (Sub-Division) ∂ι

Theoretical Value:
∂ nr
(µm/ pulse)
1 3.1750
2 1.5875
4 0.7938
8 0.3969
16 0.1984
32 0.0992
64 0.0496
Figure 5.1.6.7: HLA Assembled in XZS-107BN Stage Figure 5.1.6.8: HLA’s Limit
Switch
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Red circle in Figure 5.1.6.9 shows a limit switch providing emergency stop for XY movement. It
used to make emergency stop and set zero point reference for each axis. Movement restriction
procedure is necessary to protect HLA from overdriving which potentially damaging mechanical
structures. To get near-integer value of step movement but still provides sufficient torque, stepper
motor driver is programmed at 16 sub-division setting value with maximum operating frequency
18,519 KHz (pulse period 54 µs). According to Table I, 16 sub-division setting value will produce
3,675 µm/sec with 0.198 μm/step resolution on each axis. Its driver setting allows HLA to make 1
μm (approx.) displacement using 5 pulses[5.8].
[5.8]Ref: Tatag Lindu Bhakti, Adhi Susanto, Paulus Insap Santosa , Diah Tri Widayati,” Design of
Motorized Moving Stage with Submicron Precision”, International Journal of Engineering Research
and Applications (IJERA), Vol. 2, Issue 6, November- December 2012, pp.674-678
5.1.7 Delta 3D Printer
The next phase of industrialization in the world is the use of 3D printers. A 3D printer is unlike the
common paper printers that are used to print graphics on a flat surface (2D printing). On a 3D
printer, the object is printed in three dimensions (x, y, z). The object printed is built up layer by layer
and hence has a volume. The whole process is called 3D printing. 3D printing is an additive
manufacturing technique and often used in the development of product prototypes and custom parts.
The three dimensions (x, y, z), useful at the beginning and the end of a production line are equally
employed in 3D printers. 3D printers are used for rapid prototyping, bio-printing of prosthetic limbs,
and the printing of apparels in the automotive, construction, and robot industry. These 3D printers
give some flexibility to designers and promote the Do-It-Yourself (DIY) culture in the maker
community. However, most of the locally made 3D printers are Cartesian 3D printers. Cartesian 3D
printers are robust and accurate; however, they are characterized by a slower print rate and often
highly restricted in terms of print height or volume. Cartesian 3D printers are by design not meant
for tall prints as it becomes unstable leaving discontinuous gradients on tall printouts. The Delta 3D
printer uses the Cartesian coordinates; however, linear motion is employed indirectly in the
deposition of print filament. In addition, the three arms move to a coordinate by changing the angle (
∅) each parallelogram makes with the vertical axes . This angle is shown in Figure 5.1.7.1. The
Delta 3D printer is faster, has a steady bed, and can produce tall print dimensions due to its design.
This 3D printer was designed using locally salvaged photocopier machine parts and 3D printed
components for the assembly. Figure 5.1.7.1 shows the Delta 3D printer motion structure.
Figure 5.1.7.2 shows a universal block diagram of the Delta 3D printer. The printing process begins
with a power supply to the control board which in turn distributes it amongst the system
components, and the print commands are also sent to the control board. The control board instructs
the heating elements to melt the filament (printing material). With the help of the extruder motor
assembly, a controlled amount of filament is deposited in a semiliquid form onto the build platform.
This also controls the angle (∅) of each arm parallelogram to realise the shape of the 3D object.
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Figure 5.1.7.1:
Delta printer motion structure
Figure
5.1.7.2: Block diagram of the delta 3D printer.
All these mechanisms work together to aid the printer in the following x, y, and z coordinates to
form the 3D object. The display helps the user to see the progress made for an issued print as well as
for menu selection. The cooling fans assist in keeping the control board cool as well as some parts of
the extrusion mechanism. It also cools the printout as the printing is ongoing. Figure 5.1.7.3 displays
a 3D model of the Delta printer with the various parts labelled [5.9].
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Figure 5.1.7.3: 3D model of the Delta 3D printer.
System Operation
The Delta 3D printer has three similar towers or axes. The three coordinates axes are denoted A, B,
and C. Each tower is made up of a square tube and a carriage that runs up and down the column.
Each
carriage has two parallel arms of the same length that connect to the effector platform (extruder
holder).To ensure that the arms are parallel, the connection points on each carriage and the effector
platform should be at the same distance apart. The parallel arms of the carriages connect to the
effector platform to force the plane of the effector to be parallel to the plane of the bed. Unlike the
Cartesian, the axes X, Y, and Z cannot be easily identified. However, the origin of these Cartesian
coordinates is the center of the Delta printer. The view from the top in Figure 5.1.7.4 shows
the X and Y axes on the bed. Each tower is situated at equal distance from the origin and 120° apart.
The coordinates X and Y are obtained from the synchronized movement of the three pairs of arms
for the nozzle to get to a specific point. The Z coordinate, on the other hand, is achieved when all
carriages move up or down. Its origin is achieved when the nozzle touches the bed. All this is
achieved through commands that the controller uses in controlling the position of each of the
carriages .Figure 5.1.7.4 shows the top view of the design. The movement of the carriage is achieved
with the help of a NEMA 17 hybrid stepper motor, a pulley, a belt, and an idler. All parts assembled
produce a tower and this is depicted in Figure 5.1.7.5 [5.9].
Figure 5.1.7.4: Top view of the proposed design.
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Figure 5.1.7.5: Tower assembly.
Extrusion Mechanism: The 3D printing technology used is Fusion Deposition Modelling (FDM).
The extrusion mechanism also uses a NEMA 17 motor to pull the filament in a controlled manner.
In order to reduce the weight on the hub and arms, the Bowden extrusion mechanism is adopted.
With this type of extruder, the heavy motor assembly sits on the top plate and only the hot end and
cooling fans sit on the hub. The Bowden extruder motor assembly is shown in Figure 5.1.7.6. Part of
the extrusion mechanism is relocated by moving the motor and motor mount away from the hot end.
This reduces the weight of the moving parts, leaving only the hot end to be on the hub. Accurate
printouts and higher print speeds are achieved since less momentum needs to be subsumed when
changing directions .A Teflon tube is connected from the Bowden extruder motor assembly to the
hot end to direct the filament flow. Figure 5.1.7.7 shows the extruder head assembly[5.9].
Figure 5.1.7.6: Bowden extruder motor assembly
17
Figure 5.1.7.7: Extruder head assembly.
printing Algorithms: The flowchart depicted in Figure 5.1.7.8 is the algorithm used for the 3D
printer’s functionality. When a print command is initiated, the printer initiates heating of the
extruder. As the printer heats up the extruder by applying 12 V to the heating cartridge, it loads up
the coordinates for the first layer of the print into its volatile memory. When the optimum extruder
temperature is reached, that is, 185 to 200°C for poly-lactic acid (PLA) and 220 to 240°C for
acrylobutadiene styrene (ABS), the printer then homes the extruder nozzle. The home position
corresponds to x = 0.00, y = 0.00, and z = MAX coordinates. Mechanical end-stops are employed to
energize hybrid stepper motors once the limit is attained. After homing the extruder nozzle, the
printer moves the various motors to the corresponding coordinates whilst depositing the filament.
After the first layer, the printer prints the next layer using the coordinates available in its memory
from the G code file. When the last layer is printed, the control board shuts off the extruder, that is,
0 V is applied to the extruder. It then moves the extruder nozzle to the z-axis maximum position
with the help of the end-stops and the printing process is terminated. For printing of ABS, heat bed
is used to prevent the warping of the printout. In this case, the heat bed is also heated during the start
of the print to optimum temperature (90°C to 110°C) and shut off after printing the last layer. The
heated bed has a spring spacer that allows for bed levelling and prevents the transfer of heat from
the heated bed to the plywood base plate. Figure 5.1.7.8 shows the flowchart of the printing
algorithm.Programming of the Control Board: The Delta printer is programmed with Marlin
firmware. The Marlin firmware is an open-source firmware based on Sprinter and grbl. The
firmware is calibrated to suit the purpose of any Delta printer. The Marlin firmware makes it
possible to choose between various electronics used in making 3D printers to enable good
communication between software and hardware[5.9].
18
Figure 5.1.7.8 Flowchart of the printing algorithm.
[5.9] Ref: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/je/2019/5175323/

Fig44 Ref: https://static-01.hindawi.com/articles/je/volume-2019/5175323/figures/5175323.fig.00
1.svgz
Fig45 Ref: https://static-01.hindawi.com/articles/je/volume-2019/5175323/figures/51753 23.fig.00
5.svgz
6.svgz
7.svgz
8.svgz
Fig49 Ref: https://static-01.hindawi.com/articles/je/volume-
2019/5175323/figures/5175323.fig.00
9.svgz
0.svgz
Fig51 Ref: https://static-01.hindawi.com/articles/je/volume-
2019/5175323/figures/5175323.fig.001
1.svgz
19
5.1.8 Inkjet Printer
Inkjet printers are most popular printers for home and small scale offices as they have a reasonable
cost and a good quality Inkjet printer of printing as well. A typical inkjet printer can print with a
resolution of more than 300 dpi and some good quality inkjet printers are able to produce full
colored hard copies at 600 dpi. An inkjet printer is made of the following parts:
Print-head – It is the heart of the printer which holds a series a nozzles which sprays the ink drops
over the paper.
Ink cartridge – It is the part that contains the ink for printing. Generally monochrome (black &
white) printers contain a black colored ink cartridges and a color printer contains two cartridges –
one with black ink and other with primary colors (cyan, magenta and yellow).
Hybrid stepper motor – It is housed in the printer to move the printer-head and ink cartridges back
and forth across the paper.
Stabilizer bar – A stabilizer bar is used in printer to ensure the movement of print-head is précised
and controlled over the paper.
Belt – A belt is used to attach the print-head with the hybrid stepper motor.
Paper Tray – It is the place where papers are placed to be printed.
Rollers – Printers have a set of rollers that helps to pull paper from the tray for printing purpose.
Paper tray stepper motor- another stepper motor is used to rotate the rollers in order to pull the
paper in the printer.
Control Circuitry – The control circuit takes the input from the computer and by decoding the
input controls all mechanical operation of the printer.
20
Figure 5.1.8.1: Inkjet Printer inner parts
Similar to other printers, inkjet printers have a ‘print-head’ as a key element. The print-head has
many tiny nozzles also called as jets. When the printer receives the command to print something, the
print-head starts spraying ink over the paper to form the characters and images [5.10]. There are
mainly two technologies that are used to spray the ink by nozzles. These are:
Thermal Bubble – This technology is also known as bubble jet is used by various manufacturers
like Canon and Hewlett Packard. When printer receives commands to print something, the current
flows through a set of tiny resistors and they produce heat. This heat in turn vaporizes the ink to
create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink moves out of the nozzle and gets deposited
over the paper. Then the bubble collapses and due to the vacuum it pulls more ink from ink
cartridge. There are generally 300 to 600 nozzles in a thermal printer head which can spray the ink
simultaneously[5.10].
Piezoelectric – In the piezoelectric technology, a piezo crystal is situated at the end of the ink
reservoir of a nozzle. When printer receives the command to print, an electric charge is applied to
the crystal which in turn starts vibrating and a small amount of ink is pushed out of the nozzle.
When the vibration stops the nozzle pulls some more ink from the cartridge to replace the ink
sprayed out. This technology is patented by Seiko Epson Corporation[5.10].
[5.10]Ref: http://enggematerial.blogspot.com/2015/08/different-types-of-printer-with-their.html
5.2 Hybrid stepper motor control
Different types of the control techniques have been widely used both in open and closed loop for the
hybrid stepper motor. HSM is mostly operated in open loop due to its unique structure. In the open
loop structure, the HSM often uses about 50% of its nominal torque since a large torque reserve is
required to overcome any load variation. In this classical old control technique no feedback is used,
however the motor must respond to each excitation change that produces large overshoot and
resonance which effects the performance .The closed-loop method was first given in 1970’s in order
to achieve positioning accuracy and decrease their sensitivity to load disturbances. To this date
hybrid stepper motors are used with closed loop control techniques to achieve high-precision in
operation despite of the mechanical changes it went through. The microprocessors are employed for
the control of hybrid stepper motors which are generally used as position actuators. Some other
hybrid stepper Motor Applications are to drive floppy discs, numerical control of machine tools, X-
Y plotters etc. The ease with which these can be controlled using microprocessor has made them
very popular in the applications cited above. The speed and position control using the hybrid stepper
motor can be achieved without expensive feedbacks. A typical hybrid stepper motor has several
stator phases. The rotor is a toothed structure. Energizing the phases in a sequence by direct current
imparts the rotor a discrete step motion. The resolution of a typical motor is good if only it has large
number of teeth on stator and rotor. The phases of a hybrid stepper motor are excited by pulses, each
pulse being capable of providing rotor motion in smaller angles. The angular rotation depends on the
steps of the motor per revolution. If a motor has 400 steps/rev, the angle by which it moves in a step
is 0.9°.Electronic circuits are used to excite the stator phases from dc supply. Now a days,
21
semiconductor devices such as thyristors and transistors are slowly replacing the mechanical and
electronic controls using vacuum tubes. The necessary logic which was expensive even with the
introduction of semiconductor devices and electronic circuits has become easy and economical
using microprocessors and digital circuits. The microprocessor has actually made a hybrid stepper
motor and its control economically feasible.
5.2.1Open loop control
Open loop control of hybrid stepper Motor Applications is the simplest method accomplished by
means of step command pulses obtained from an external source. The motor is excited by these
pulses and is expected to follow every pulse. This kind of control of hybrid stepper motor is very
attractive and has wide acceptance in applications of speed and position control. The method has
economic advantages. However it has its own limitations. The response of the motor to a given input
command may become oscillatory or even unstable in some speed ranges. The control of the motor
is not very fast due to this behaviour. To make the motor widely applicable it is necessary to
improve the performance. A Stepper Motor Applications may fail to follow the pulse when the
frequency of the pulses is high or the load inertia is very large, Because of these reasons the open
loop operation is only limited. The open loop control of the motor is depicted in Figure5.2.1.1. For
most of the application open loop control is suitable.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.2.1.1:Open loop control of a hybrid stepper motor(a)From logic sequences to motor (b)
input controller
5.2.2 Closed loop control
A closed loop control of hybrid stepper Motor Applications is also possible where the switching of
the motor takes place by means of the input pulse train using the position or speed feedback from
22
the rotor. The closed loop control improves the performance of the hybrid stepper Motor
Applications. The disadvantages of open loop control are not present. No step failure occurs, the
response is quicker and the motion is smoother. The control is free from instability and capable of
quick acceleration. A position sensor senses the rotor position and provides the information
necessary for the control of the motor. A mechanical rotor position sensor with an optical encoder
coupled to the shaft is used. The rotor position may also be determined using the machine voltages
and currents. The motor position is monitored and a step completed. The closed loop control is
employed when the maximum torque is required of a given motor and also when absolute step
integrity is required. The cost of the system depends on the type of position sensor used. A closed
loop control of the motor is shown in Figure5.2.2.1 [5.11].
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 5.2.2.1: Close loop control of hybrid stepper motor.(a)Simple close loop system.(b)use of
microprocessor.(c)with current control
5.2.3 Open-Loop Control Using Voltage to Frequency Converter

Over the years there have been a number of systems designed for command and control in wired
logic. Today, these systems are partially or fully replaced by microprocessors. The system control
implemented in Matlab-Simulink is illustrated in Figure 5.2.3.1. The simulated control system is
composed of controller driver, hybrid stepper motor and load torque (Mr). The controller driver
generates pulses for driver command wave drive mode. The driver powers motor phases. Motor
phases are energized bipolar voltages pulses. In this case the voltage pulses frequency for steady
state also illustrates the property of the operation motor in stepping mode. The simulated controller
driver is composed of V/F converter and pulses generator for wave drive mode[5.11].
Figure 5.2.3.1 : System control implemented in Matlab-Simulink
A. Voltage to Frequency Converter
23
V/F Converter is intended to convert the voltage into a digital pulse train with frequency equal to
that of voltage input .This can be done using timer 555, operational amplifiers and circuits
specialization. For example, one V/F converter commonly is used LM331 .Control voltage may
come from resistive divider (potentiometer) or a controller. If the simulated converter has a variation
input voltage of 1V then after it will have to get a variation of digital pulse frequency of 1Hz. Pulse
train at the output converter is shown in Figure 5.2.3.2.
Figure 5.2.3.2: Pulse train at the output converter.
B. Pulse train at the output converter
The motor is powered using one phase only . Supply phase sequence is: B1, A2, B2, A1, B1…. For
microcontroller, the command pulses for the driver are generated according to the power phase
sequency. Determination drivers command pulses was achieved using combinational logic[5.11].
TABLE 2
TRUTH TABLE
A B C Phase
1 1 1 B1
0 1 1
1 0 1 A2
0 0 1
1 1 0 B2
0 1 0
1 0 0 A1
0 0 0
They are comprised of basic logic gates whose operation is described by Boolean algebra. Through
combinational logic circuits, the problem can be solved by implementing logic functions with a
minimum logic gates. . Truth table of minimized logical functions shown in TABLE 2. Where: A-is
the output signal from the converter, B and C are signal A divided by 2 and 4. This is illustrated in
Figure. 5.2.3.3.
24
Figure 5.2.3.3: Output signals A, B and C.
Minimization function was accomplished using the diagram Karnaugh . Simulink Implementation of
the minimized functions for the driver command pulses are illustrated in Figure5.2.3.4 and also in
Figure5.2.3.5 illustrates control signals for the driver full step sequence[5.11].
Figure 5.2.3.4: Functions to minimize the driver command pulses.
Figure 5.2.3.5: Control signals for the driver full step sequence.
Driver of the system
The HSM motor phases are supplied with alternating voltages. Bipolar voltage is obtained using two
H-Bridge inverters. As switching elements H-bridge inverters using bipolar, MOS-FET and IGBT
transistors. These switching elements are controlled by pulses from the controller driver. Each H-
25
Bridge has one bridge of four diodes, connected in reverse parallel with the switching transistors,
provides the path for freewheeling currents. The freewheeling path includes the dc supply and
therefore some of the energy stored in the phase winding inductance at turn-off is returned to the
supply . Supply voltage of phases is shown in Figure 5.2.3.6 [5.11].
Figure5.2.3.6: Supply voltage of phases.
[5.11]Ref: George Mihalache, Andreea Zbant (Adam), Gheorghe Livint,Open-Loop Control of

Hybrid Stepper Motor with Two Phases Using Voltage to Frequency Converter, THE 8th
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ADVANCED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
May 23-25, 2013 Bucharest, Romania
5.2.4 PID Controller
At open loop control , the speed response of the stepper motor suffer from large overshoot,
oscillatory response and long settling time. Therefore, a closed loop control system essentially
required for a good precise operation performance. However, due to the non-linear characteristics
and the resonance problem of the hybrid stepper motor, it is difficult to settle the classical control
systems with this type of motor. Moreover, the use of discrete pulses to drive the hybrid steppe r
motor in half stepping mode leads to jerky and noisy movements at high and low stepping rate
respectively. PID control system enhance the performance of the open loop control system to
control the speed of the hybrid stepper motor for a given reference input. Also, a micro-stepping
technique, which consists of sine and cosine waveforms, is also used to drive the hybrid stepper
motor instead of discrete pulses. In open loop control, the speed response of the HSM suffers from
large overshoot, oscillatory response and long settling time. Additionally, the motor must respond to
each excitation change. If the excitation changes are made too quickly, the stepper motor may lose
some steps and therefore it will be unable to move the rotor to the new demanded position.
Therefore, a permanent error can be introduced between the load position and that expected by the
controller . Due to these limitations, the stepper motor cannot be used without feedback sensor and
closed loop control system with high performance applications where the exact position or rotor
speed is required. Much work is reported in this field by many researchers, but the majority is
concentrated on using simple closed loop algorithms. These types of controllers are weak because
these algorithms are not insensitive enough when confronted by mechanical configuration changes.
This problem can be solved by using PID control system or advanced closed loop control techniques
such as fuzzy control system[5.12]
STEPPER MOTOR MICROSTEPPING DRIVE
Normally, the stepper motor is driven in a full step or half step mode. This means that the motor
currents are switched on and off according to a specified pattern. At each switching on event, the
motor shaft moves a small step. But at high speeds, both the full and half step drive tend to make
abrupt mechanical displacements. This is because the time from one position to the next can be
much less than the step period. This stepping action contributes to a jerky movement and much
mechanical noise in the system . In the HSM, the rotor stable positions are in synchronization with
the stator flux. When the windings are energized, each winding will produce a flux in the air gap
proportional to the current in that winding. This flux is directly proportional to the vector sum of the
winding currents, in the resultant vector direction. In full and half step modes, the rated currents I a
p
26
and I b are supplied to the windings. The resultant flux in the air gap rotates the rotor with large step
p
angles (45 °or 90° electrical). In microstepping mode, the current changes in the windings with small
fractions of the rated current .Therefore, the resultant direction of flux changes in smaller increments
of electrical degrees as shown in Figure 5.2.4.1. The most important characteristics of micro-
stepping technique are; the smooth movement at low speeds, increased step positioning resolution of
a smaller step angle and maximum torque at both low and high step rates. However, it requires more
processing power but can be easily implemented using a low cost micro-controller[5.12].
Figure 5.2.4.1: The two coils are driven by sine and cosine waveforms.
In order to examine the feasibility of using PID controller with HSM, it is necessary to understand
the methodology of designing this controller; this is briefly explained in the following section.
Figure 5.2.4.2 shows a block diagram of the digital PID control system with HSM. The output
control signal from the PID controller U(k) at time step k is given by ,
k
1 e ( k ) −e ( k −1 )
U(k)=k p (e ( k )+ ∑ e ( j ) T +T d )……………..5.2.4
T i j=1 T
Where, Kp is the PID proportional gain, T iis the integral time constant (sec), e(k) is the speed error
at time step k (rad/s), Td is the derivative time constant (sec), and T is the sampling period (sec).
27
Figure 5.2.4.2: Block diagram of the PID controller with HSM
Finding the optimum adjustments of a controller for a given process is not trivial. In practice, the
PID controller gains are usually tuned through human expertise, based on some of trial and error.
There are several tuning rules for PID controller such as Ziegler and Nichols, Chien and Kitamori .
Ziegler and Nichols tuning method is the most proven and popular method[5.12].
[5.12]Ref:M. S. M. Elksasy and Hesham H. Gad “A New Technique for Controlling Hybrid Stepper
Motor Through Modified PID Controller” International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences
IJECS-IJENS Vol:10 No:02.
5.2.5 THE MODIFIED PID CONTROL TECHNIQUE
Due to the non-linear characteristics and the resonance problem of the HSM , the classical PID
control system did not give consistent results as shown in the next section. To solve the instability
problem of the PID control system, a positional form of PID equation could be used instead of
equation 5.2.4. This equation is given as ,
U(k)=u0 + k p ¿ )……………5.2.5.1
Where,u0 is the constant offset of the system. Since the reference speed is constant with time, the
open loop control system can be concurrently used with the PID control system as shown in
Figure5.2.5.1. Therefore, the output control signal from the PID controller will be used only as an
increment to enhance the properties of the open loop control system. By using equation (5.2.5.1) the
overall control signal U(k) will be,
k
1 e ( k )−e ( k−1 )
U(k)=k P ω ref + k p (e ( k ) + ∑ e ( j ) T +T d )…………….5.2.5.2
open
T i j=1 T
Where,k P is the open loop gain factor and ω ref is the reference speed (rad/sec)[5.12].
open
Figure 5.2.5.1: The modified PID control system.
[5.12]Ref:M. S. M. Elksasy and Hesham H. Gad “A New Technique for Controlling Hybrid Stepper
Motor Through Modified PID Controller” International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences
IJECS-IJENS Vol:10 No:02.
5.2.6 Fuzzy Logic Controller
A. Fuzzy Control Concept
The fuzzy logic controller provides an algorithm, which converts the linguistic control, based on
expert knowledge into an automatic control strategy. Therefore, the fuzzy logic algorithm is much
closer in spirit to human thinking than traditional logical systems. When controlling a process, a
human operator compares the actual output with the desired output and observes the evolution of
this difference. This is why most of the single-input single-output fuzzy controller inputs are the
error and the change of error. The human operator generally does not reason in terms of quantitative
28
values, but in terms of qualitative values (big, small). In fuzzy controllers, this operation is called
“fuzzification.” Using his experience about the process and his intuition, the operator elaborates a
qualitative action with qualitative inputs. In fuzzy controllers, this operation is called “decision
making.” Finally, the operator expresses this qualitative action in a quantitative action and applies it.
This last operation is called “defuzzification.” The main problem with fuzzy logic controller
generation is related to the
choice of the regulator parameters. Indeed, there is no systematic procedure for the design of a fuzzy
controller[5.13].
B. Topology of the Fuzzy Logic Controller
To adjust the output of the drive unit, both the error signal e ibetween the set point f iand the
measured shaft speed Ωi and the change of error Δ ei are used at the sampling period number i
e i=f i−Ωi , Δe i=ei −ei −1
The output of the fuzzy controller is not the control variable itself, but its increment. Indeed, the
closed-loop frequency of the step is given by adding the fuzzy controller output with the open-loop
frequency. In this way, the proposed controller can be also considered as an incremental fuzzy
controller (Figure 5.2.6.1), and to define its optimum topology (scaling factors, number of fuzzy
sets, shape of the fuzzy sets, decision making), the simulated stepping motor responses are used.
Figure 5.2.6.1: Fuzzy controller structure.
29
1) Scaling Factors Determination: The scaling factors K 1 and K 2 are given by the open-loop
trajectories in the (e,Δ e )space. They are chosen in such a way that the normalized inputs e nand
Δ en are well adapted to the universe of discourse [-4,4] for any working point (Figure 5.2.6.2).
The output-scaling factor K 3 is given by the maximum acceleration of the motor between two
steps.
Figure 5.2.6.2: Phase plane trajectory.
2) Fuzzy Sets Determination: For simplicity, it has chosen triangular and trapezoidal shapes with a
zero symmetry and a 50% overlapping rate for fuzzy linguistic sets. Figure 5.2.6.3(a) represents
the fuzzy set shapes of the controller. The number of sets for the fuzzy controller has been
determined using simulation and the stepping motor responses which have been compared for
different numbers of fuzzy sets. Figure 5.2.6.3(b)-(f) represent, respectively, the open-loop
response and the closed-loop responses for three, five, seven, and nine fuzzy sets. By comparing
the different configurations, the use of more than seven linguistic sets [Figure 5.2.6.3(f)] does
not improve the accuracy, but increases the computation time. Therefore, seven linguistics sets
(large positive, medium positive, small positive, zero, small negative, medium negative, and
large negative) have been chosen for the error, the error change, and the output of the fuzzy
controller.
(a) (b)
30
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5.2.6.3: Effects of the fuzzy set numbers on the controller performance. (a) Chosen fuzzy
sets. (b) Open-loop response. (c) Response with three fuzzy sets. (d) Response with five fuzzy sets.
(e) Response with seven fuzzy sets. (f) Response with nine fuzzy sets.
3) Decision Making: The linguistic control rules (Table 3) are established considering the dynamic
behavior of the stepping motor drive and analyzing the error and its variation. These control
rules, which are very closely related to Mac Vivar Whelan rules , are expressed as
if is LP and is LP then is LP or
if is LP and is MP then is MP or …..
The “if” part of the rules is called the premise, while the “then” part is the consequence. The
“and” operator is used to link the premises and the “or” operator to link the rules. To btain the
control decision, the max-min inference method is used. It is based on the minimum function to
describe the “and” operator present in each control rule and the maximum function to describe
the “or” operator.
TABLE 3
FUZZY MATRIX
e\Δ e LN MN SN ZE SP MP LP
LP ZE SP MP LP LP LP LP
MP SN ZE SP MP LP LP LP
SP MN SN ZE SP MP LP LP
ZE LN MN SN ZE SP MP LP
SN LN LN MN SN ZE SP MP
MN LN LN LN MN SN ZE SP
LN LN LN LN LN MN SE ZE
4) Defuzzification: To express the qualitative action in a quantitative action, the “center-of-gravity”

method is used. For discrete membership functions, the output ucan be expressed as (eqn 5.2.6.1)
using the “center-of-gravity” method
31
i=n
∑ ui . μ(u i)
i=1
u= i=n
… … … … … … ….. 5.2.6 .1
∑ μ(ui )
i=1
where n is the number of fuzzy sets of the output, ui is the center of the ith fuzzy set, and μ(ui ) is
the associate membership value. This algorithm, which considers all the membership values of
the fuzzy output, gives a more reliable decision table compared with other methods.
Figure5.2.6.4 represents the normalized output of Δ f nthe fuzzy controller as a function of the
normalized error e n and the normalized change of error Δ en . Looking at Figure5.2.6.4, it is clear
that, with the topology presented in this section, the characteristic of the fuzzy controller is
nonlinear [5.13].
Figure 5.2.6.4: Fuzzy controller output.
C. Fuzzy Logic Controller Implementation

A low-cost microcontroller (Intel 80C196kc) has been chosen to implement the fuzzy logic
controller. This type of microcontroller has been chosen rather than a digital signal processor
(DSP) because the microcontroller is cheaper than a DSP and because it is mainly designed for
the control of electrical motors with adapted peripherals (analog-to-digital converters,
pulsewidth modulation outputs, high-speed input/output lines, and other conventional
input/output ports)[5.13]
1) Speed Computation: The speed of the stepping motor is sensed using the shaft encoder. The
two outputs of the encoder ( phase A and phase B) are used together to determine the motor
speed as well as the revolution direction. The velocity of the stepping motor is obtained using
a high-speed input and timer 2 programmed in fast increment mode (8 MHz). Using the t2
capture register, the value of timer 2 is captured for every positive edge of the encoder phase.
Then, the difference between the present and the previous values of is a function of the speed
32
1 stepping motor resolution
f(steps/s)= ×timer 2 frequency ( 8.10 6 ) × … … …..5.2.6. 2
N i−N i−1 encoder resolution
2) Control Computation: Regardless of the fuzzy controller topology, there are two possible
implementation procedures for the fuzzy controller. The first one uses online inference to
obtain the controller output, while the second method uses a lookup table computed offline.
Using a conventional computation structure, the online approach is not conceivable because
it is time consuming. For the second method, the table is obtained by computing offline the
output of the fuzzy controller for all the couples of quantified inputs. This output is stored in
the memory of the microcontroller and the only effort of the control program is limited to
consulting the table at each iteration. Therefore, the control system program is shorter and
runs faster than a program that interprets the rules at each control cycle[5.13].
3) Pulse Train Generation: The pulse train is generated using the high-speed output unit and
timer 1 (1 MHz). This output unit consisting of a pulse generator provides the trigger for
external events at present times. Also, the pulse train is obtained by programming
successively 0 and 1 in the dedicated register and programming the time of the pulse and the
time of the step in another register[5.13].
[5.13]Ref: Franck Betin, Daniel Pinchon, and Gérard-André Capolino,” Fuzzy Logic Applied to
Speed Control of a Stepping Motor Drive”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRONICS, VOL. 47, NO. 3, JUNE 2000.
5.2.7 Sensor-less Control of Hybrid Stepper Motor

Mechanical sensors such as encoder increase cost and size of the motor. These position sensors
are temperature sensitive and show lower reliability. To use these sensors, a mechanical
arrangement must be done. Due to these limitations, sensor-less control is more attractive to
drive the HSM. With today’s low cost and high performance DSP’s Kalman filtering (KF),
becomes an efficient candidate to avoid mechanical sensors in motor control, manufactures of
HSM are very interested to implement the advanced control algorithms. The most known
methods are based on the detection of the position of the rotor starting from the electromotive
force of the motor (e.m.f). These methods are implemented and compared. The major
inconvenient of these methods is that they are not functional at low speeds where the e.m.f is
very weak. Another method uses a variation of motor inductance according to the rotor position.
In this case, the shape of the current gives us information on inductance, the phase inductance is
calculated from voltage and phase current during different segments of electrical cycle. The
calculated value is then used to estimate the rotor position with a lookup table. The rotor position
can be estimated from the flux linkage, which is calculated form stator voltage and phase
current . Kalman filtering (KF) was used by many scientists to estimate the speed and rotor
position .The difficult step in KF design is the choice of its covariance matrices, because there is
no exact rule in literature to do that. The most disadvantage of KF technique is the large
computational cost. In order to overcome this problem a reduced order extended KF (EKF) was
proposed[5.14].
The hybrid step motor (HSM) studied here is a synchronous motor with two phases.
33
di a −R K v
i a+ m ω sin ( Nθ )+ a
{
=
dt L L L
di b −R K v
= i b+ m ω cos ( Nθ ) + b
dt L L L ………….(5.2.7.1)
dω − K m K K T
= i a sin ( Nθ ) + m i b cos ( Nθ )− v ω− L
dt j j j j
dθ
=ω
dt
where i a and i b :Currents of phases A and B [ A ]

v a and v b : Phase voltages [ V ]
R : Phase resistance [Ω]
L : Phase inductance [ H ]
K m: Torque constant [ V.s/rad ]
K v : Coefficient of viscous friction [ N.m.s/rad ]
J : Rotor inertia [kg.m2]
ω : Angular velocity [rad/s]
θ : Mechanical rotor position [rad]
T L : Load torque [N.m]
N : rotor number teeth
For field oriented control, the model in d-q frame is used. The voltages and currents are transformed
by Park transformation using the following equations.
vd cos ( Nθ ) sin ( Nθ ) v a
[ ][= ][ ]
v q −sin ( Nθ ) cos ( Nθ) v b
………….5.2.7.2
id cos ( Nθ ) sin ( Nθ ) i a
[ ][= ][ ]
i q −sin ( Nθ ) cos (Nθ) i b
………......5.2.7.3
The electrical and mechanical equations of a hybrid stepper motor in d-q frame are given below.
di d −R +v
id + Nωi q d
{
=
dt L L
di q −R −K m v
= i q −Nωi d ω+ q
dt L L L ……………….5.2.7.4
dω K K T
= m i q − v ω− L
dt j j j
dθ
=ω
dt
The model (5.2.7.4) is represented by the following general form:

34
ẋ=f ( x , u)
{ y=h( x )
………………….5.2.7.5
t t
where: x=[ i d i q ω θ ] is a vector of state variables and y=[ i d i q ] is a vector of systemoutputs .
Extended Kalman Filter

The Kalman filter is an algorithm which is carried out in parallel with the system by using its state
model form. It makes it possible to rebuild or estimate all the state variables if the system is
observable by using the system inputs and outputs. The comparison between the system outputs and
that of the Kalman filter are multiplied by a gain matrix in order to correct the estimated state
variable. The extended Kalman filter (EKF) is a solution proposed for nonlinear system .This EKF
algorithm is used to compute the gain matrix by simulation and then one introduces the obtained
result in steady state case directly into the real time algorithm. To carry out this procedure, it is
necessary to have the discrete model of the motor in discrete state space vector form. By using the
first order Euler approximation, we obtain the discrete equivalent model of (5.2.7.5):
x k+1=x k +Tf ( x k , uk ) + wk
{ y k =h( x k )+v k
……………..5.2.7.6
Where the terms w k and v k are added to consider noises on respectively the modeling structure and
measurement. The sampling period T must be small in front of the electrical time constant of the
motor in order to achieve a suitable performant control. One of the advantages of the Kalman filter
is the possibility to extend the estimation to several parameters of the system. But it should not be
forgotten that when the order of the system increases, the computing time increases too. In this
work, the order of the system is extended to 5 in order to estimate the load torque. This fifth order
model is used only during simulation to find the gain matrix of the Kalman filter. If we suppose that
the load torque does not change during one sampling period time, its equation is given by:
T L(k+1) =T Lk ………………..….……5.2.7.7
The EKF algorithm contains five equations and can be divided into two phases: the prediction phase
and correction phase.
Prediction phase (Time Update): The state vector is initially estimated at the moment (k+1)
according to the state and of the measurements taken at the moment (k)
^x k+1 /k = ^x k/ k +T . f ( x^ k / k , uk )……………5.2.7.8
The covariance matrix is also computed in this phase by the following equation:
Pk +1/ k =F d k . P k/ k . F d tk + Qk……..………5.2.7.9
With F d k the Jacobian matrix.
35
Correction phase (Measurement Update): The gain matrix of Kalman filter is computed by:
K k +1=Pk+1 / k . H tk .(H k . Pk +1/ k . H tk + Rk )−1………..5.2.7.10
With Hd k the Jacobian matrix.
The correction of the estimated state vector is done by the following equation:
^x k+1 /k +1=¿ ^x k+1 /k + K k +1.( y k +1−H k . x^ k+ 1/ k ¿………..5.2.7.11
Note that the difference between the system outputs and that of the EKF is multiplied by the gain
matrix, obtained by equation (5.2.7.10). The result is added to the state vector obtained by equation
(5.2.7.8). Finally, the last equation of the correction phase consists in an update of the covariance
matrix:
Pk +1/ k+1=Pk +1/ k −K k+1. H k . Pk +1/ k……………….….5.2.7.12
The Jacobian matrices F d k and Hd k are the partial derivative matrices, defined by:
∂( x k +Tf ( x k ,u k )) ∂(h ( x k ) )
F dk =
∂x |
x k =^x k/k
; H k= |
∂ x x = ^x
k
………..5.2.7.13
k /k
In our case, F d k and Hd k are given by:
R
1−T TN ω k TN i qk 0 0
[ ]
L
R K
F dk =
(
−TN ω k 1−T −T N i dk + m 0 0
L L
; H k=
)
10 0 0 0
……….5.2.7.14 [ ]
Km Kv T 0 10 0 0
0T 1−T 0−
J J J
00T 10
00001
The EKF tuning is done by the choice of the initial covariance matrices (Q and R), the initial state
vector x 0 and its covariance matrix p0. In our knowledge, there is no exact method for the choice of
the covariance matrices but only some indications and remarks in some papers. The covariance
matrices used in this algorithm are:
36
0.1 00 0 0
[ ]0 0.10 0 0
Q= 0 0 0.000010 0 ; R=
0 0 0 0.000010
0 0 0 0 0.00001
0.1 0 P =0.01. I
[ ] ;
0 0.1 0
………5.2.7.15
where I is the identity matrix.
In the equations (5.2.7.9), (5.2.7.10) and (5.2.7.12), note that the covariance matrix and the Kalman
filter gain matrix are independent from the input signals. In the steady state, these matrices become
constant; therefore they can be computed off line. This can be done by solving the equation of
Riccati using Mat-lab tool, for example. This gain matrix K is obtained by simulation on Mat-
lab/Simulink. This simulation lets us check that the algorithm is correct. Firstly, one carried out a
simulation of the speed control of the motor (discrete model) with sensor. The parameters of motor
model used are:
R = 0.37Ω; L = 0.9 mH; K m = 0.153 Vs/rad;

K v = 0.00047 Nms/rad; J = 15.62 e-5 K gm2 ; N = 50.
When good results were obtained by simulation, we added the EKF algorithm in parallel. And, in
order to approach reality, we have added a noise to the EKF input signals and using the same
sampling period as the one in the real system case. The EKF gain matrix remains almost constant in
steady state case and it is given by:
0 .6385−0.0011
[
−0 .0011 0.6432
K= 0 .1133−0.4276
0 .0006−0.0030
−0 .0011 0.0057
]
37
The laboratory experimental setup (Figure 5.2.7.1) consists of a DS1103 board from dSPACE,
electronic interface, hybrid stepper motor coupled with a DC motor and an incremental encoder of
2000 increments per revolution (used for comparison only!). The powerful DS1103 card is a
complete real-time control system based on the Motorola PowerPC 604e processor running at
933MHz. The Mat-lab / Simulink models can be implemented and tested in real-time. The Real-
Time Interface (RTI) contains a library of Blocks which connects the Simulink model to the
physical world. The Real-Time Workshop (RTW) converts the model to C code. The C code is then
automatically compiled to the assembly language of the target processors, assembled, link-edited
and downloaded to the DS1103 card. Finally, Control-Desk, an experimentation tool, is used to
control, tune and monitor the running process. We carried out an electronic power card which
contains a double H-bridge based on MOSFET transistors, an interface for the amplification and the
adaptation of the control signals generated by DS1103 card and the measures of currents and
voltages. The phase currents are measured with shunt resistors attached to each H-bridge. In order to
minimize the noises due to commutation, the analog-to-digital converters inputs are synchronized
with the low state of PWM signals. The HSM used is characterized by a power about 10 W, a
voltage supply of 24-60 V and a rated current of 3 A. This HSM is coupled with a DC motor
controlled in current in order to vary the load torque[5.14].
Figure 5.2.7.1: Experimental setup
Figure 5.2.7.2 shows a full digital implementation of current and speed control loops using the
estimated values of the speed and rotor position. The HSM control is carried out in a reference frame
(d,q) related to the rotor. In the frame (d,q), the current regulation is done as in the case of a
traditional DC. The field oriented control (FOC) is used to control the flux and the torque of the
motor independently. The d-axis is chosen on the flux axis, so all the flux is aligned with this axis.
The torque is controlled by the current in the q-axis. In this case the d-q frame is rotating
38
synchronously with the magnetic field. So, the HSM becomes a high-dynamic ac servo drive and
can loose its stepper behavior. The control sampling period is 100µs and it is equal to the sampling
period of EKF. The PWM frequency is 10 KHz. The total execution time is only 90µs[5.14].
Figure 5.2.7.2: Sensorless drive implementation
[5.14]Ref: M. Bendjedia, Y. Ait-Amirat, B. Walther and A. Berthon ,” Sensorless Control of Hybrid

Stepper Motor”, 13 rue Thierry MIEG, 90010, Belfort, France.
5.3 DRIVER SYSTEM
The stepper motor is a digital device that needs binary (digital) signals for its operation .Depending
on the stator construction two or more phases have to be sequentially switched using a master clock
pulse input. The clock frequency determines the stepping rate, and hence the speed of the motor. The
control circuit generating the sequence is called a translator or logic sequencer. The block diagram
of a typical control circuit consists of a logic sequencer, power driver and essential protective
circuits for current and voltage limiting. This control circuit enables the stepper motor to be run at a
desired speed in either direction. The power driver is essentially a current amplifier, since the
sequence generator can supply only logic but not any power[5.15].
[5.15]Ref:https://www.brainkart.com/article/Drive-System-and-Control-Circuitry-for-Stepper-
Motor_11755/
39
 .
Figure5.3.1: Block diagram of a typical hybrid stepper motor control

Figure5.3.1Ref: https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Application-of-
Stepper-Motors-1024x409.png
LOGIC SEQUENCER
The logic sequencer is a logic circuit which control the excitation of the winding sequentially,
responding to step command pulses. A logic sequencer is usually composed of a shifter register
and logic gates such as NANDs, NORs etc. But one can assemble a logic sequencer for a particular
purpose by a proper combination of JK flip flop, IC chips and logic gate chips. Two simple types
of
sequencer build with only two JK-FFs are shown in figure 5.3.2 for unidirectional case[5.15].
40
Figure5.3.2: A unidirectional logic sequencer for two phase on operation of a two phase hybrid
motor.
Figure 5.3.2Ref: https://img.brainkart.com/extra/Lz5OTUe.jpg
The corresponding between the output terminals of the sequencer and the phase windings to be
controlled is as follows.
Q1-------Ph A
Q´ 1-------Ph Á
Q2-------Ph B
Q´ 2-------Ph B́
If Q1 is on the H level the winding Ph A is excited and if Q1is on L level, Ph A is not
excited[5.15].
Driver
There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market, which showcase different features
for specific applications[5.16]. The most important charactreristics include the input interface. The
most common options are:
Ref: https://www.monolithicpower.com/stepper-motors-basics-types-uses
 Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes its output such that
the motor will perform a step, the direction of which is determined by the level on the Direction
pin.
 Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the current direction and
triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
 PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side FETs.
Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only able to control the voltage across
the winding, or also the current flowing through it:
 With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across the winding. The torque
developed and the speed with which the steps are executed only depend on motor and load
characteristics.
 Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the current flowing through the
active coil in order to have better control over the torque produced, and thus the dynamic
behavior of the whole system.
Another feature of the motor that also affects control is the arrangement of the stator coils that
determine how the current direction is changed. To achieve the motion of the rotor, it is necessary
not only to energize the coils, but also to control the direction of the current, which determines the
direction of the magnetic field generated by the coil itself (see Figure 5.3.3).
In stepper motors, the issue of controlling the current direction is solved with two different
approaches. In unipolar stepper motors, one of the leads is connected to the central point of the coil
(see Figure 5.3.4). This allows to control the direction of the current using relatively simple circuit
and components. The central lead (AM) is connected to the input voltage V IN (see Figure 5.3.3). If
41
MOSFET 1 is active, the current flows from A M to A+. If MOSFET 2 is active, current flows from
AM to A-, generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. As pointed out above, this approach
allows a simpler driving circuit (only two semiconductors needed), but the drawback is that only
half of the copper used in the motor is used at a time, this means that for the same current flowing in
the coil, the magnetic field has half the intensity compared if all the copper were used. In addition,
these motors are more difficult to construct since more leads have to be available as motor
inputs[5.16].
Figure 5.3.3: Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of the Coil Current
Figure 5.3.3Ref: https://media.monolithicpower.com/wysiwyg/8_5.png
Figure 5.3.4: Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

Figure5.3.4Ref: https://media.monolithicpower.com/wysiwyg/9_5.png
In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available, and to control the direction it is
necessary to use an H-bridge (see Figure 5.3.5). As shown in Figure 5.3.3, if MOSFETs 1 and 4 are
active, the current flows from A+ to A-, while if MOSFETs 2 and 3 are active, current flows from
A- to A+, generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This solution requires a more
complex driving circuit, but allows the motor to achieve the maximum torque for the amount of
copper that is used.
42
With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are becoming less relevant, and bipolar
steppers are currently the most popular[5.16].
Figure 5.3.5: Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

Figure 5.3.5Ref: https://media.monolithicpower.com/wysiwyg/10_4.png
In general there are two types of drivers. The constant voltage drivers (L/R drivers) and constant
current drivers (chopper drivers).
 constant voltage drivers (L/R drivers):

 they are cheaper than constant current drivers
 use voltage to produce torque
 usually not efficient
 worse performance than chopper drivers
 constant current drivers (chopper drivers):
 more expensive
 more complex circuits
 use constant current to produce torque
 much better performance than the L/R drivers
[5.16]Ref: https://blog.poscope.com/stepper-motor-driver/
Defining the L/R Type Drive
An L/R type drive is a voltage source drive, where the L refers to electrical inductance and R stands
for electrical resistance. Inductance is an electrical parameter relating mainly to inductors that are
coils of wire wrapped around a core material that can be metallic, non-metallic, solid, liquid, or even
air. Typical inductors are transformers, chokes, and motor coils (including the windings in stepper
motors and stepper motor linear actuators). A related parameter called inductive reactance in an
electrical circuit impedes the flow of current relative to the voltage frequency. It can be thought of
as a “dynamic resistance,” increasing and impeding more of the current flow as the frequency
increases. An analogy for inductance in the mechanical field would be the principle of inertia.
Resistance also impedes the flow of current in an electrical circuit but is a constant value and is not
affected by the frequency value of the voltage or current. The stepper motor coil resistance remains
essentially the same from standstill through maximum step frequency with only minor fluctuations
due to temperature. A mechanical equivalent of electrical resistance would be the friction in a
43
system. Stepper motor manufacturers offer a variety of coil voltage ratings. With an L/R type of
drive, you set the output voltage of the drive (measured at the motor leads) equal to the voltage
rating of the stepper motor. The voltage level of the drive power supply will be set slightly higher
due to voltage drops across the power transistors. The ratio of inductance to resistance (L/R)
determines the current flow through the windings at a given step rate (or frequency) in steps per
second. L/R = 1 time constant, which is equal to approximately 63% of the final steady-state
current. At standstill, the maximum current flow into the windings is determined by the coil
resistance alone. The impedance effect due to inductance is zero when the frequency is zero. This is
the condition where the motor has maximum torque (holding torque) due to maximum ampere-turns,
defined by:
TH α N x I
Where:
TH = the holding torque
N = the number of turns in the motor coil
I = the electrical current
As the step rate increases, the coil inductive reactance (XL) also increases according to the formula:
XL = 2πfL
Where:
XL = the inductive reactance
f = the frequency (step rate)
L = the inductance of the motor coil
With a constant voltage source L/R type driver, the motor current decreases as the total impedance
(XL + R) increases. Because torque, both static and dynamic, depends on ampere-turns, the output
performance of the stepper motor or stepper motor linear actuator drops off as the speed increases.
Another factor affecting motor performance is the back-EMF (electro-motive force) produced by the
rotor rotating in a magnetic field. Motors also behave as generators. High step rates may produce
peak back-EMF levels approaching or exceeding the L/R drive output voltage level. One method
used to partially compensate for these effects is to improve the inductance to resistance (L/R) ratio
by adding external series resistors and increasing the power supply voltage. Some common
configurations are the L/2R and the L/4R drivers. Because the respective voltage sources would
have to be doubled or quadrupled, the efficiency drops significantly and much more of the power is
wasted as heat in the external resistors[5.17].
Categories of L/R Drives: Unipolar and Bipolar

Unipolar drives have simple output configurations and are used infrequently due to the relatively
low torque output and low efficiency. A unipolar drive contributes to a torque reduction of
approximately 30% as compared to a bipolar drive at the same electrical power. In a unipolar drive,
only half the phase winding is energized at one time, whereas in a bipolar drive, the entire phase
winding is energized. Bipolar drives have more complex output stages. Many of the new specialized
integrated circuits have come down in cost, making bipolar drives more affordable. The output
configuration is an “H-Bridge” which allows the reversal of the phase currents. Instead of the phase
currents being switched on and off in just half of the windings like in a unipolar configuration, the
currents flowing through the entire motor windings are reversed in bipolar drives. At equal electrical
44
power into a given frame size stepper motor, the bipolar driver/motor configuration can produce
greater static and dynamic torque than that of a unipolar driver/motor combination[5.17].
Figure 5.3.6: A unipolar drive configuration.

Fig5.3.6Ref: https://www.designworldonline.com/uploads/Imagegallery/UNIPOLAR_opt.jpg
Notice that the motor phase winding is center-tapped, thus allowing current to flow through only
half the phase winding at a time.
Figure 5.3.7: A bipolar drive configuration.

Fig5.3.7Ref: https://www.designworldonline.com/uploads/Imagegallery/BIPOLAR_opt.jpg
Chopper Drives
The term chopper refers to the method of rapidly switching a relatively high voltage to the
windings on and off. This technique of switching the output voltage on and off controls the average
current per phase. There are several steps involved in selecting a chopper drive. First, choose a
power supply that has a high output voltage relative to the voltage rating of the stepper motor to be
driven. The high available voltage compensates for the increasing coil impedance due to rising
inductive reactance as the motor speed increases. A power supply to motor coil voltage ratio of 8:1
or higher will provide the best performance at the higher motor speeds. Second, low-voltage
steppers, with correspondingly lower inductance coils, are recommended. Linear type motor power
45
supplies work well with these drives. Third, virtually all chopper-type drivers are a bipolar
configuration, making use of the entire motor windings, which yields improved torque. Even
unipolar stepper motors can be driven with these bipolar choppers as long as their rated coil
voltage is not too high. Six-lead unipolar motors would be connected as a four-lead type by leaving
the center-tap leads unconnected. With eight-lead steppers, you can connect the two coils of each
phase in series (especially low-voltage coils) or in parallel. Because inductance changes as the
square of the number of turns, putting two coils in series yields four times the inductance. Stepper
motor performance improves at the higher speeds, as compared to an L/R type drive, due to the
chopper drive’s method of monitoring and controlling motor current throughout the usable speed
range. To control the average current through the phase windings, this type of drive technology
“chops” the high output voltage on and off. Most choppers use a fixed chopping frequency of
approximately 20 kHz or higher. This helps keep system noise low, since the chopping frequency
is above audible range. Based on this constant fixed chopping frequency, the average output
current is controlled by varying the pulse width of these repetitive output pulses, a technique
known as pulse width modulation (PWM). The output current is monitored by comparing the
voltage level across a small ohmic value series sense resistor with a set voltage that represents the
rated motor current. During each cycle of the typical 20-kHz waveform, the voltage across the
sense resistor begins to rise as the current increases through the motor winding. An electronic
comparator continuously monitors this voltage level; when it equals the set reference voltage it
turns off the output voltage until the start of the next 20-kHz cycle. The current in each motor
winding builds and decays as the voltage source switches on and off during each cycle, yielding the
proper average current per phase. As the motor step rate, or speed, increases or decreases, so does
the corresponding winding impedance and the chopper drive electronics help to compensate for
this effect. At slow speeds (lower winding impedance) the on time of the voltage source is
relatively short per cycle (small pulse width). At higher speeds (higher winding impedance) the on
time is longer per cycle to allow the current to increase to the proper level (large pulse width); thus
the term pulse width modulation[5.17].

46
Figure5.3.7: Bipolar chopper drive circuit.
Fig5.3.7Ref:https://motion.schneider-electric.com/technology-blog/wp-
content/uploads/hbridge-ustepper1-450x413.png
Advances in Chopper Drives
Chopper drives are now selected for most new stepper motor linear actuator applications and there
has been ongoing progress in this drive technology. For instance, the use of low on-resistance Field
Effect Transistors (FETs) in the output power stage increases system efficiency and reduces power
dissipation within the drive, which also reduces the required heatsink area and physical size of the
drive package. Also, new power stage circuitry can provide the higher phase currents required from
low-voltage, low-inductance motors, which can yield improved performance over a wider speed
range. Enhanced phase current control increases motor performance such as automatically
providing boosted current levels during acceleration and deceleration ramping, or shaping to
reduce overall resonance of the system[5.17].
[5.17]Ref: https://www.designworldonline.com/the-many-faces-of-stepper-motor-drives/
5.4. Some Modern Hybrid Stepper Motors With Specification and Description
5.4.1Motec 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Controller
Figure 5.4.1: Motec 2 Phase Hybrid Stepper Controller
Figure 5.4.1Ref: https://5.imimg.com/data5/UI/WA/AV/SELLER-2308089/stepper-controller-

500x500.jpg
Manufacturer : Square Automation[5.18]
47
Product Specification
Brand Motec
Motor Voltage 24 V
Phase 2 Phase
Speed 1000 RPM
Model Number/Name Nema 23
IP Rating IP68
Voltage 230 V AC
Rated Current 0.3-2.2 Amp
Product Description
General Introduction
 An integration of Stepper Drive

 Motion Controller and PLC
 Support RS232 RS485 and CAN Bus netw2ork
 All suitable for multi-points motion control
Application.
 RS232: Max 8 units RS485: Max 32 units CAN Bus: Max 110 units
 Support MODBUS and CANOPEN protocals
 8 optoelectronic isolated DI, 3 optoelectronic isolated DO, 1 analog input
 Standalone Mode ( without any external controller)
Users programe motion control application using
 Motion Painter software and download into SB266B

 User appliactions can be triggered by external I/O and SB266B can also output necessary
signal so that it can work with other equipments in coordination.
 Internal PLC.
 Program using Ladder Diagram.
 Motion-Lib libraries and Instruction Set are available for host controller programing.
48
Four control modes
 Pulse/Direction and CW/CCW Mode

 Analog Control Mode
 Network Mode and Standalone Mode.
 Pulse/Direction and CW/CWW Control ModeSD266B can be used as a traditional stepper
motor working with Pulse/Direction and CW/CWW control signals.
 Analog Control Mode
[5.18]Ref: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/stepper-controller-19739044088.html
5.4.2 3DM2207 Three Phase Hybrid Stepper Driver
Figure 5.4.2: DM2207 Three Phase Hybrid Stepper Driver

Figure5.4.2Ref: https://5.imimg.com/data5/VJ/MW/SR/SELLER-4623622/hybrid-stepper-driver-
500x500.jpg
Product Specification
No Of Phase 3
Model Name/Number SM3MD2207
Brand Spark Motors
Voltage 230V
49
Input Phase Three Phase
Power Supply Input Frequency 50Hz
Power Source Electric

Regulated Phase Current 7.0A
Highest response frequency 200Kpps
Manufacturer Spark Motors Private Limited
Product Description
The SM3MD2207 is full digital 3 phase stepper driver based on DSP control. As a new generation
of digital stepper motor drives, it is combined with the advanced DSP control chip with the three-
phase inverter driver module.The drive voltage of which is from 160V to 230VAC. It is designed for
use with the 3 phase hybrid stepper motor of all kinds with 0.57mm to 130mm outside diameter,
regulated phase current from 1.3A to 7.0A. The circuit that it adopts is similar to the circuit of servo
control which enables the motor to run smoothly without noise and vibration. Moreover, its torque is
far greater than 2 and 5 phase hybrid stepping motors. Furthermore, the highest micro-step is
60000ppr. Due to these obvious advantages, it is widely used in middle and big size numerical
control devices such as curving machine, CNC machine, computer, embroider machine, packing
machine, etc[5.19].
Features:
 16 channels constant angle, constant torque micro-steps, highest micro-step: 60000ppr

 The current of winding will be reduced by approximately 50% when no step pulse command
is received for 1.5second
 Opto-isolated signal I/O
 Drive current is adjustable in 16 channels from 1.2A/phase to 5.8A/phase (for DVS3722:
1.3A/phase to 7.0A/phase)
 Single power supply from 110V to 230VAC
 Phase terminal memory function (motor phase terminal is memorized after input pulse train
stopping 3s and it is recovered when stepper driver power on or signal MF changes from low
level to high level)
 Highest response frequency: 200kpps.
50
[5.19]Ref: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/3dm2207-three-phase-hybrid-stepper-driver-
17198239455.html
5.4.3 High quality 2-phase hybrid stepper motor driver Q2HB613M
Figure 5.4.3: 2-phase hybrid stepper motor driver Q2HB613M
Figure5.4.3Ref:http://www.jingbomotor.com/photo/pl12694842-
high_quality_2_phase_hybrid_stepper_motor_driver_q2hb613m.jpg
Product Details:
Place of Origin: Guangdong, China
Brand Name: Jingbo
Certification: CE
Model Number: Q2HB613M
Q2HB613M Constant angle, constant torque micro step driver, the drive voltage of which is from
40V to 130VDC. It is designed for use with the 2 phase hybrid stepper motor of all kinds with
51
86mm to 110mm outside diameter, regulated phase current from 0.5A to 8A (0.4A to 6.4A). It is
widely used in numerical devices such as curving machine, medium-sized numerical control
machine, packing machine[5.20].
Features
 High performance, low price
 Two group 32 channels constant angle and constant torque micro step, highest micro step:
480
 Current of winding will be reduced to set current value when no step pulse command is
received for 0.1 second
 Bipolar constant current chopping circuit
 Opto-isolated input/output
 Drive current is continuously adjustable from 0.5A/phase to 8A/phase (0.4A/phase to
6.4A/phase)
 Single power supply voltage from 24V to 80VDC (40V to130VDC)
 Highest response frequency: 200Kpps
 Overvoltage protection, overheat protection, overcurrent protection
Terminal function
Symbol Signal Specification
+ Positive of opto-isolated Connected to +5V power supply. Drive voltage ranges from
+5V to +24V. Current-limiting resistance is needed when it is
over 5V.
MF Motor free signal The motor current will be cut off and the driver stops working
when it is effective.
over 5V.
SM Subdivision choosing Subdivision (micro step) is set by DP1 and SK1 when high
signal voltage and by DP2 and SK2 when low voltage. Input
resistance is 430Ω.
over 5V.
DR DP3=ON, DR is direction Change motor’s direction of rotation. Input resistance is 220Ω.
signal Low voltage 0-0.5V, high voltage 4-5V, pulse width>200μS
DP3=OFF, DR is
negative step pulse signal
over 5V.
PUS DP3=ON, PU is step With the falling edge of the signal PU, the motor executes an
pulse signal angular step. The input resistance is 220Ω. Low voltage 0-
DP3=OFF, PU is positive 0.5V, high voltage 4-5V, pulse width>2.5μS.
step pulse signal
+ Positive of opto-isolated The motor current is cut off automatically and signal FL is
overheat / low voltage effective (low voltage) when the temperature of the driver is
52
protection over
70℃
. The driver starts to work and the FL is cleared when the
temperature falls to 50℃.
FAL Negative of opto-isolated

Connect + to current limiting resistance of output signal and
overheat / low voltage connect FAL to ground. The maximum drive current is 50mA,
protection the highest drive voltage is 50V.
+ Positive of opto-isolated
When the motor current is on, the motor is at the origin
origin output signal position. (B, -A is on current); opto-isolated outputs (high
voltage).
TIM Negative of opto-isolated Connect + to the current limiting resistance of output signal,
origin output signal and connect TM to ground. Maximum drive current is 50mA
and highest drive voltage is 50V.
+V Positive of power supply 24-80VDC(40-130VDC)
-V Negative of power supply
+A、-A Connection
+B、-B
[5.20] Ref: http://www.jingbomotor.com/sale-8264223-high-quality-2-phase-hybrid-stepper-motor-

driver-q2hb613m.html
53

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Chapter 5

Commercial and industrial application of hybrid stepper motor and Control

5.1.1 Floppy disk drive

5.1.2 Automatic Sun-Tracking System

5.1.3 Electro hydraulic valve with the hybrid motor

entire beveling torque[5.4].

MODEL OF THE VALVE WITH STEPPER MOTOR

e A =−k m ω sin ( N r . θ ) … … … … .5 .1 .3.1

Figure 5.1.3.3: Matlab Simulink simulation model of the valve.

[5.4] Ref: https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.5066530

5.1.4 Smart Dish

Figure 5.1.4.1: represent the system block diagram

Smart Dish Software

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Figure 5.1.4.3: represent buttons in smart dish software

[5.5]Ref: Saleh, Akram Yassir Mohammed Ahmed; Saad, Alamin Omer Alamin; Ahmed,

5.1.5 CNC Machines

5.1.6 Motorized Moving Stage

Figure 5.1.6.1: Physical appearance of Figure 5.1.6.2: Converting Mechanism

ι is amount of linear displacement came from rotational movement, D is distance between

CONSTRUCTION OF MICROSTEP DRIVING MECHANISM

Table 1. Implications of De-numerator Constant Setting upon Linear Resolution Movement

De-numerator Constant (Sub-Division) ∂ι

5.1.7 Delta 3D Printer

Figure 5.1.7.6: Bowden extruder motor assembly

[5.9] Ref: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/je/2019/5175323/

Paper Tray – It is the place where papers are placed to be printed.

5.2 Hybrid stepper motor control

5.2.1Open loop control

5.2.2 Closed loop control

5.2.3 Open-Loop Control Using Voltage to Frequency Converter

Figure 5.2.3.1 : System control implemented in Matlab-Simulink

A. Voltage to Frequency Converter

Figure 5.2.3.2: Pulse train at the output converter.

B. Pulse train at the output converter

Figure 5.2.3.4: Functions to minimize the driver command pulses.

[5.11]Ref: George Mihalache, Andreea Zbant (Adam), Gheorghe Livint,Open-Loop Control of

STEPPER MOTOR MICROSTEPPING DRIVE

Figure 5.2.5.1: The modified PID control system.

B. Topology of the Fuzzy Logic Controller

e i=f i−Ωi , Δe i=ei −ei −1

Figure 5.2.6.1: Fuzzy controller structure.

Figure 5.2.6.2: Phase plane trajectory.

4) Defuzzification: To express the qualitative action in a quantitative action, the “center-of-gravity”

Figure 5.2.6.4: Fuzzy controller output.

C. Fuzzy Logic Controller Implementation

5.2.7 Sensor-less Control of Hybrid Stepper Motor

where i a and i b :Currents of phases A and B [ A ]

The model (5.2.7.4) is represented by the following general form:

Extended Kalman Filter

With F d k the Jacobian matrix.

K k +1=Pk+1 / k . H tk .(H k . Pk +1/ k . H tk + Rk )−1………..5.2.7.10

With Hd k the Jacobian matrix.

^x k+1 /k +1=¿ ^x k+1 /k + K k +1.( y k +1−H k . x^ k+ 1/ k ¿………..5.2.7.11

Pk +1/ k+1=Pk +1/ k −K k+1. H k . Pk +1/ k……………….….5.2.7.12

In our case, F d k and Hd k are given by:

where I is the identity matrix.

R = 0.37Ω; L = 0.9 mH; K m = 0.153 Vs/rad;

controlled in current in order to vary the load torque[5.14].

Figure 5.2.7.1: Experimental setup

Figure 5.2.7.2: Sensorless drive implementation

[5.14]Ref: M. Bendjedia, Y. Ait-Amirat, B. Walther and A. Berthon ,” Sensorless Control of Hybrid

5.3 DRIVER SYSTEM

Figure5.3.1: Block diagram of a typical hybrid stepper motor control