A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 529

A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal 77°

Ore Formation, Ticapampa-Aija Mining District,

Cordillera Negra, Department of Ancash, Peru
P. TRURNIT 1 , K. FESEFELDT I , and S. STEPHAN 2

Abstract
Most of the hydrothermal Pb-Ag-Zn mineralization in (Upper Cretaceous to) Tertiary volcanics in
the Ticapampa-Aija polymetallic mining district in the Cordillera Negra (Cordillera Occidental),
10° --.-~-- ----10°
Department of Ancash, Peru, is associated with the southeastern quadrant of a Neogene caldera, , (')

which has been eroded down to its base. Other controls (structural and rock-mechanic lithological) j ~~
have also played an important role in the concentration of the ore.
I, ,ri \~~
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8ariO:Ca pt o. de '~ ~
I
Geographical Location, Climate, and Morphology
. 1-" '
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The Ticapampa-Aija mining district (Fig. 1) is located between 4000 m and 4800 m
elevation in the crest region of the Cordillera Negra (part of the Cordillera Occidental), I
Department of Ancash, Peru, approximately 250 km north of Lima. The central coor- LEGEND
... Capital
dinates of the mining district are 77°35' W; 9°45' S. o Provindol Copita/
Precipitation in the Cordillera Negra is relatively low. High-mountain climate pre- o Village
___ Departmental
vails with rainfall during the summer and sudden spells of cold weather during the win- 12° - Tar,be':f~~'ad
==:::=- Unterred road
ter of the southern hemisphere.
(:) T),,;nafn~"'t~tr1lta
The crestline of the Cordillera Negra is 70 to 80 km from the Pacific coast but only
5 to 15 km from the Rio Santa Valley. The Cordillera Negra is an uplifted relic of the
Neogene Puna erosion surface, broken and arched along faults with an Andean strike
Fig. 1. Geographical location of the Ticapampa-Aija mining district, Cordillera Negra, Ancash, Peru
direction, tilted somewhat to the west, and dissected by valleys. Above 4000 m eleva-
tion the morphology has been shaped by glacial processes.

supergene enrichment (cementation) of many deposits have already been removed by

2 Mining
Mining activity in this district dates back at least to the early Spanish period. The
Collaracra and Hunacapeti mines have been known since 1621 (Purser 1971). Gold and
silver were the only metals in demand for a long time. The zones of oxidation and
Bundesanstalt flir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Postfach 510153, Stilleweg 2,
3000 Hannover 51, FRG
2 Molderamweg 10,3352 Einbeck, FRG
early mining. In terms of quantity, lead and zinc have become the most important
metals. Silver is recovered as a by-product from the lead concentrate. Copper plays
only a subordinate role. Antimony is unimportant. The presence of arsenic sulphides
increases with depth.
Mines are being operated by several small mining companies and a mining venture
of the "Median a Mineria", the Cia. Minera Alianza S.A. The small mines are not oper-
ated on a continuous basis. Cia. Minera Alianza S.A. puts a total of 1000 tid through
two flotation plants. This ore originates almost exclUSively from the Hercules mine.
530 P. Trurnit et al.

3 Geology

3.1 Regional Geology

The Andes in central Peru consist of geological units trending approximately NNW,
more or less parallel to the morphological features (Petersen 1965; Zeil 1970; Ripley
and Ohrnoto 1977, Pitcher 1978). Information about pre-Cretaceous sediments, i.e.,
pre-batholithic, is given by Steinmann (1929), Wilson et al. (1967), Cobbing (1976),
Megard (1978), Pitcher (1978), Samaniego (1978) and others.
The intrusive complex of the coastal batholith or plutonite of the Andes forms the
"backbone" of the mountain chain. Erosion has freed it from its mantle of sediments
and bedded volcanites only at the western margin of the Andes. The coastal batholith
is a mUltiple intrusive consisting of numerous separate intrusive bodies and ring com-
plexes arranged symmetrically and which are increasingly acidic with decreasing age
(105 to 30 m.y.) (Hamilton and Myers 1967; Wilson et al. 1967; Cob bing and Pitcher
1972. Knox 1974; Pitcher 1974, 1978; Myers 1975a,b; Pitcher and Taylor 1975;
Cobbing 1976).
A cover of bedded volcanic rock, up to 10,000 m thick, accumulated approximately
contemporaneously with the emplacement of the Andean pluton (lOS to 30 m.y.;
Myers 1975a,b). These volcanic rocks originated from the magmas of the complex
coastal batholith. The oldest flows were intruded and assimilated locally by younger
>
individual intrusive bodies (Myers 1975a). The volcanics have the same chemical com- ~

position as these intrusives (Cobbing and Pitcher 1972; Knox 1974; Pitcher 1974, ::
1978; Myers 1975a). In the west, up to 7000 m of the Casma volcanoclastics of Lower '~tIl

Cretaceous age (Albian; 105 to 95 m.y.; Myers 1975a,b), which are deposited in the
Q.
!.. '" '"
K K "e .><~
e~
e ~
marine environment of a eugeosynclinal island arc facies (basalts to andesites from
" "
.c;
e
"c .><
"e ~-
Q.~

c E
~ ~
2 a
c e
c
~
~ "~
'0.::
~ U
gabbroic and dioritic magmas), correlate with an up to 5000 m thick calcareous and "Zi u " ~'" "~
" .c;>-" «C Vl,., 0~
U
~
c
clastic miogeosynclinal succession of sediments farther to the east (Wilson 1963; Myers e e > ;;
L1. -' Q:
>-
1974; Cobbing 1976, 1978). The bedded, volcanic Calipuy Formation (andesite, dacite,
~ ... *+ t
I
-~1
0
1 )
and rhyolite from tonalitic, granodioritic and granitic magmas), first described in detail I 0
I
I I i II
by Cossio (1964), was deposited in a terrestrial environment. It rests disconformably
0",
on Lower Cretaceous sediments or immediately on the multiple intrusive coastal ~e

batholith. This formation has an average thickness of 2000 m and a maximum thick- ~ ~
>
.- U
aU
c._

E~
."'"
0
U
-0
eN
~
C

;
"'"
ness of 3000 to 4000 m (Cobbing 1974, 1976, 1978; Pitcher 1974; Myers 1975a; ~m !,!", ~c
-' " ~-
-;: ~~~_.t:l-; ~o
.c;.- c
Samaniego 1978). According to Myers (1975b), the Calipuy Formation is of Upper U
- ~~
0
!:!-.-!'
..... 'Gr-
~
G7''''
E
Cretaceous and Tertiary age (95 to 30 m.y.), according to Pitcher (1974, 1978), it is U
e
."
o"C ~ "'CJ
,,~

,.,!:
U

only Tertiary. 0 .:;. Co"

0«
~
-,'" Ie
~
Vl

Numerous ore deposits were formed in connection with these magmato-volcanic

events. The individual types of ore deposits are arranged in narrow zones parallel to
the Andes (Petersen 1970; Sillitoe 1972; Garson and Mitchell 1977; Amstutz 1978).

,., "
Q.

3.2 Local Geology e

c U
c

"C ~
Q.

3.2.1 Stratigraphy. The geological sequence in the mining district is represented by the "
0
Q.
=>
following three formations, which are separated by unconformities:
 P. Trurnit et al.
532
w
Quaternary; glacial deposits z
w
Upper Cretaceous (?) ~o Tertiary (Calipuy); volcanics with sporadic intercalations
of thin sedimerHs -
Pre-Albian Lower Cretaceous (Goyllarisquisga); sediments

Lower Cretaceous. Near the pueblo Aija at the eastern margin of the mining district,
. ~
c
,
'0
I
closely folded, miogeosynclinal sedimentary rocks of pre-Albian Lower Cretaceous age = o r
are exposed. They are sandstones, conglomerates, quartzites, calcareous argillites,
marls, gypsum, anhydrite, limestones, shales, metamorphic shales, and some thin seams
of coal of the Goyllarisquisga Group. The axial planes of the folds have an Andean ;o x.~
~,

strike direction and ENE vergence. ~ ~O­

~ U

Upper Cretaceous (?) and Tertiary (Calipuy). Most of the mining district consists of o

bedded volcanic rock of the Calipuy Formation. This rock is made up of rather thick ::>

flows of lava and pyroclastics, as well as rather thin sheets of ignimbrites and tuffites.
A predominance of the former indicates a short distance from the volcanic centre; the
predominance of the latter indicates a greater distance from the volcanic centre.
The volcanic rocks lie unconformably on Lower Cretaceous sediments. Together
with these sediments or alone, they form the roof of the multiple intrusive coastal
batholith. Reduction of the volcanic series took place partly at the bottom by assimila- E
E E E
~ ~
-"
tion and at the top by erosion.
The Calipuy Formation is divided into a more intensely folded lower group and a
less intensely folded upper group by an angular disconformity that is distinctly visible
locally. The lower group is assigned by Myers (l975b) to the Upper Cretaceous and
Lower Tertiary, by Pitcher (1978) only to the Lower Tertiary (Paleocene to Oligo-
cene). The upper group, present only as erosion relics, has been assigned mainly to the
Upper Tertiary (Oligocene, Miocene, early Pliocene) (Myers 1975b; Pitcher 1978).
In terms of age, genesis, and chemical composition, the predominantly andesitic
Lower Calipuy Group correlates with the o.lder, main part of the multiple intrusive
coastal batholith; the more acidic, primarily dacitic rhyolitic Upper Calipuy Group
correlates with the younger, more acidic, individual intrusive bodies of the coastal
batholith and its subvolcanic intrusives (Cob bing and Pitcher 1972; Knox 1974; Pit-
>
. o
c
o
V

cher 1974, 1978; Hudson et al. 1975; Myers 1975a). The younger volcanic beds geneti-
cally associated with the younger subvolcanic intrusives are frequently already eroded
,
2.; 0
§ I]. I::
away. The monzonitic neck of the Cerro Pincullo west of the Tarugo mine is an z ~ ,~ ~
~
~] "
w 0
example of these sub volcanic intrusives (Plan 1). .~
0

'" 0 0

. . .
0
Clastic, partially silicified sediments, mostly only a few metres thick, are locally w ,~

00
~.~ -
0

intercalated in the volcanics, especially in the Upper Calipuy. Such sediments occur NC -:: 0 .-
g~ g~ ~ 0
~
more frequently at the bottom of the Upper Calipuy Group, where they are red and "'" ,,0
"

~ ~ ~ ~<;> ~
;.....~ ..
have reached greater thicknesses. +++ :t;..;~;. '0
:f.f;~:
"
Lower CaUpuy. In the mining district under consideration, andesites of the Lower
Calipuy Group are often encountered on the western flank of the Cordillera Negra
(Plans 1 and 2). The lower boundary of the volcanites is exposed in contact with a
separate intrusive body of the coastal batholith at an elevation of 3900 m near the
Estremadoiro and Maguifia mines. The upper limit of the Lower Calipuy Group can be
534 P. Trurnit et al.
identified on the basis of any of several characteristics: either an angular unconfor-
mity, distinctly visible locally (e.g., near the Huancapetl mine), a change from the
andesites of the u'wer Calipuy Group to the dacites and rhyolites of the Upper Cali-
puy Group or a red, predominantly sedimentary succession deposited only locally at
the bottom of the Upper Calipuy.
The Lower Calipuy Group is up to 2600 m thick in the mining district.
Upper Calipuy. The mountain peaks of the Cordillera Negra summit region and the
parts of the mountain ridges above 4000 m elevation on the west side of the Rio Santa
Valley consist predominantly of the Upper Calipuy sequence (Plans 1 and 2). The
Upper Calipuy is less thick and more acidic than the Lower Calipuy Group. It is made
up of dacitic, rhyolitic, and rarely andesitic lavas, pyroclastics, tuffites and ignimbrites.
The beds and flows are the erosional remnants of a once much thicker sequence.
A clastic, limnic lacustrine red series occurs at the bottom of the Upper Calipuy
Group in the south-eastern part of the study area. It is best developed and exposed on
the south-eastern slope of the Cerro Tuctu (Plan 1). The series consists of argillites,
shales, silicified shales, limestones and a considerable amount of conglomerate. There
are also such sediments intercalated in the upper volcanic layers of Upper Calipuy
remnants east and south-east of the Jinchis Ridge (Plan 1).
The relics of the Upper Calipuy Group are up to 300-400 m thick in the mining
district.
Quaternary. Quaternary glacial debris covers valley bottoms and gentle slopes.
3.2.2 Intrusives. The only plutoniC intrusive rock exposed at the surface in the mining
district is the upper part of a monzonitic-granodioritic separate intrusive complex of
the coastal batholith. It crops out in an erosional window at the western slope of the
Cordillera Negra at an elevation of 3900 m near the abandoned Maguifia and Estrema·
doiro mines (Plans 1 and 2). The texture of the rock is granular. It is composed pre·
dominantly of plagioclase, considerable orthoclase and hornblende, and only a small
percentage of quartz. A network of shrinkage fractures is filled mainly with quartz
and tourmaline, some epidote, arsenopyrite and traces of chalcopyrite and pyrite.
Quartz-tourmaline breccia bodies with epidote and altered fragments of andesite
are found in the contact zone of the intrusive complex. They extend 200 to 300 m
above the contact into the Lower Calipuy Group. Such bodies of andesite breccias
with quartz and tourmaline have been encountered on the sixth level of the Hercules
mine, 1 to 1.5 km west of the mining area. They are mineralized with pyrite and
arsenopyrite. Chalcopyrite, an ore mineral that appears early in the paragenesis of the
mining district, occurs only in minor amounts. There are also traces of galena and
sphalerite. Such quartz·tourmaline-andesite breccia bodies have been described on a
worldwide scale by Sillitoe and Sawkins (1971).
The relationship between the intrusive rock on the one hand and the quartz-tour-
maline-andesite breccia bodies together with ore mineralization on the other hand
(Estremadoiro, Maguii'ia, and Hercules mines) suggests a genetic association between
ore formation in the district and the intrusive body exposed in the Maguii'ia mine area.
The time of ore formation is Upper Calipuy (Miocene to early Pliocene).
A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 535
Presumably, most of the Ticapampa-Aija mining district is underlain by the separate
intrusive body of the coastal batholith that crops out at the Maguilla mine. Most prob-
ably the volcanic neck of the Cerro Pincullo west of the Tarugo vein is also genetically
associated with it (Plan 1).
Subvolcanic bodies, which have intruded rocks higher up, in most cases cut discor-
dantly through the volcanic ejecta. However, they are also observed with a direct tran-
sition into volcanic flows.
In many cases it is not easy to distinguish in the field between rather thick lava
flows and sub volcanic bodies and stocks that are rather small or have intruded rather
high. Their structure and texture are very similar. For instance, the so-called Collaracra
intrusive body in the east part of the mining district is exposed only at the deepest
level of the Collaracra mine. Closer to the surface there is a transition into a dacite
flow, which is locally up to 60 m thick and has a widespread distribution (Upper Cali-
puy) (Plan 2). Dunin Borkowski (1972) and Tumialan de la Cruz (1972) have inter-
preted this flow as an intrusive body.
Small apophyses and subvolcanic bodies may be present in the Jinchis district
(Plan 1) in the heavily hydrothermally altered zones of the mines and concessions of
Gioconda-Cu, Rescate, and Huar6n or they are near the surface (Dunin Borkowski
1973; Cabos Yepez 1974). From the intense hydrothermal alteration and the many
ore mineral veins present in the Jinchis district, a rather large sub volcanic body might
also be expected near the surface. It would be possibly connected with the separate
intrusive body of the coastal batholith that crops out at the Maguifia mine.
3.2.3 Structures
Folding and Unconformities. The angular disconforrllity between the sedimentary
rocks of the Lower Cretaceous and the Calipuy Formation is attributed to the "Peru-
vian Stage" of the Andean orogenesis. Pitcher (1978) who places the beginning of the
deposition of the Calipuy volcanics not earlier than the Paleocene, points out a further
weak orogenic stage between Late Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary. Accordingly, ero-
sion dominated the whole of the Late Cretaceous.
The angular disconformity between the Lower and Upper Calipuy Groups is caused
by the "Inkaic Orogenic Stage" at the beginning of the Oligocene (Steinmann 1929;
Pitcher 1978). The "Quechua Orogenic Stage" [Miocene, early Pliocene; according to
Petersen (1965), already in the Oligocene] also included the Upper Calipuy volcanics
in the folding process. The unconformity caused by this orogeJtij;st'l,ge is eroded away
in the mining district.
The axial planes of all the folds have an Andean strike direction, i.e., about 330° to
345°. There are local differences in strike direction as far as 20° NNE.
The intensity of folding increases and the distance between folds of the "Que chua
Orogenic Stage" decreases in the mining district eastward towards the Colloaracra
intrusive body. Some fold limbs are overturned (Cerro Washington) towards ENE
(Plans 1 and 2).
Volcanic activity started again after the erosional period following the "Quechua
Orogenic Stage". No volcanic deposits of this epoch are preserved in the mining dis·
trict but only the volcanic vents (dykes) and channelways for the mineralizations
(veins).
536 P. Trurnit et al.
The development of the ;Puna erosion surface began during the Miocene or ea:ly
Pliocene, possibly already during the Oligocene. The uplift of the Andes started dunng
the Pliocene or somewhat earlier, cumulating in several phases (Petersen 1958, 1965).
This resulted in the arching of the .:'Chavin Block" of the Cordillera Blanca (Fig. 1)
and the arching and tilting westward of the "Paramonga Block" of the ~ordillera
Negra (Myers 197 5b). Relics of the Puna peneplain today form the summits of the
mountain ridges that project westward from the western flank of the Cordillera ~egra.
The youngest unconformity is found between the Quaternary, unconsolIdated
glacial deposits and their Tertiary-Cretaceous base.
Faulting. Several main structural strike directions stand out in the mining ~istrict.
Most of the veins, faults, fissure planes as well as the drainage system follow this ~truc­
tural pattern. These directions in order of increasing importance are as follows (Fig. 2):
Andean: 330° _345°
Transverse: "Collaracra System" 60° - 70°
Diagonal: "Tarugo System" 80° _120°
"Huancapetl System" 20° - 50°
The most prominent Andean structure is the deep-seated fault of the Rio Santa
Valley. A series of en echelon faults with Andean strike direction and 70° ENE to verti-
cal dip is exposed in the main adit of the deepest level "EI Triunfo" of the Collaracra
Fig. 2. Structural diagram with frequency distribution of mineralized veins in the Ticapampa-Aija
mining district, Cordillera Negra, Ancash, Peru (Cabos Yepez 1974)
A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 537
mine. Along each of these faults, the west side is lifted with respect to the east side.
On a large scale, the arching of the Cordillera Negra must have been caused in this way.
The mineralized "mantos" of the Cotuwln mine (2) and the Hercules mine (3-4)
are pseudo congruent to the surrounding lava flows, which dip about 28° ENE. These
mantos are thrust faults with Andean strike direction; the upper limbs have been
thrust westward over the lower ones. Other faults and fissures with Andean strike
direction in the mining district are not mineralized with ore.
Almost all of the veins mineralized with ore in the mining district have a transverse
or diagonal strike direction.
The mineralized veins with a transverse strike direction (Collaracra System) are
approximately normal to the Andean strike direction. In most cases they have a sub-
vertical dip of 80° to 90° NNW. Its main representative in the mining district is the
more than 2 km long Collaracra vein.
The diagonal Tarugo System is named after the Tarugo vein. The eastern section of
this vein has an almost WoE strike direction; the strike of the western section is be-
tween 100° and 120° WNW; it dips between 70° and 90° northward.
The structures of the diagonal Huancapet{ System are the most frequently mineral-
ized in the mining district (Fig. 2). It was named after the north-eastern section of the
Huancapeti vein. There the vein strikes about 40° NE and dips 75° to 85° NW. The
veins Alsacia, Sta. Maria, and Carp a also belong to this system.
4 Ore Deposits
The Ticapampa-Aija rnining district is in the zone of complex polymetallic Pb-Ag-Zn-Cu
deposits, which in Peru extends with Andean trend direction through the upper part of
the Western and Central Cordillera. The largest concentration of metal in a belt up to
15 km wide and 150 km long with several hundred ore deposits - mainly vein depo-
sits - in the summit region of the Cordillera Negra is in the mining district under con-
sideration. The ore mineralization is associated mainly with veins with a transverse or
diagonal strike direction. Thrust faults with Andean strike direction are also mineral-
ized; these are called mantos in the Cotuwln and Hercules mines. There are also a few
mineralized faults with an Andean strike direction. Locally, ore disseminations are con-
tained in individual lava flows, sediments interbedded with voJt)}inic rocks, breccia
bodies, and small, intensely altered subvolcanic bodies.
Numerous authors, e.g., Casadevall and Ohmoto (1977), Harley (1979), Knox
(1974), Kouda and Koide (1978), Ohmoto (1977), Smith and Bailey (1968), Spence
and de Rosen-Spence (1975), Steven et al. (1974), Tanimura (1973), Thurlow et al.
(197 5) have described major sulphide ore deposits all over the world that are associated
with magmato-volcanic ring structures (calderas). But most of the deposits described
belong to the type of massive, stratiform ore deposits of the island arc facies of sub-
marine and syngenetic origin (Sangster 1972,1980; Mitchell and Bell 1973; Mitchell
and Garson 1976; Garson and Mitchell 1977; Large 1977; Sato 1977). The initial to
synorogenic volcanism associated with these ore deposits was fed predominantly from
gabbro and diorite magmas. Discordant stockwork and vein type mineralization in the
538 P. Trurnit et al. A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 539

roots and vents of the stratiform ore paragenesis deposited at the sea floor playa larger
or lesser role, depending on th~ water depth at the time of ore formation (Finlow-Bates
and Large 1978). Some of the~e deposits may have been remobilized later and epigene- 000113

tically deposited in hydrothermal veins (Kouda and Koide 1978 - Kuroko type).
This type of deposit is to be distinguished from epigenetic ore formations that were
deposited in volcanic rocks of terrestrial origin on an active continental margin and
originated in association with a terrestrial subsequent volcanism (plutonic assimilation
of stratiform and syngenetic ore deposits in submarine volcanites and sediments
included). These mineralizations are pneuma to lytic hydrothermal, predominantly dis-
cordant vein deposits; the pseudo-concordant mantos were mineralized in the same
way as the veins. The volcanism with which these ore formations are associated was
fed primarily by monzo..granodioritic magma. This second type of ore deposit can be
0060!3
observed in the polymetallic Ticapampa-Aija mining district in association with a
caldera.

4.1 Geometry

Individual veins are up to 2.5 km long (Collaracra).

The veins, including gangue, are locally up to 20 m thick (Huancapetl, Tarugo).
Economically minable ore averages 1.2 m thick and in "manto 1" of the Hercules mine
reaches a maximum of 4 m. Greater thicknesses have been encountered in mined out 008013

sections of the Tarugo vein.

The roots of the ore in the veins reach into the magmatic body. The roof of the
mineralizing monzo-granodiorite is exposed near the abandoned Maguifia and Estrema-
doiro mines at an elevation of 3900 m. The roof of the ore mineralizing source below
the veins of the Cordillera Negra crest region (Jinchis district) is probably at a higher
elevation than at the Maguiiia mine, due to the arching of the Cordillera Negra.
In the summit region, the Tarugo, Huancapetf, and Wilson veins and those of the
Jinchis ridge are well mineralized with ore up to an elevation of 4800 m. The minerali-
zation must have reached into still higher levels of the already eroded volcanic beds. OOL0!3
According to Myers (1975a,b), individual intrusive bodies were emplaced to within
2.5 to 3 km of the land surface of that time.
The known ore mineralization in the Hercules mine extends about 220 m between
4060 m and 4280 m elevation, in the Tarugo mine ca. 400 m between 4400 m and
.-
4800 m elevation, in the Huancapetf mine about 350 m between ca. 4450 m and
4800 m elevation, in the Collaracra mine about 570 m between ca. 3905 m and 4475 m ~
·
>- ~ -

elevation. The observable range of mineralization does not exceed 600 m. However, it
must be kept in mind, especially in the case of the Col1aracra vein, that the arching of :;: ··, ,
,,,
the Cordillera Negra for the most part postdates ore formation.
The dip of most veins is sub vertical between 70° and 85°, predominantly to the
Vl
:;:
0
0
E
0
on
'.
u

J: E:
0,
on,
,
009 Ol 3

northwest. Most sections of the mineralized mantos, together with the volcanic beds, ....... ...
N :;1

dip about 28° ENE.

The ore mineralizations in the veins frequently occur in lense-like ore shoots, aligned
horizontally like a "string of pearls". The ore shoots horizontally have lengths between
a few tens of metres to more than 100 m. They are separated from each other by wider,
540 :~-
P. Trurnit et al. 541
A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru

weakly mineralized or barren sections of the vein, in which even the gangue material
frequently thins out. \ NW
Panizo
-~ '~CO\.PUYhuan
Oiet Herl'flO as Nf
Viewed on a hOriz!mtal plan, the veins towards one end frequently split into horse- "e'O
tail structures (e.g., Huancapetl, Tarugo, Collaracra, Huran; Plan 1). The "mantos" of
the Hercules mine, also viewed on a.horizontal plan, unite at the ends in a spindle-like ---0..---..--
manner.
Vertically, the vein and manto structures (e.g., Hercules mine; Plan 3) tend to split co.curcu~
Insrgnific ot veins not
towards the roof and to unite towards depth. miner lized

Major veins are frequently composed of many, closely spaced, parallel sigmoidal vern
----'>....--+-~---j-- .. ---
and stringer structures (e.g., Huancapeti). Lorena
In addition to the ore formation in veins and mantos, a disseminated ore minerali-
zation is exposed in shales intercalated with Upper Calipuy volcanic rock in the Gio-
conda-Cu mine on the Jinchis Ridge.
Non-vein ore bodies are of subordinate importance in the mining district. They
occur as
Quartz-tourmaline breccias with hydrothermally altered wall rock fragments (e.g.,
Maguiiia, Estremadoiro, Belota).
Stockwork ore bodies (e.g., south-western section of the Huancapetl vein; "Alpha-
Beta-Gamma" ore bodies, western section of the Tarugo vein at its intersection with
Estremadoiro
the Coturcan mantos; Hercules-B ore body, Hercules mine).
1 km
Intensely hydrothermally altered zones in the roof region of small intrusive bodies Sf
SW
(e.g., Rescate, Huar6n, Gioconda-Cu in the linchis district).
Fig. 3. Schematical plan of the caldera ring structure in the Ticapampa-Aija mining district, Cordil-
lera Negra. Ancash, Peru
4.2 Controls on Ore Formation

4.2.1 Structural Controls

Caldera. In the north-western part of the mining district, the arrangement of faults,
quartz-tourmaline veins and ore veins in a set of concentric semicircles indicates the
presence of the southern half of a caldera. Most of the veins dip between 70° and 85°
towards the centre. The mineralization of a vein frequently shifts from one fault to
another at their intersection (e.g., Huancapetl, Tarugo). The part of each fault extend-
ing outwards from an intersection may have a rich ore shoot in the immediate vicinity
of the intersection but becomes lean and thins out within a short distance. The mini-
mum diameter of the caldera ring structure is assumed to be 5 km, but with outer rings
may possibly amount to 20 km (Fig. 3; Plan I). According to MacDonald (1972) cal-
dera diameters average 25 km.
The batholithic foundation of the caldera may be a ring complex composed of sepa-
rate intrusive bodies of various ages and chemical composition (increasing acidity and
decreasing age towards the centre), of the same sort as exposed further to the west and
investigated by Cobbing and Pitcher (1972), Knox (1974), Myers (1975a), and Pitcher
(1978).
The caldera came into existence during the pneumatolytic stage of mineralization.
The cover of bedded volcanic rock was domed up by high vapour pressure. Pressure
was released from time to time along a set of concentric ring fractures made up of
intersecting tension faults with Andean, transverse, and diagonal strike directions. Pulsa-
tions of emanations deposited primarily quartz and tourmaline, a good amount of
arsenopyrite, and minor pyrite and chalcopyrite. After further cooling of the remain-
ing magma and the accompanying decrease of pressure, the roof subsided along pneu-
matolytically mineralized en echelon ring faults. Intermittently, the feeder channels
were closed for some time. Only during a later epoch did horizontal displacement
along rejuvenated transverse and diagonal faults create the necessary channel ways for
the hydrothermal ore-forming solutions. No horizontal displac-e;;ent took place at this
time along veins at right angles to these faults (mainly with an Andean strike direction).
These veins contain only pneuma to lytic minerals.
According to Myers (1975a,b), some of the younger and more acidic individual
intrusive bodies intruded to within 2.5-3 km of the Tertiary land surface. Thus, in the
south-western part of the mining district, erosion has left only the lower third of the
caldera, i.e., the root zone or base of a volcano.
The south-eastern quadrant of the caldera root zone, with the Huancapeti, Alsacia,
Carpa, and Tarugo veins and the mantos of the Hercules and Coturcan mines, is the
area with the greatest ore potential of the whole mining district. This quadrant and the
geologically little-known north-west quadrant are the most promising areas for pros-
pecting in the mining district.
 A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 543
542 P. Trurnit et al.

The veins in the south-western quadrant contain primarily only quartz and tourma- LEGEND
line. Examples are the many barrlln, north-west striking quartz-tourmaline veins on the Rocks well suited
Choquerhua mountain ridge between the mines MaguifiajEstremadoiro and Senor de D for mineralization
rhyoli tes Rocks poorly suited
BurgosjPanizo (Plan 1). Accordingly, only weak ore mineralization is to be expected in dacites
for mineralization
the north-eastern quadrant of the caldera. Q.

Figure 3 shows the most likely position of the caldera centre in the vicinity of the ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
various veins and mantos of the Lorena concession and the Cerro Pucara. These veins '"...
and mantos have various strike directions and are only weakly mineralized with ore. ~
Q.
The assignment of the caldera centre (volcanic centre) places the ore veins Senor de
Burgos and Panizo in the north-western quadrant (Tarugo System).

Other Structural Controls. Space for the ore shoots in the veins and mantos was cre-
ated by sliding movements along the faults and overthrust structures and the rather
undulating surface of these tectonic structures in most of the different units of the
volcanic succession.
Ore shoots are found especially in the more gently dipping sections of the mantos,
while the ore mineralization in the more steeply dipping sections thins out and is
leaner (e.g., Hercules mine). They are also found at places in veins deviating from the ~::'.:';:'
general strike direction (e.g., Huran vein north of the Collaracra vein). Q..'

Ore shoots also occur at intersections, contacts, and junctions or splittings of veins. - >..
o
<.J
On closer examination of many of the changes in the strike direction of the veins, it is
found that they are better interpreted as intersections of two structures, with the ore
mineralization shifting from one structure to the other at the intersection (e.g., Huan-
+ + +
capet! and Tarugo). Ore shoots at intersections, contacts, and junctions of mineralized
veins and mantos are frequently encountered in the Hercules mine. "Manto 1" mean- ++++++
ders between "manto 2" and "Veta Hercules A". ++++++
+ + + + + monzo-granodiorite + + + + + +

4.2.2 Rock-Mechanic Lithological Control. In the Calipuy volcanic sequence, certain +++++++++++++++++
rock units are strongly, others barely mineralized with ore in mantos and cross-cutting
veins (Fig. 4). The reason for this is the rock-mechanic property of certain volcanic Fig. 4. Schematic section: Rock-mechanic lithologic control of ore formation in the Ticapampa-
rocks to form more undulating breaks on a large scale, of others to form more planar Aija mining district, Cordillera Negra, Ancash, Peru
fractures. Movements along faults in units broken in an undulating manner result in
good channelways for the mineralizing solutions; in units broken in planar fashion,
poor channelways or none at all result.
The Tarugo vein has been encountered only above the Lowe'fCalipuy tuffite series
A competent series of tuffite with planar fractures in the Lower Calipuy Group,
(Fig. 5). Levels 0 to 8 of the Tarugo mine are in the vein in the andesites and pyro-
about 400 m thick, is strinkingly poorly mineralized with ore (Plan 2). In contrast,
clastics above the tuffite series. The vein had a very good mineralization at these levels
good to very good ore mineralizations are found in the andesite lavas (containing the
and is almost completely mined out. Below level 8, the vein ends at the tuffite series.
mantos of the Hercules mine) underlying these tuffites and in the overlying andesite
The Tarugo structure is barely discernible in the section of level 9 that is in the tuffite
lavas and pyroclastics (agglomerates, volcanic breccias) containing the Coturcan man-
and only very poorly mineralized with ore. The mineralized Coturcan thrust faults
tos and the Tarugo, Huancapetl, Carpa, and other veins.
(mantos) are located along or adjacent to the contact between the tuffitesand the over-
Other poorly mineralized to barren units are the basal beds of the Upper Calipuy
lying andesite lavas and pyroclastics. Major ore shoots, most of which have been mined
(conglomeratic red series containing lutites, limnic-Iacustrine sediments and some vol-
out (Alpha-Beta-Gamma ore bodies), formed at the intersection of the Tarugo vein
canics). The hanging wall is followed by the Collaracra dacite flow, rhyolitic tuffites
with the Coturcan mantos. The Tarugo vein above the tuffite series and the Coturcan
and ignimbrites, which are excellently mineralized in the Collaracra and Huran veins
mantos were mineralized together; they form an integrated mineralization system.
and the veins that cross through the Jinchis Ridge.
 A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation. Peru 545
544 P. Trurnit et al.

4.3 Ore Formation

andesiNe lava flows and
J pyroclastics The primary ore mineralization is epigenetic. The paragenetic sequence includes
presumed minerals of the pneumatolytic and hydrothermal stages of ore formation.
The comparably thin zones of oxidation and secondary enrichment (cementation)
contain minerals of secondary origin.
The major ore minerals of the primary mineralization zone are sphalerite and silver-
bearing galena. Jamesonite and plumosite also occur. There are no significant occur-
rences of copper and silver ores, nor of stibnite. In addition, pyrite and arsenopyrite
are present in rather large quantities. The gangue consists predominantly of quartz,
tourmaline, rhodochrosite, and calcite. The complete paragenetic sequence is given
in Table 1.

Table 1. Paragenetic sequence of minerals in the Ticapampa-Aija mining district, Cordillera Negra,
Ancash, Peru; major sulphides are shown in bold letters, minor sulphides in italics; rare sulphides
are given in normal letters

Zone of primary mineralization

+++++++++++
+monz~-.tr~no~io+it:. ++ ++ + + + + +++ ++ ++ ++ + + ++ ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + + + Hydrothermal zone Telethermal Alabandite
~ Andesitic lava flows ~ AndesHic 10 va flows Vein or oreshoot Realgar, auripigment
and pyrocl asflcs -
o Tuffi/es ~ Monzo- Granodiorite . . . Thrust fault
Epithermal Marcasite
Stibnite Anhydrite
Bournonite, seligmanite
Calcite
Fig. 5. Block diagram of the veins and "mantos" of Hercules, Coturcan, Tarugo, Huancapeti and Jamesonite (Plumosite)
Dolomite
Carpa mines, Ticapampa-Aija mining district, Cordillera Negra, Ancash, Peru Primary chalcocite ,
Pyrargyrite - proustite Barite

Mesothermal Tennantite
Tetrahedrite
A continuation of the ore mineralization in the Tarugo structure below the tuffites Argentite
in the Hercules series and a connection of the Hercules mantos with the unknown Cubanite
parts of the Tarugo vein to an integrated mineralization system (as above the tuffites Chalcopyrite
Galena Rhodochrosite
with Cotumin) is presumed (Fig. 5). Rhodonite
Enargite
The known mineralized sections of the Collaracra vein are above the nonmineralized, Luzonite Pyrite and Hematite
basal red series, where it is found in the Collaracra dacite flow and in the upper rhyoli- quartz in Siderite
tic beds of the Upper Calipuy. Below the deepest level ("EI Triunfo") of the Collaracra Katathermal :, Sphalerite wide
Pyrrhotite diswbu'tion
mine, mineralized vein sections are to be expected only there where the Collaracra
Chalcopyrite
dacite flow extends deep into the centre of synclinal folds (Plan 2). The ore potential
of the vein decreases with depth because of the shortening of the mineralized vein seg- Pneumatolytic zone Arsenopyrite Tourmaline
ments in the synclines. There is some possibility for renewed mineralization below the
contact between the Upper and Lower Calipuy Groups. The arching of the Cordillera
Negra along faults with an Andean strike direction means that the probability of cross- Using the Hercules mine as an example, Cabos Yepez (1974, in Hudson et a!. 1975)
cutting mineralized synclinal centres with Collaracra dacite on the lower levels dimin- demonstrated that there are three hydrothermal pulsations after a pneumatolytic stage
ishes rapidly towards the west in the direction of the Cordillera Negra crest region. (Fig. 6).
In addition to those in Table 1, the following ore minerals have been encountered:
Gold (e.g., 0.3-12.4 g/t in the Huancapeti mine; Bodenlos and Straczek 1957, 1958),
boulangerite, bornite, native silver, silver oxides, secondary chalcocite, covellite, chry-
socolla, malachite, azurite, magnetite, iron oxides, manganese oxides, cerussite, angle-
546 P. Trurnit et al. A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 547

pneumatolytic stage hydrothermal stage

Tourmal i n e ~
Quart z
•
-
~ - ~ _..

- -.-
Pyrite
Sphalerite

- - ---
Chalcopyrite ~
r------
Chalcocite
-
Arsenopyrit e ~
Galena ~
Argentite

----
Bournonite
Tetrahedrite
Pyrrhotit e
Cubonite
--
a
-
Marcos; te
Luzonife
Jame!lonite
Boulangeriie
Calcite
------~ ---
-~~---

-
~

.-
Fig. 6. Paragenesis of ore minerals and stages of ore formation in the Hercules mine, Ticapampa-
Aija mining district, Cordillera Negra, Ancash, Peru (slightly changed after cabos Yepez 1974, in:
Hudson et al. 1975)

site, and gypsum predominantly in the oxidation and supergene enrichment zones
(Raimondi 1873; Hudson et al. 1975).
The following are primarily from the authors' own microscopic observations
(Fig. 7): b
Sphalerite sometimes is dark and rich in iron but frequently is also translucent light
yellow to red. It almost always contains innumerable dissolution crystals of chalco-
pyrite throughout the crystal and frequently a cover of small chalcopyrite crystals on
the outside. These dissolution phenomena indicate a rather high formation tempera-
ture and diffusion.
Chalcopyrite also occurs as free crystals in minor amounts.
Cubanite may occur in chalcopyrite as dissolution crystals (Cabos Yepez 1974, in
Hudson et al. 1975).
Pyrite is the most abundant sulphide mineral. Replacement relics of pyrite fre-
quently occur in galena but also in sphalerite.
Galena covers large areas when viewed under the microscope. Silver is probably con-
tained in the galena crystal structure as argentite. According to Caldas Vidal (1968)
argentite is also found in galena as dissolution crystals. Free argentite only occurs in
traces. The primary silver content of the Collaracra mine, which was mined primarily
c
for silver, is supposed to be associated with the frequently occurring fahlore. Secon- Fig. 7. a Hercules mine; intermediate level 5 1/2; X 750. Idiomorphic needles of jamesonite repl~ce
dary silver in the Collaracra mine may also be associated with pyrite in the supergene pyrite and galena. b Hercules mine, level 6; X 750. Tetrahedrite is present between galena, whlch
enrichment zone. includes replacement relics of pyrite, and sphalerite with innumerable dissolution crystals of chalco-
pyrite. c Huancapetl mine, level 6; X 375. Galena and sphalerite replace pyrite; at the boundary of
Jamesonite formed by partial replacement of pyrite and galena. It is observed to- the latter, idiomorphic crystals of arsenopyrite. Sphalerite includes some dissolutIOn crystals of
gether with pyrite and chalcopyrite. Jamesonite has been found on the lower levels of chalcopyrite
548 P. Trurnit et al.
the Hercules mine in open fractures as a matt of fine needles together with pyrite,
chalcopyrite, quartz, and calcit~ or in huge nests, up to several metres in diameter, of
\
finely felted needles. ~
Bournonite is found mainly between galena and chalcopyrite crystals. Frequently,
relics of tetrahedrite are present in its neighbourhood.
Boulangerite is found exclusively in or at the edge of galena crystals.
The antimony-rich phase ranges from tetrahedrite (prevalent at the deeper levels)
to stibnite (closer to the surface).
Tetrahedrite is encountered primarily replacing galena. Its formation usually begins
at the edge of a sphalerite crystal or replacement relics of pyrite within the sphalerite.
Tetrahedrite, tennantite (containing dissolution crystals of chalcopyrite; Caldas
Vidal 1968), enargite, and stibnite are found more frequently in the Collaracra mine
than in the rest of the mining district.
Quartz and tourmaline are normally the main gangue minerals. In the Huancapetl
mine, however, rhodochrosite predominates in the gangue.
The greatly increased occurrence of tourmaline and arsenopyrite at the lowest level
(6th) of the Hercules mine and of arsenopyrite at the lowest level ("El Triunfo") of
the Collaracra mine indicate that mining is approaching the barren roots of the miner-
alization.
In addition to the primary vertical paragenetic zonation, lateral zonation of ore
minerals is found in veins located more to the side of the mineralizing magmatic body.
Sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and tourmaline predominate in the WSW section of the Colla-
racra vein; but in the ENE section, the minerals formed at lower temperatures pre-
dominate: stibnite, tetrahedrite, tennantite, and the silver content associated with
!SIena and tetrahedrite (Bodenlos and Straczek 1957, 1958). The magmatic body
responsible for the ore formation is to be located, therefore, at depth to the WSW
towards the crest region of the Cordillera Negra.
Secondary vertical mineral zonation is not very discernible in the Cordillera Negra
because the oxidation and supergene enrichment zones that remain are comparably
thin or hardly developed. Bodenlos and Straczek (1957, 1958) give an average thick-
ness of 5 m. This is due to unfavourable climatic conditions and rapid erosion.
4.4 Alteration Processes
Four stages of alteration processes may be distinguished in the mining district accord-
ing to their age and intensity. The more advanced and intense the alteration, the more
limited and restricted its extension. The four stages of alteration in order of decreasing
age and increasing intensity are as follows:
- Propylitization (chloritization; epidotization); regionally distributed throughout the
mining district.
- Sericitization and pyritization; they accompany many veins from the sidewalls of
the veins several metres into the wall rock.
Koalinization; more restricted to the immediate area of the veins; kaolinized parts
of veins are frequently only sparsely mineralized by ore or are completely barren.
Silicification; frequently accompanied by good ore mineralization.
A Caldera of Neogene Age and Associated Hydrothermal Ore Formation, Peru 549
Strongly sericitized and kaolinized wall rock is soft and shows little rigidity. The soft
material is called "panizo". Frequently it creeps, slides or breaks into the drifts and
cross-cuts and blocks them, making mining more difficult. Panizos are primarily mylo-
nites. They originated from country rock during sliding movements along faults. Alter-
ation of the panizos was primarily by hydrothermal processes (mainly kaolinization).
are formation and alteration processes took place from Miocene to early Pliocene.
5 Results
Allover the world calderas are associated with major sulphidic ore deposits. A caldera
root zone in Upper Cretaceous (?) to Tertiary volcanic rock of the Calipuy Formation
is preserved from erosion in the Ticapampa-Aija polymetallic mining district (Depart-
ment of Ancash, Peru) in the summit region of the Cordillera Negra. Most of the hydro-
thermal Pb-Ag-Zn ore mineralization in the mining district is concentrated in the south-
eastern quadrant of the caldera.
The primary ore formation is associated with subsequent plutonism and volcanism
of Neogene age. It occurs in connection with terrestrial or nonmarine volcanism fed by
monzo-granodioritic magma on an active continental margin.
are formation is primarily associated with faults (veins) and thrust faults (mantos).
are minerals of economic importance are sphalerite and silver-bearing galena. lameso-
nite and plumosite also occur. Minor minerals are chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite and stib-
nite. Besides these ore minerals, pyrite and arsenopyrite are present in rather large
quantities. The main gangue minerals are quartz, tourmaline, rhodochrosite, and calcite.
Primary vertical and lateral zonations are well developed. Zones of oxidation and
secondary enrichment are thin. Most of them were mined out long ago for their high
silver content.
Besides the role played by the strike direction of the faults (limiting ore formation
to specific quadrants of the caldera), other structural and rock-mechanic lithological
controls played an important role in the concentration of the ore.
are shoots were formed at places in veins with a deviation from their general strike
direction, in mantos with a deviation from their general dip to a more gentle dip. are
shoots also occur at intersections, junctions or splittings of mineralized structures.
In terms of the rock-mechanic and lithological controls on ore. formation, the type
of rock the vein cuts through is important. Certain units of the'Calipuy Formation are
fractured with planar surfaces, others with undulating, uneven surfaces. In the latter
case, lateral movements along faults or thrust-faulting subparallel to the bedding along
the mantos formed good feeder channels for ore-forming solutions; in the former case,
poor feeder channels were formed. For this reason, the Tarugo vein is known only
above a series of tuffites in the Lower Calipuy Group. The Tarugo structure is barely
visible in the tuffites. Below the tuffite series, renewed concentration of the ore as a
continuation of the Tarugo vein to depth is to be expected.
An up to 60 m thick dacite flow in the Upper Calipuy Group and rhyolite above it
were found to be especially intensely mineralized in cross-cutting veins (e.g., Huanca-
pet!, Collaracra, Hunin). On the other hand, a conglomeratic series of red colour
550 P. Trurnit et al.
underlying these units at the bottom of the Upper Calipuy Group contains little ore.
Below the mined-out parts of the Collaracra and Huran veins, ore is to be expected
only where the Collar\lcra dacite flow extends to greater depth in the centres of syn-
clinal folds. ~ ,
Acknowledgments. We are grateful to Cia. Minera Alianza S.A. and to the Ministerio de Energfa y
Minas, Lima, Peru, for supplying maps, providing lodging quarters and assistance in the field.
We are thankful also to Dip!. Bergingenieur Dr. R. Konopasek and Ing: geol. C. Hudson for
cooperation and useful exchange of views during joint field trips.
We are also indebted to Prof. Dr. M. Kiirsten, Dr. K.E. Koch, Dr. W. Hannak, Dr. R.C. Newcomb
of the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Hannover, West Germany, and to
Prof. Dr. G.C. Amstutz and Dr. R. Zimmermann of the Mineralogical Institute of Heidelberg, West
Germany, for critically reading the manuscript.
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The Exhalative Sediments Linked to the Volcanic
Exhalative Massive Sulphide Deposits: A Case Study of
European Occurrences
A.J. BERNARD, G. DAGALLIER, and E. SOLER 1
Abstract
Exhalites have been defined as submarine volcano-sedimentary rocks, either detrital or chemical,
but deposited by hydrothermal fluids (true solutions or suspensions on the ocean floor. Mineral-
ogical similarities between exhalites, on the one hand, and matter formed by wall rock metasomatic
alteration of veins and/or open space filling products (Le., aiterites) on the other hand, is probably
the first general observation on which one can rely. Does it imply a simple chemical deposition from
a true solution, in both places, or the reworking of previously deposited alterites within the stock-
work and further sedimentation on the sea floor? Among the many exhalites generated through
one and/or the other processes only a few are metalliferous or signal the vicinity of an ore deposit.
This paper intends to bring into this question some geological information coming from South
Spain, Cyprus, and the High Pyrenees (France) where massive sulphide bodies have been described
and interpreted as volcano-sedimentary deposits.
Depending on steady or transient convecting cells developing around hot igneous bodies, either
back arc acid protrusions or accretion zones, basaltic flows and \lykes, a large variety of exhalites
could be expected. The question is: which are those of significance for an existing ore-bodY?
Presently, this research field seems to be a very open one!
Introduction
Many new studies have been undertaken on exhalative sediments or "exhalites" since
Ridler's (1973) review of their definition and use as a new mining exploration tool.
Most of these have tried initially to identify exhalative sediments in specific volcano-
sedimentary environments and then to test their significance as a gllidej control) to ore
mineralization. Many of these works have not arrived at definitive conclusions because
they are still in progress.
Submarine exhalation is emitted by a vent, stockwork or open fracture network.
The wall rocks are metasomatically altered ("alterites") and exhibit the same mineral
paragenesis as the exhalites themselves. The exhalites have the appearance of being
sedimented particles of alterites: the minerals are identical arid it is only their relative
proportions which vary.
Institut National Poly technique de Nancy, Ecole Nationale Superieure de Geologie Appliquee et
de Prospection Miniere, B.P. No 452,54001 Nancy Cedex, 94, Avenue de Lattre de Tassigny,
54 Nancy, France