2.

Based on the urine color and specific gravity, what might Tracey conclude about the hydration
status of Max’s body at the three different times?
Answer Key to Short Answer Questions for
“Max’s Maximum: A Case Study on the Urinary System”

As the blood flow to your skin and skeletal muscles increases, kidney perfusion gradually
decreases.

When the sympathetic division alters regional patterns of blood circulation, blood flow to the
kidneys is often affected. For example, the dilation of superficial dermal blood vessels in warm
weather shunts blood away from the kidneys. As a result, glomerular filtration decreases
temporarily. The effect becomes especially pronounced during strenuous exercise. As the blood
flow to your skin and skeletal muscles increases, kidney perfusion gradually decreases.
At a maximal level of exertion, renal blood flow may be less than 25 percent of the normal
resting level. This reduction can create problems for endurance athletes. Metabolic wastes build
up over the course of a long event. Proteinuria (protein in the urine) commonly occurs after such
events because the glomerular cells have been injured by prolonged hypoxia (a low oxygen
level). If the damage is substantial, hematuria (blood in the urine) occurs. Hematuria develops in
about 18 percent of marathon runners. The cause is trauma to the bladder epithelium from the
shocks of running. Proteinuria and hematuria generally disappear within 48 hours as the
glomerular tissues are repaired. However, a small number of marathon and ultramarathon
runners experience acute renal failure.

blood pressure forces water and solutes across the walls of the glomerular capillaries and into the
capsular space
In glomerular filtration, blood plasma is forced through the pores of the specialized filtration
membrane, and solute molecules small enough to pass through those pores are carried along. The
filtration membrane restricts the passage of larger solutes and suspended materials from the
plasma, producing filtrate.

Recall that the filtration membrane has three parts: (1) the fenestrated endothelium, (2) the
basement membrane, and (3) the foot processes of podocytes (Figures 26–7b and 26–10a). In
glomerular filtration, water from the blood plasma is forced through all three parts of this
membrane, with each filtering solutes of smaller size out of the final filtrate. The glomerular
capillaries are made up of fenestrated endothelium with pores small enough to prevent the
passage of blood cells, but too large to restrict the diffusion of solutes, even those the size of
plasma proteins. The basement membrane is more selective: Only small plasma proteins,
nutrients, and ions can cross it. The foot processes are the finest filters of all. The narrow gaps
between the foot processes prevent the passage of most small plasma proteins. As a result, under
normal circumstances only a few plasma proteins—such as albumin molecules, with an average
diameter of 7 nm—can cross the filtration membrane and enter the capsular space. However,
plasma proteins are all that stay behind, so the filtrate contains dissolved ions and small organic
molecules in roughly the same concentrations as in plasma
Low levels of protein in urine are normal. Temporarily high levels of protein in urine aren't
unusual either, particularly in younger people after exercise or during an illness.
Persistently high levels of protein in urine may be a sign of kidney disease.
Postexercise proteinuria is a common phenomenon in humans. It seems to be directly related to
the intensity of exercise, rather than to its duration. This excretion of proteins in urine is a
transient state with a half-time of approximately 1 hour. Postexercise proteinuria has a pattern
different from normal physiological proteinuria. Immunochemical techniques demonstrate that
postexercise proteinuria is of the mixed glomerular-tubular type, the former being predominant.
The increased clearance of plasma proteins suggests an increased glomerular permeability and a
partial inhibition of tubular reabsorption of macromolecules.
Strenuous exercise induces profound changes in renal hemodynamics and the protein content of
urine. Postexercise proteinuria seems to be directly related to the intensity of exercise, rather than
to its duration. The pattern of proteins identified in urine collected after exercise is different from
normal physiological proteinuria. Immunochemical techniques demonstrate that postexercise
proteinuria is of mixed glomerular-tubular type when heavy exercise is involved. The origin of
proteinuria after light exercise seems to be preponderantly of glomerular type. Clearance of
individual plasma proteins suggests an increased glomerular permeability and a partial tubular-
reabsorption inhibition of macromolecules.

Urine protein excretion has been long recognized as a marker of glomerular disease in elderly
patients (20). The mechanism of proteinuria involves modifications of membrane permeability.
The excess protein excretion after exercise may be the consequence of two mechanisms, namely
an increased membrane permeability of the glomeruli and a saturation of the tubular reabsorption
process of filtered protein. It is useful to assess indirectly changes in glomerular membrane
permeability by measuring the urine excretion rate of plasma albumin. We have provided
evidence of an enhanced glomerular permeability induced by short-term strenuous exercise in
young adults (8). It also appeared that postexercise proteinuria was more related to the intensity
of the exercise (power output) than to its relative intensity (% of VO2max) (7). Using the
albumin excretion rate as evidence of dysfunction at the glomerular barrier, Figure 2 indicates
that maximal exercise load did induce an enhanced glomerular membrane permeability change in
young individuals, as reported previously (1,2,6–9). The excretion of albumin was lower,
however, in elderly individuals despite the fact that they attained their maximal work capacity.
Indeed, as an example, the 100% VO2max for the active A group (20–30 years) is obtained with
a power output of 355 W, whereas VO2max for the active C group (60–69 years) occurred at 167
W. The outcome would probably have been different if the young and older groups had been
compared after performing the same submaximal exercise. The purpose of the present
investigation, however, was to determine if short-term strenuous exercise to maximum has a
detrimental impact on the GFR and albumin excretion. The importance of the intensity of
exercise on postexercise albuminuria is shown in Figure 3 using the maximal workload by the
end of exercise in each age group 

Plasma proteins are too large to pass through the pores of the glomerular capillaries; only the
smallest plasma proteins can pass between the foot processes of the podocytes.
1. What does the color of Max’s urine tell Tracey about how concentrated or dilute it is? How
does Max’s urine color/concentration compare to the urine specific gravity at the same time?
Max’s pale urine tells Tracey that his urine is diluted. The yellow urine is more concentrated, and
the dark yellow urine is super concentrated. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a
substance compared to the density of an equal volume of distilled water. Urine, with its various
solutes, has a greater specific gravity than water which is (1.001-1.035), and depending on the
concentration of the solute it can vary. The more concentrated the urine, the darker the color will
be and specific gravity will be higher.
2. Based on the urine color and specific gravity, what might Tracey conclude about the hydration
status of Max’s body at the three different times?
When Max’s urine is pale with a low specific gravity, his body is likely to be well hydrated; the
kidneys are reabsorbing less water, allowing it to be eliminated in urine. When his urine is dark
yellow with a higher specific gravity, his kidneys are concentrating urine and reabsorbing more
water in an attempt to maintain body fluid homeostasis (defend plasma osmolality). Dehydration
will trigger this response. The yellow urine signals euhydration; the corresponding high-normal
specific gravity is likely due to the small amount of glucose in the urine.
3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates the formation of concentrated or dilute urine. In which
time period is Max’s body secreting its highest amount of ADH? Explain your answer.
ADH is going to be highest when the body is most dehydrated. In Max’s case, this is right after
his 2-hour run. During his run, Max loses water via sweat and exhalation, and doesn’t effectively
replace it. The osmolality of his blood increases, signaling the posterior pituitary to release ADH.
ADH targets the principle cells in the collecting ducts of the kidney tubules, causing them to
increase reabsorption of water from the filtrate. This negative feedback mechanism attempts to
conserve water in order to decrease blood osmolality and restore body fluid homeostasis.
4. Tracey knows that proteinuria (protein in the urine) after intense exercise is physiological
(normal). However, protein is typically not present in urine. Why is that?
The glomerulus is a passive filter that acts as a barrier to larger molecules, such as most plasma
proteins. Also, because most proteins carry a net negative charge, they are repelled by the
membrane, thereby hindering their passage. However, some smaller proteins can and do pass
through the filtration membrane. Most of them are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule
by endocytosis and then broken down into amino acids to be returned to the blood in the
peritubular capillaries. The mechanism of exercise-induced proteinuria is unclear, but it is
typically a transient occurrence. Any kidney disease can render the glomerulus dysfunctional,
leading to a more sustained proteinuria. In fact, Max’s hypertension, if left unchecked, could
damage the filtration membrane of the glomerulus. The proteinuria will increase the specific
gravity of his urine (along with his relative dehydration).
5. Tracey had been slightly concerned about the trace glucose that was found in Max’s urine six
hours after his exercise until she discovered that he had eaten an entire large pizza an hour before
the urinalysis. Explain why glucose might show up in Max’s urine after a particularly heavy
meal.
Glucose passes easily through the glomerular filtration membrane, and normally 100% of it is
reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). The reabsorption of glucose is
accomplished by secondary active transport and requires a transport protein in the membrane to
facilitate the movement of glucose across the membrane. Typically, there are more than enough
of these transport proteins, but they do have an upper limit beyond which no more glucose can be
transported. This is called the transport maximum (Tm) for glucose. Generally, the Tm for
glucose is not reached until blood levels of glucose exceed 180 mg/dL, which is known as the
renal threshold. The most common cause of hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) is diabetes
mellitus. So, if the renal threshold is exceeded for glucose in the PCT, it will “spill” into the
filtrate and be eliminated in urine. Without further testing, it’s unknown whether Max has a
lower-than-normal renal threshold for glucose, or has exceeded the normal renal threshold of 180
mg/dL with his heavy meal.
6. Lactic acid accumulation can be a consequence of intense exercise. Tracey notes that Max’s
kidneys are working to defend his body against acidosis. How can she tell? Describe this
mechanism.
Max’s pH is more acidic right after his run. This is evidence of a higher hydrogen concentration
in urine. When pH drops, the tubule cells secrete hydrogen into the filtrate, allowing it to be lost
in urine. They also reabsorb bicarbonate (a base) to help buffer the body fluids. The result is a
restoration of normal pH.
7. Based on Max’s urinalysis data, should he drink more water prior to exercise to ensure that he
doesn’t dehydrate during intense activity? Explain your answer.
Max’s urine is already extremely dilute before exercise, indicating he is probably well hydrated.
If he were to drink more, then he would simply end up with a full bladder during his run (the
kidneys would eliminate the excess water). Better advice would be to drink more strategically
during his run. For instance, when he is doing his training runs, Max could take a drink every 15
minutes (more if he is sweating heavily) and practice different drinking regimens when he trains
until he finds one that keeps him hydrated but does not require him to stop to urinate during his
run.
8. Max’s regular exercise regimen has reduced his high blood pressure, allowing him to achieve
normal blood pressure on a single antihypertensive medication. The medication he takes is called
an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, or ACE inhibitor, which blocks the activation of
angiotensin II. Describe at least two mechanisms by which angiotensin II targets the kidneys to
increase extracellular fluid volume and, therefore, increase blood pressure.
Angiotensin II directly signals the renal tubules to reabsorb sodium. Where sodium goes, water
follows by osmosis, causing blood volume and pressure to increase.
Angiotensin II signals the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary. ADH acts on the principle
cells of the collecting ducts to cause reabsorption of water from the filtrate into the blood. Blood
volume and pressure are increased.
Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor, which leads to a decline in peritubular capillary
hydrostatic pressure and more fluid reabsorption. Blood volume and pressure are increased.
Angiotensin II prompts the release of aldosterone from the adrenal medulla. Aldosterone
stimulates renal tubules to reabsorb sodium (with water following) and this leads to an increase
in blood volume and pressure.
Angiotensin II stimulates the glomerular mesangial cells to contract and reduce glomerular
filtration rates. Less filtrate is produced, less fluid is lost in urine, and blood volume and pressure
are increased.
Angiotensin II triggers thirst by acting at the hypothalamus. This increases blood volume and
blood pressure.
Saeed, F., Devaki, P. N. P. K., Mahendrakar, L., & Holley, J. L. (2012). Exercise-induced
proteinuria? Urinalysis reveals an excessive level of protein, but your patient is a runner. How
concerned should you be? Journal of Family Practice, 61(1), 23.

A line drawn between the ischial tuberosities divides the perineum into two triangles: an
anterior urogenital triangle and a posterior anal triangle (see Figure 11–13). The superficial
muscles of the urogenital triangle are the muscles of the external genitalia. They cover deeper
muscles that strengthen the pelvic floor and encircle the urethra. An even more extensive
muscular sheet, the pelvic diaphragm, forms the muscular foundation of the anal triangle. This
layer extends as far as the pubic symphysis.
The urogenital and pelvic diaphragms do not completely close the pelvic outlet. The urethra and
anus (in males and females), as well as the vagina in females, pass through them to open on the
exterior. Muscular sphincters surround the passageways, and the external sphincters permit
voluntary control of urination and defecation. Muscles, nerves, and blood vessels also pass
through the pelvic outlet as they travel to or from the lower limbs.

Müllerian duct
duct system present in the embryo that will eventually form the internal female
reproductive structures
puberty
life stage during which a male or female adolescent becomes anatomically and
physiologically capable of reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
physical characteristics that are influenced by sex steroid hormones and have
supporting roles in reproductive function
Wolffian duct
duct system present in the embryo that will eventually form the internal male
reproductive structures

A baby’s gender is determined at conception, and the different genitalia of male and
female fetuses develop from the same tissues in the embryo. View this animation that
compares the development of structures of the female and male reproductive systems
in a growing fetus. Where are the testes located for most of gestational time?
The testes are located in the abdomen.

The menses phase of the menstrual cycle is the phase during which the lining is shed;
that is, the days that the woman menstruates

the menses phase occurs during the early days of the follicular phase of the ovarian
cycle, when progesterone, FSH, and LH levels are low. Recall that progesterone
concentrations decline as a result of the degradation of the corpus luteum, marking the
end of the luteal phase. This decline in progesterone triggers the shedding of the
stratum functionalis of the endometrium.

Once menstrual flow ceases, the endometrium begins to proliferate again, marking the
beginning of the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle (see Figure 27.3.4). It
occurs when the granulosa and theca cells of the tertiary follicles begin to produce
increased amounts of estrogen. These rising estrogen concentrations stimulate the
endometrial lining to rebuild.

In addition to prompting the LH surge, high estrogen levels increase the uterine tube
contractions that facilitate the pick-up and transfer of the ovulated oocyte. High
estrogen levels also slightly decrease the acidity of the vagina, making it more
hospitable to sperm. In the ovary, the luteinization of the granulosa cells of the
collapsed follicle forms the progesterone-producing corpus luteum, marking the
beginning of the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle. In the uterus, progesterone from the
corpus luteum begins the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle, in which the
endometrial lining prepares for implantation (see Figure 27.3.4). Over the next 10 to
12 days, the endometrial glands secrete a fluid rich in glycogen. If fertilization has
occurred, this fluid will nourish the ball of cells now developing from the zygote. At
the same time, the spiral arteries develop to provide blood to the thickened stratum
functionalis.

If no pregnancy occurs within approximately 10 to 12 days, the corpus luteum will

degrade into the corpus albicans. Levels of both estrogen and progesterone will fall,
and the endometrium will grow thinner. Prostaglandins will be secreted that cause
constriction of the spiral arteries, reducing oxygen supply. The endometrial tissue will
die, resulting in menses—or the first day of the next cycle.

  Development of Cervical Cancer In most cases, cells infected with the HPV virus heal on their
own. In some cases, however, the virus continues to spread and becomes an invasive cancer.
When the high-risk types of HPV enter a cell, two viral proteins are used to neutralize proteins
that the host cells use as checkpoints in the cell cycle. The best studied of these proteins is p53.
In a normal cell, p53 detects DNA damage in the cell’s genome and either halts the progression
of the cell cycle—allowing time for DNA repair to occur—or initiates apoptosis. Both of these
processes prevent the accumulation of mutations in a cell’s genome. High-risk HPV can
neutralize p53, keeping the cell in a state in which fast growth is possible and impairing
apoptosis, allowing mutations to accumulate in the cellular DNA.
As in men, the hypothalamus produces GnRH, a hormone that signals the anterior
pituitary gland to produce the gonadotropins FSH and LH

Hormonal Regulation of Ovulation The hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate the ovarian
cycle and ovulation. GnRH activates the anterior pituitary to produce LH and FSH, which
stimulate the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries.

Gametogenesis in females is called oogenesis. The process begins with the ovarian

stem cells, or oogonia (Figure 27.3.1). Oogonia are formed during fetal development,
and divide via mitosis, much like spermatogonia in the testis. Unlike spermatogonia,
however, oogonia form primary oocytes in the fetal ovary prior to birth. These
primary oocytes are then arrested in this stage of meiosis I, only to resume it years
later, beginning at puberty and continuing until the woman is near menopause (the
cessation of a woman’s reproductive functions). The number of primary oocytes
present in the ovaries declines from one to two million in an infant, to approximately
400,000 at puberty, to zero by the end of menopause.

The initiation of ovulation—the release of an oocyte from the ovary—marks the

transition from puberty into reproductive maturity for women. From then on,
throughout a woman’s reproductive years, ovulation occurs approximately once every
28 days. Just prior to ovulation, a surge of luteinizing hormone triggers the
resumption of meiosis in a primary oocyte. This initiates the transition from primary
to secondary oocyte. However, as you can see in Figure 27.3.1, this cell division does
not result in two identical cells. Instead, the cytoplasm is divided unequally, and one
daughter cell is much larger than the other. This larger cell, the secondary oocyte,
eventually leaves the ovary during ovulation. The smaller cell, called the first polar
body, may or may not complete meiosis and produce second polar bodies; in either
case, it eventually disintegrates. Therefore, even though oogenesis produces up to four
cells, only one survives.
The more granulosa and theca cells a follicle has (that is, the larger and more
developed it is), the more estrogen it will produce in response to LH stimulation. As a
result of these large follicles producing large amounts of estrogen, systemic plasma
estrogen concentrations increase. Following a classic negative feedback loop, the high
concentrations of estrogen will stimulate the hypothalamus and pituitary to reduce the
production of GnRH, LH, and FSH. Because the large tertiary follicles require FSH to
grow and survive at this point, this decline in FSH caused by negative feedback leads
most of them to die (atresia). Typically only one follicle, now called the dominant
follicle, will survive this reduction in FSH, and this follicle will be the one that
releases an oocyte. Scientists have studied many factors that lead to a particular
follicle becoming dominant: size, the number of granulosa cells, and the number of
FSH receptors on those granulosa cells all contribute to a follicle becoming the one
surviving dominant follicle.

ovum—the haploid female gamete

ovarian follicles are oocytes and their supporting cells.
These small primordial follicles are present in newborn females and are the prevailing
follicle type in the adult ovary (Figure 27.3.2). Primordial follicles have only a single
flat layer of support cells, called granulosa cells, that surround the oocyte, and they
can stay in this resting state for years

After puberty, a few primordial follicles will respond to a recruitment signal each day,
and will join a pool of immature growing follicles called primary follicles. Primary
follicles start with a single layer of granulosa cells, but the granulosa cells then
become active and transition from a flat or squamous shape to a rounded, cuboidal
shape as they increase in size and proliferate. As the granulosa cells divide, the
follicles—now called secondary follicles (see Figure 27.3.2)—increase in diameter,
adding a new outer layer of connective tissue, blood vessels, and theca cells—cells
that work with the granulosa cells to produce estrogens.

Within the growing secondary follicle, the primary oocyte now secretes a thin
acellular membrane called the zona pellucida that will play a critical role in
fertilization. A thick fluid, called follicular fluid, that has formed between the
granulosa cells also begins to collect into one large pool, or antrum. Follicles in which
the antrum has become large and fully formed are considered tertiary follicles (or
antral follicles). Several follicles reach the tertiary stage at the same time, and most of
these will undergo atresia. The one that does not die will continue to grow and
develop until ovulation, when it will expel its secondary oocyte surrounded by several
layers of granulosa cells from the ovary. Keep in mind that most follicles don’t make
it to this point. In fact, roughly 99 percent of the follicles in the ovary will undergo
atresia, which can occur at any stage of folliculogenesis.

  The maturation of a follicle is shown in a clockwise direction proceeding from the primordial
follicles. FSH stimulates the growth of a tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates the production of
estrogen by granulosa and theca cells. Once the follicle is mature, it ruptures and releases the
oocyte. Cells remaining in the follicle then develop into the corpus luteum.
Oogenesis The unequal cell division of oogenesis produces one to three polar bodies that later
degrade, as well as a single haploid ovum, which is produced only if there is penetration of the
secondary oocyte by a sperm cell.

spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules that form the bulk of each testis 

 The continued presence of testosterone is necessary to keep the male reproductive

system working properly, and Leydig cells produce approximately 6 to 7 mg of
testosterone per day. Testicular steroidogenesis (the manufacture of androgens,
including testosterone) results in testosterone concentrations that are 100 times higher
in the testes than in the circulation. Maintaining these normal concentrations of
testosterone promotes spermatogenesis, whereas low levels of testosterone can lead to
infertility. In addition to intratesticular secretion, testosterone is also released into the
systemic circulation and plays an important role in muscle development, bone growth,
the development of secondary sex characteristics, and maintaining libido (sex drive)
in both males and females. In females, the ovaries secrete small amounts of
testosterone, although most is converted to estradiol. A small amount of testosterone
is also secreted by the adrenal glands in both sexes.

One production cycle, from spermatogonia through formed sperm, takes

approximately 64 days. A new cycle starts approximately every 16 days, although this
timing is not synchronous across the seminiferous tubules. Sperm counts—the total
number of sperm a man produces—slowly decline after age 35, and some studies
suggest that smoking can lower sperm counts irrespective of age.

The process of spermatogenesis begins with mitosis of the diploid spermatogonia

(Figure 27.4.1). Because these cells are diploid (2n), they each have a complete copy
of the father’s genetic material, or 46 chromosomes. However, mature gametes are
haploid (1n), containing 23 chromosomes—meaning that daughter cells of
spermatogonia must undergo a second cellular division through the process of
meiosis.
Two identical diploid cells result from spermatogonia mitosis. One of these cells
remains a spermatogonium, and the other becomes a primary spermatocyte, the next
stage in the process of spermatogenesis. As in mitosis, DNA is replicated in a primary
spermatocyte, before it undergoes a cell division called meiosis I. During meiosis I
each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes separates. This results in two cells, called
secondary spermatocytes, each with only half the number of chromosomes. Now a
second round of cell division (meiosis II) occurs in both of the secondary
spermatocytes. During meiosis II each of the 23 replicated chromosomes divides,
similar to what happens during mitosis. Thus, meiosis results in separating the
chromosome pairs. This second meiotic division results in a total of four cells with
only half of the number of chromosomes. Each of these new cells is a spermatid.
Although haploid, early spermatids look very similar to cells in the earlier stages of
spermatogenesis, with a round shape, central nucleus, and large amount of cytoplasm.
A process called spermiogenesis transforms these early spermatids, reducing the
cytoplasm, and beginning the formation of the parts of a true sperm. The fifth stage of
germ cell formation—spermatozoa, or formed sperm—is the end result of this
process, which occurs in the portion of the tubule nearest the lumen. Eventually, the
sperm are released into the lumen and are moved along a series of ducts in the testis
toward a structure called the epididymis for the next step of sperm maturation.

o fertilize an egg, sperm must be moved from the seminiferous tubules in the testes,
through the epididymis, and—later during ejaculation—along the length of the penis
and out into the female reproductive tract.
Spermatogenesis (a) Mitosis of a spermatogonial stem cell involves a single cell
division that results in two identical, diploid daughter cells (spermatogonia to
 primary spermatocyte). Meiosis has two rounds of cell division: primary
spermatocyte to secondary spermatocyte, and then secondary spermatocyte to
spermatid. This produces four haploid daughter cells (spermatids). (b) In this
electron micrograph of a cross-section of a seminiferous tubule from a rat, the
lumen is the light-shaded area in the center of the image. The location of the
primary spermatocytes is near the basement membrane, and the early spermatids
are approaching the lumen (tissue source: rat). EM × 900. (Micrograph provided
by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)

As an individual approaches puberty, two changes in sensitivity occur. The first is a

decrease of sensitivity in the hypothalamus and pituitary to negative feedback, meaning
that it takes increasingly larger concentrations of sex steroid hormones to stop the
production of LH and FSH. The second change in sensitivity is an increase in the
sensitivity of the gonads to the FSH and LH signals, meaning that the gonads of adults
are more responsive to gonadotropins than are the gonads of children. As a result of
these two changes, the levels of LH and FSH slowly increase and lead to the
enlargement and maturation of the gonads, which in turn leads to secretion of higher
levels of sex hormones and the initiation of spermatogenesis and folliculogenesis.

The internal reproductive structures form from one of two rudimentary duct systems in
the embryo. Testosterone secretion stimulates growth of the male tract, the Wolffian
duct. Secretions of sustentacular cells trigger a degradation of the female tract, the
Müllerian duct. Without these stimuli, the Müllerian duct will develop and the Wolffian
duct will degrade, resulting in a female embryo.

If the SRY gene were not functional, the XY individual would be genetically a male, but
would develop female reproductive structures.

  Regulation of Testosterone Production The hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate the
production of testosterone and the cells that assist in spermatogenesis. GnRH activates the
anterior pituitary to produce LH and FSH, which in turn stimulate Leydig cells and Sertoli
cells, respectively. The system is a negative feedback loop because the end products of the
pathway, testosterone and inhibin, interact with the activity of GnRH to inhibit their own
production.
Define growth factor, and identify several growth factors that affect cell division. 

Answer: A growth factor is a natural substance, such as a peptide or hormone, that can stimulate the division
of specific cell types. Representative growth factors include M-phase promoting factor (maturation-promoting
factor), growth hormone, prolactin, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), epidermal
growth factor (EGF), erythropoietin, thymosins and related compounds, and chalones.

Compare and contrast skeletal muscle tissue and cardiac muscle tissue. 

Answer: Compared to skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue (1) has relatively small cells; (2)
has cells with a centrally located nucleus (some may contain two or more nuclei); (3) has T tubules
that are short and broad and do not form triads; (4) has an SR that lacks terminal cisternae and has
tubules that contact the plasma membrane as well as the T tubules; (5) has cells that are nearly
totally dependent on aerobic metabolism as an energy source; and (6) contains intercalated discs
that assist in stabilizing tissue structure and spreading action potentials.
24. What feature of cardiac muscle tissue allows the heart to act as a functional syncytium? 

Answer: Cardiac muscle cells are joined by gap junctions, which allow ions and small molecules to
flow directly between cells. As a result, action potentials generated in one cell spread rapidly to
adjacent cells. Thus, all the cells contract simultaneously, as if they were a single unit (a syncytium).
25. Identify the structural characteristics of smooth muscle tissue. 

25. Identify the structural characteristics of smooth muscle tissue. 

Answer: Smooth muscle cells lack sarcomeres, and thus smooth muscle tissue is nonstriated.
Additionally, the thin filaments are anchored to dense bodies.
27. Why can smooth muscle contract over a wider range of resting lengths than skeletal muscle
can? 

Answer: The looser organization of actin and myosin filaments in smooth muscle allows smooth
muscle to contract over a wider range of resting lengths than skeletal muscle.
In a dividing cell, DNA is tightly coiled and organized as chromosomes. In a nondividing cell,
DNA is loosely coiled and organized as chromatin.

: Mitosis is the essential step in cell division in which a single cell nucleus divides to produce two
identical daughter cell nuclei. The four stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase
The permeability of a barrier such as the plasma membrane is an indication of the barrier’s
effectiveness. Nothing can pass through an impermeable barrier; anything can pass through
a freely permeable barrier. Plasma membranes are selectively permeable.

Diffusion is the net movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration. Diffusion occurs until the concentration gradient is
eliminated. (Figures  3–14, 3–15)

Most lipid-soluble materials, water, and gases freely diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer
of the plasma membrane. Small water-soluble molecules and ions rely on channel- mediated
diffusion through a passageway within a transmembrane protein. Leak channels are passive
channels that allow ions across the plasma membrane.

Osmosis is the net flow of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response to
differences in solute concentration. Osmotic pressure of a solution is the force of water
movement into that solution resulting from its solute concentration. Hydrostatic
pressure can oppose osmotic pressure. (Figure 3–16)

Tonicity describes the effects of osmotic solutions on cells. A solution that does not cause an
osmotic flow is isotonic. A solution that causes water to flow into a cell is hypotonic and can
lead to hemolysis of red blood cells. A solution that causes water to flow out of a cell
is hypertonic and can lead to crenation. (Figure 3–17)

Mitosis is the nuclear division of somatic cells. Sex cells are produced
by meiosis. (Spotlight Figure 3–23)

Most somatic cells spend the majority of their time in interphase, which includes the G , S
1

(DNA replication), and G  phases. (Spotlight Figures 3–23, 3–24)

2

Mitosis proceeds in four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,

and telophase. (Spotlight Figure 3–23)

During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided to form two daughter cells and cell division
ends. (Spotlight Figure  3–23)

In general, the longer the life expectancy of a cell type, the slower the mitotic rate. Stem
cells undergo frequent mitosis to replace other, more specialized cells.

Transcription is the production of RNA from a DNA template. After transcription, a

strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) carries instructions from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm. (Figure 3–12)

During translation, a functional polypeptide is constructed using the information

contained in the sequence of codons along an mRNA strand. The mRNA codons
 correspond to DNA triplets. The sequence of codons determines the sequence of amino
acids in the polypeptide.

During translation, complementary base pairing of anticodons to mRNA codons occurs,

and transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring amino acids to the ribosomal complex. Translation
includes three phases: initiation, elongation,
1. membrane passage of solutes and water
35. The permeability of a barrier such as the plasma membrane is an indication of the
barrier’s effectiveness. Nothing can pass through an impermeable barrier; anything
can pass through a freely permeable barrier. Plasma membranes are selectively
permeable.
36. Diffusion is the net movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration. Diffusion occurs until the concentration gradient is
eliminated. (Figures  3–14, 3–15)
37. Most lipid-soluble materials, water, and gases freely diffuse across the phospholipid
bilayer of the plasma membrane. Small water-soluble molecules and ions rely on
channel- mediated diffusion through a passageway within a transmembrane
protein. Leak channels are passive channels that allow ions across the plasma
membrane.
38. Osmosis is the net flow of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response
to differences in solute concentration. Osmotic pressure of a solution is the force of
water movement into that solution resulting from its solute concentration. Hydrostatic
pressure can oppose osmotic pressure. (Figure 3–16)
39. Tonicity describes the effects of osmotic solutions on cells. A solution that does not
cause an osmotic flow is isotonic. A solution that causes water to flow into a cell
is hypotonic and can lead to hemolysis of red blood cells. A solution that causes water
to flow out of a cell is hypertonic and can lead to crenation. (Figure 3–17)

I just want to double check that for the lab this week, the two documents do not have to be
submitted /turned in, only the Ex 31 & 32 HW on Mastering are required, right?

Inhibin

-Inhibin is the hormone that acts to reduce the rate at which the anterior pituitary produces FSH.
This peptide hormone, which is part of a negative feedback loop that controls the rate of sperm
production, is produced by nurse cells during spermatogenesis. The regulation of FSH as well as
gonadotropin-releasing hormone maintains the homeostatic balance during the production of
sperm.

LH

-The hypothalamus secretes GnRH at a relatively constant rate in the male. As a result FSH, LH,
and testosterone remain within a relatively narrow range throughout the man's life. LH directly
stimulates the interstitial cells to secrete testosterone and other androgens.
Angiotensin II directly signals the renal tubules to reabsorb sodium. Where sodium

Adrenocorticotropic hormone - anterior pituitary hormones stimulates the adrenal cortex to

secrete cortisol
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Promotes release of glucocorticoids and adrenogens.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Promotes release of glucocorticoids and adrenogens.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Inhibits urine production. (at high levels) causes vasoconstriction.

adh-Vasopressin is also called antidiuretic hormone or ADH. In addition to its vasoconstrictive

effects, ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water. Someone who does not make enough
ADH may not be able to contain all of the urine produced while they are sleeping. If they are not
awakened by the pressure in their urinary bladder, they may wet the bed instead of getting up and
going to the toilet. Since vasopressin helps the body reabsorb more water, a person’s bladder
should not get so full that they end up wetting the bed while sleeping.
The amount of ADH that is secreted by the posterior pituitary glands varies with a) blood
osmotic pressure
Aldosterone reduces excretion of Na+ by stimulation Na+ absorption in the kidneys, and from
perspiration, saliva and gastric juice.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

A hormone secreted by the heart when blood pressure rises, it fine-tunes blood pressure and
sodiumwater balance of the body, partly by inhibiting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
mechanism. It does so by blocking renin and aldosterone secretion and by inhibiting other
angiotensin-induced mechanisms.

Calcitonin targets the skeleton, where it: Inhibits osteoclast activity, inhibiting bone resorption
and release of Ca+2 from the bony matrix, and Stimulates Ca2+ uptake and incorporation into
the bony matrix.

corticotropinreleasing hormone
CRH- secreted by nonpregnant women from neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus

corticotropin-releasing hormone- Establish the timing of birth

 Glucocorticoids are produced in the Zona fasciculate  They influence the energy metabolism
of most body cells and help us resist stressors. By regulating blood glucose concentrations and
vasoconstrictors.  The most important glucocorticoids are cortisol (hydrocortisone), cortisone,
and corticosterone, of which only cortisol is secreted in significant amounts.  As with all steroid
hormones they act on target cells by modifying gene activity. Cortisol levels usually follow a
definite pattern throughout day and night following patterns of eating and activity, except in
situations of bodily stress, in which release is overridden by the CNS

 Gonadocorticoids (Adrenal Sex Hormones)  Most adrenal sex hormones are weak androgens
(male sex hormones) such as androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Which are
converted in tissue cells into more potent male hormones such as testosterone.  The amount of
gonadocorticoids produced in the adrenal glands is insignificant compared to those produced in
the gonads during late puberty and adulthood.  The exact role of adrenal sex hormones is not yet
fully understood.

Gonadotropin (FSH and LH)

Female: Stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production.
Female: Triggers ovulation and stimulates ovarian production of estrogen and progesterone.
Male: Stimulates sperm production
Male: Promotes testosterone production.

growth hormone- anterior pituitary hormones stimulates general body growth

Growth Hormone (GH) Stimulates somatic growth. Mobilizes fats. Spares glucose.
Regulates production of IGFs (insulin like growth factors)

inhibin a protein hormone produced by the testes that inhibits secretion of follicle-stimulating
hormone by the anterior pituitary gland

) Luteinizing hormone - anterior pituitary hormones stimulates the gonads to secrete

progesterone and/or testosterone?

Leptin is a hormone produced by the adipose tissue.

) Oxytocin- hormone causes release of milk into the mammary ducts via the milk ejection reflex?
Oxytocin causes the release of milk into the mammary ducts via the milk ejection reflex and
stimulates contraction of the smooth muscle cells surrounding the glandular cells and ducts, the
resulting compression moves the milk from the alveoli of the mammary glands into the
mammary ducts where it can be suckled, which is responsible for milk ejection (let-down).
Oxytocin also inhibits the release of PIH, so to increase PRH and PRL secretion to maintain
lactation.

Prolactin -anterior pituitary hormones stimulates milk production

Hormones necessary for lactation are prolactin (PRL), prolactin –releasing hormone (PRH),
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), and oxytocin. The functions of PRL are the principal
hormone in promoting milk production. PRH leads to increased PRL release. PIH decreases PRL
release. Oxytocin causes the release of milk into the mammary ducts via the milk ejection reflex
and stimulates contraction of the smooth muscle cells surrounding the glandular cells and ducts,
the resulting compression moves the milk from the alveoli of the mammary glands into the
mammary ducts where it can be suckled, which is responsible for milk ejection (let-down).
Oxytocin also inhibits the release of PIH, so to increase PRH and PRL secretion to maintain
lactation.

) Progesterone- Labor cannot take place until all of which hormone’s effects are diminished?

thyroid hormones
Increasing basal metabolic rate and body heat production by turning on transcription of genes
concerned with glucose oxidation. This is the hormone’s calorigenic effect.
 Falling TH levels in blood stimulate the release of TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) in the
hypothalamus)  Rising TH levels in blood inhibit the release of TSH.

 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones

The hormones involved in pregnancy include progesterone, estrogens, hCG, relaxin, human
chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) or human placental lactogen (hPL), and corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH). The functions of progesterone and estrogens are to maintain the lining
of the uterus during pregnancy and prepare the mammary glands to secrete milk. Elevated levels
of progesterone ensures that the uterine myometrium is relaxed and that the cervix is tightly
closed. The function of hCG is to stimulate the corpus luteum to continue to produce
progesterone and estrogens which is necessary to prevent menstruation and for continued
attachment of the embryo and fetus to the lining of the uterus. The functions of relaxin are to
increase the flexibility of the pubic symphysis and ligaments of the sacroiliac and sacrococcygeal
joints and help dilate the uterine cervix during labor for the combined effect of increasing the
ease of delivery of the baby. The functions of hCS/hPL are to prepare the mammary glands for
lactation, enhance maternal growth by increasing protein synthesis and to regulate certain aspects
of metabolism in both mother and fetus including decrease the use of glucose by the mother and
promote the release of fatty acids from her adipose tissue, making more glucose available to the
fetus. The function of CRH is thought to be a part of the “clock” that establishes the timing of
birth and a possible second effect is to increase the secretion of cortisol which is needed for
maturation of fetal lungs and the production of surfactant in the developing fetus.

When one hormone opposes the action of another hormone, it is called a(n) antagonistic effect.

Only water-soluble hormones use second messengers.

Parathyroid hormone is the major regulator of the plasma concentration of Calcium

Parathyroid hormone, Cortisol, hGH- g hormones play key regulatory roles in the body’s long-
term response to stress
hormones commonly increases in the plasma of older individuals due to an inadequate dietary
intake of calcium
Controlling the Ca2+ balance in the blood that allows our body to function correctly. This is
done by the production of PTH (parathyroid hormone), which acts by:  Stimulating osteoclasts
to digest some of the bony matrix and release ionic calcium and phosphates to the blood. 
Enhancing reabsorption of Ca2+ by the kidneys.  Promoting the activation of vitamin D, thereby
increasing absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal cells. Vitamin D is required for absorption
of Ca2+ from food, but first the kidneys must convert it to its active vitamin D3 form, calcitriol.
PTH stimulates this transformation

The Pineal gland mainly produces melatonin, which controls our day and night cycle and
production of protective antioxidant and detoxification molecules within cells.

 The gonads produce steroid sex hormones, identical to those produced by the adrenal cortical
cells.
 Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone. Estrogens are responsible for the maturation of
the reproductive organs and the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics of females at
puberty. Along with progesterone they promote breast development and cyclic changes in the
uterine mucosa (menstrual cycle)
 Testes produce testosterone, which initiates the maturation of the male reproductive organs
and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and sex drive. In addition to that it regulates
normal sperm production and maintains the reproductive organs in their mature functional state.
 The placenta is a temporary endocrine organ that secretes several steroid and protein hormones
that influence the course of pregnancy. These include estrogens and progesterone as well as
human chorionic gonadotropin.

 The thymus secretes several different families of peptide hormones, including thymulin,
thymopoietins, and thymosins. These hormones are thought to be involved in the normal
development of T lymphocytes and the immune response, but their roles are not well understood.

A goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland. Hyposecretion goiters are usually due to insufficient iodide
in the diet. Resulting low levels of thyroid hormones cause increased TRH and TSH until
adequate thyroid activity is restored. Graves' disease causes hyperthyroidism by producing an
antibody that mimics TSH. Thyroid enlargement occurs, and production of thyroid hormones
increases. TRH and natural TSH remain low due to negative feedback, but TSHmimicking
antibody stimulates increased thyroid hormone production and secretion.

cortisol- hormones is produced inthe middle zone of adrenal gland

enables body to resist stressors and also increases blood glucose
 Posterior pituitary gland  Oxytocin Stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth. Triggers
milk ejection for breastfeeding. Acts as a neurotransmitter that is involved in sexual and
affectionate behavior.  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Inhibits urine production. (at high levels)
causes vasoconstriction.

 Anterior pituitary gland  Growth Hormone (GH) Stimulates somatic growth. Mobilizes fats.
Spares glucose.
Regulates production of IGFs (insulin like growth factors).  Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
(TSH) Stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones.  Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH) Promotes release of glucocorticoids and adrenogens.  Gonadotropin (FSH and LH)
Female: Stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production. Female: Triggers
ovulation and stimulates ovarian production of estrogen and progesterone. Male: Stimulates
sperm production Male: Promotes testosterone production.  Prolactin (PRL) Promotes lactation.

Cushing’s syndrome -caused by a pituitary hypersecretion of hGH during adulthood.

Inadequate dietary iodine intake Æ low level of thyroid hormone in blood Æ increased TSH
secretion Æ thyroid gland enlargement.

Hirsutism
an abnormal condition of e
excess androgen secretion, observed primarily in women, that is characterized by the presence of
excessive body and facial hair in a male pattern?

gynecomastia. A condition characterized by excessive development of mammary glands in a

male is called

Ectoderm
germ layers does the anterior pituitary gland develop from during embryonic development?
germ layers does the adrenal medulla develop from during embryonic development

endoderm germ layers does the thyroid gland develop from during embryonic development?

Endocrine tissues that secrete steroid hormones all are derived from a) mesoderm

hormones that is secreted from an endocrine gland in response to a chemical change in the
blood?
Parathyroid hormone release from the parathyroid gland.
Insulin release from the pancreas.
Glucagon release from the pancreas.
ADH release from the posterior pituitary gland.
All the following hormones are produced and secreted by the ovaries
estradiol. estrone. progesterone. inhibin.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the a) placenta

If successful, trophoblast cells secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in order to stop the
menstruation from occurring and the corpus luteum from dieing.

menstration Finally, the menstrual cycle uses both negative and positive feedback to regulate the
female body. As GnRH is secreted by the hypothalamus, FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) is
released by the anterior pituitary. This causes estrogen to be secreted by the ovary, which leads
to the development of the endometrium. GnRH is also responsible for influencing LH secretion
from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum,
which also leads to endometrium development. A third example of positive feedback involves
the influence of estrogen on LH surge, which leads to ovulation. Negative feedback on the
hypothalamus and pituitary allow for the inhibition of FSH and LH by the presence of estrogen
and progesterone at the level of GnRH and pituitary productio
\

DESCRIBE THE PROCESS AND PRODUCT OF CLEAVAGE  Cleavage is a period of

fairly rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote without intervening growth. This is to both enhance
volume to surface area in order to increase nutrient uptake and waste disposal, but also in order
to provide building blocks for further division and growth.  Cleavage produces blastomeres,
which are (when there are 16 or more) eventually called morula.  After enough cleavage has
occurred the zona pellucida of the original cell breaks down and the (now called) blastocyst
emerges in order to start implantation.

IMPLANTATION  blastocyst adheres to the uterine endometrium, allowing the trophoblast

part to burrow into the endometrium in order to prepare for placental formation.  Implantation
begins on the 6th or 7th day after ovulation and ends at the 12th day after ovulation. If it fails
normal menstruation occurs.  If successful, trophoblast cells secrete human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) in order to stop the menstruation from occurring and the corpus luteum from
dieing.

DESCRIBE PLACENTA FORMATION, AND LIST PLACENTAL FUNCTIONS

 The placenta forms from both embryonic and maternal cells, and eventually supports the fetus
as a fully functional nutritive, respiratory, excretory, and endocrine organ.  An extra-embryonic
mesoderm forms from original inner cells, this is called the chorion.  The chorion develops
fingerlike chorionic villi, which become especially elaborate where they are in contact with
maternal blood. These eventually constitute the embryonic side of the cardiovascular circuit. 
Maternal blood vessels are separated from the chorion by syncytiotrophoblast cells that
eventually form the embryonic barrier together with the membranes of the chorionic villi and the
endothelium of embryonic capillaries.  The part of the endometrium that lies beneath the
embryo becomes the decidua basalis¸ which forms the placenta together with the chorionic villi.

EXTRA-EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES - NAME AND DESCRIBE THE FORMATION,

LOCATION AND FUNCTION OF THE EXTRA-EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES  The
chorion forms the extraembryonic coelom, while the endometrium that lies surrounding the
uterine cavity face of the implanted embryo forms the decidua capsularis.  The amnion
develops when cells of the epiblast fashion themselves into a transparent membranous sac. This
eventually forms the amniotic cavity in which the embryo matures.

DESCRIBE GASTRULATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCE  Gastrulation is the process in

which the embryonic disc transforms into the embryo and during which the primary germ layers
– ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm – are present.  Gastrulation begins when a groove with
raised edges called the primitive streak appears on the dorsal surface of the embryonic disc and
establishes the longitudinal axis of the embryo. After that cells from the epiblast migrate to form
the mesenchymal cells of the mesoderm in a folding fashion.

DESCRIBE UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE FETAL CIRCULATION  First of all, there is the
umbilical blood supply, concerning the umbilical arteries and veins. This ensures that the fetus
receives oxygenated and nutrient rich blood. Also there are three vascular shunts that allow the
blood to bypass the non-functioning organs that would otherwise receive a higher blood flow. 
The ductus venosus bypasses the liver sinusoids for blood coming from the umbilical cord,
emptying into the vena cava.  The foramen ovale allows blood to flow from the right atrium
directly into the left atrium.  The ductus arteriosus transfers most of the blood from the right
ventricle directly into the aorta.  All of these shunts are closed off before childbirth.

DESCRIBE FUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN MATERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND

IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR, RESPIRATORY, AND URINARY SYSTEMS DURING
PREGNANCY  Female reproductive organs become increasingly vascular and engorged with
blood, and the vagina develops a purplish hue. This enhanced vascularity increases vaginal
sensitivity and sexual intensity. The enlargement of the uterus during pregnancy is also
remarkable, filling most of the abdominal cavity close to the end of the pregnancy.  Total body
water rises, and blood volume may increase as much as 40% by the 32nd week to accommodate
the needs of the fetus. The rise in blood volume also safeguards against blood loss during birth.
Cardiac output increases by 34-40% during various stages of the pregnancy.  Female breasts
are enlarged during pregnancy to prepare for lactation.  Tidal volume of a pregnant woman is
increased because there is a greater need for oxygen. Progesterone enhances the sensitivity of the
body to CO2, as well as estrogens that stimulate the nasal mucosa leading to stuffiness of the
nose. Many women exhibit dyspnea, or difficulty breathing during late stages of pregnancy. 
More urine produced because of the increased metabolic rate, as well as the uterus that
compresses the bladder lead to more frequent urination.
INDICATE THE EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON MATERNAL METABOLISM AND
POSTURE  The metabolism is influences in a lot of different ways, some of the main factors
are mentioned here:  Metabolic rate increases in order to provide the necessary building blocks
for the fetus.  Glucose sparing hormones are active in allowing maternal cells to metabolize
more fatty acids, to spare glucose for the fetus.  Plasma levels of PTH and activated vitamin D
rise, meaning that pregnant woman tend to have a positive calcium balance to ensure the fetus
has enough calcium to mineralize bones.  Posture is affected by the weight of the child and
other changes to allow for childbirth, some of the changes are mentioned here:  The increasing
bulkiness of the anterior abdomen during later stages of pregnancy changes the woman’s center
of gravity, and many women develop lordosis and backaches during the last few months of
pregnancy.  Pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis relaxes due to relaxin to facilitated ease
of birth passage, but it causes a waddling gait in the meantime.

THE THREE STAGES OF LABOR  Labor is initiated by oxytocin, which causes the placenta
to release prostaglandins. These hormones cause uterine contractions, that eventually lead to the
involvement of the hypothalamus to release more oxytocin in a positive feedback fashion that
eventually leads to childbirth. This consists of three stages detailed below.  Dilation is the first
stage of childbirth and the time from the onset of labor until the cervix is fully dilated by the
baby’s head. This stage is the longest stage, lasting 6-12 hours or more, and ends after the
amnion has ruptured, releasing the amniotic fluid.  By the time the cervix is fully dilated the
expulsion stage starts. By this time strong contractions occur every 2 to 3 minutes and last about
one minute. In this stage the baby is expulsed out of the uterus. This stage may last 2 hours but
typically takes about 50 minutes for first childbirth and 20 minutes for subsequent chilbirths.
 The placental stage is the final stage of childbirth and consists of the delivery of the placenta
and its attached fetal membranes. This happens by strong uterine contractions that occur after
birth, they compress blood vessels, limit bleeding and shear the placenta off the uterine wall.

OUTLINE THE EVENTS LEADING TO THE FIRST BREATH OF A NEWBORN  Once

carbon dioxide is no longer removed by the placenta, it accumulates in the baby’s blood, causing
central acidosis. This excites respiratory control centers in the baby’s brain and triggers the first
inspiration.  The first breath requires tremendous effort—the airways are tiny, and the lungs
are collapsed. However once the lungs have been inflated surfactant in alveolar fluid reduces
surface tension in the alveoli.

DESCRIBE THE CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE FETAL CIRCULATION AFTER

BIRTH  The umbilical arteries become fibrosed. The ductus venus collapses in result, and is
eventually converted into the ligamentum venosum.  As the pulmonary circulation becomes
functional, pressure in the left side of the heart increases, and on the right side decreases, causing
the pulmonary shunts to close.  Except the foramen ovale, all of the special circulatory
adaptations of the fetus are functionally occluded within 30 minutes after childbirth. Closure of
the foramen ovale is usually complete within the year.
DESCRIBE HOW THE BREASTS ARE PREPARED FOR LACTATION  Rising levels of
(placental) estrogens, progesterone, and human placental lactogen toward the end of pregnancy
stimulate the hypothalamus to release prolactin releasing factors (PRFs). The anterior pituitary
gland reacts to this by secreting prolactin.  After birth prolactin production decreases,
depending on mechanical stimulation by nursing to release oxytocin and PRF from the pituitary
glands in order to continue nursing and stimulate release of breast milk from both breasts, not
just the one being suckled.

dehydration
result from hyposecretion of aldosterone

Thyroid hormone
hormones promotes increases in the basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Which blood glucose-lowering hormone is produced by the pancreatic islet cells? a) Insulin

Calcitonin - commonly increases in the plasma of older individuals due to an inadequate dietary
intake of calcium
opposes the action of parathyroid hormone

c) Glucagon - hormones are released in response to decreases in blood glucose concentration?

A starving person is lacking energy-providing nutrient sources, and so, must use structural
components of the body as energy sources. The diabetic consumes adequate nutrients, but due to
the lack of insulin, is unable to move glucose into cells, and so, cannot use the glucose as an
energy source. In both cases, energy generation becomes dependent on non-glucose sources,
such as fatty acids and amino acids. Mobilization and metabolism of fats and proteins for energy
production purposes leads to ketoacidosis, weight loss, and hunger.

: The hypothalamus is the integrating center for much sensory input. It secretes releasing and
inhibiting hormones which diffuse into the hypophyseal portal system to regulate secretion of all
hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus also contains receptors that
monitor blood osmotic pressure and neural input from reproductive structures. Integration of this
input leads to production of ADH and OT by neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus. These
hormones are then transported through the hypothalamohypophyseal tract to be secreted by
exocytosis from the posterior pituitary gland in response to nerve impulses.
Upon reaching their target cells, lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer
of the target cell membrane and bind to receptors in the cytosol or nucleus. The activated
receptor usually acts by turning transcription of genes either on or off, thus regulating synthesis
of a protein. Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane receptors, which activate intracellular
signaling pathways that lead to changes in the cell’s metabolic activity .
hormones from hypothalmus controls hormone release from the anterior pituitary gland

eference 1: 18.4 Mechanisms of Hormone Action Solution: Upon reaching their target cells,
lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer of the target cell membrane and
bind to receptors in the cytosol or nucleus. The activated receptor usually acts by turning
transcription of genes either on or off, thus regulating synthesis of a protein. Water-soluble
hormones bind to membrane receptors, which activate intracellular signaling pathways that lead
to changes in the cell’s metabolic activity .
breast-feeding benefit for infants? a) Beneficial cells b) Beneficial molecules c) Decreased
incidence of diseases later in life d) Enhancement of intellectual and neurological development

Some of the risk factors for developing breast cancer are: (1) early onset of menses and late
menopause; (2) firpregnancy late in life or no pregnancies at all; (3) familial history of breast
cancer; (4) postmenopausal hormonreplacement.

124)The female clitoris is homologous to the glans penis of the male. It is homologous in that it
contains dorsal erecolumns and can become swollen with blood during tactile stimulation.

125)Semen is a fluid mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions (prostate, seminal
vesicles, and bulbourethraglands). The liquid provides a transport medium for nutrients and
contains chemicals that protect the sperm afacilitate their movements.126)The myometrium
plays an active role during childbirth when it contracts rhythmically to force the baby out of
mother's body. The endometrium is the innermost lining of the uterus that nourishes the embryo
from the timeimplantation until delivery.

127)Because it releases its contents prior to ejaculation, its function is probably to neutralize the
acids in the urethlubrication to help the initiation of intercourse.

128)The male testes descend into the scrotal sac so that a fairly constant intrascrotal temperature
is maintained. Fthe testes to descend results in sterility, because production of viable
spermatozoa requires a temperature sevdegrees lower than normal body temperature.

129)Fimbriae, which drape over the ovary, become very active close to the time of ovulation and
their cilia create cin the peritoneal fluid. These currents usually carry the oocyte to the uterine
tube, where it begins its journey the uterus.130)Genetic sex is determined at the instant the genes
of a sperm combine with those of an ovum. The determiningthe sex chromosomes each gamete
contains.
131)The symptoms sound like pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a collective term for any
extensive bacterial infectthe pelvic organs, especially the uterus, uterine tubes, or ovaries. PID at
one time was most commonly causedbacterium that causes gonorrhea, but any bacterium can
trigger the infection. Early treatment should includeantibiotics (doxycycline or a cephalosporin).

132)Megadoses of testosterone would inhibit hypothalamic release of GnRH and may act
directly on the anterior pto inhibit gonadotropin (FSH) release. Spermatogenesis is inhibited in
the absence of FSH stimulation.
https://quizlet.com/375721791/ap-chapter-27-jeopardy-flash-cards/1.
Describe briefly the fetal development of each of the following body systems: Skeletal,
Muscular, Nervous, Special Senses, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Immune/Lymphatic,
Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary and Reproductive. In your description include how and wh
en
the organs develop. Emphasize special nutritional requirements of the organ system
development and implications for maternal nutrition. The information on fetal development
is found at the end of each chapter in EHAP. Each system description is worth
th
ree
points
for a total of
33
points.

13. What structure connects t

he uterus with the outside body?
b. Vagina

14. What is the release of an egg from the ovary?

b. Ovulation

15. Where does the embryo develop into the baby?

a. Uterus

16. What produces egg cells?

b. Ovaries

17. What is the neck of the uterus? Cervix

18. What is the endometrium? The lining of the uterus

19. Where does fertilization usually take place?

a. Uterus
b. Uterine tube
c. Vagina
d. Cervix

20. What hormone is produced by the ovaries?

a. Testosterone
b. Estrogen
c. Progesterone
d. B and C

21. What is the function of the uterine tubes? Moves the egg to the uterus

9. How many sperm cells does

the male produce daily?
d. Millions

11. Which is a passage way for both sperm and urine?

b. Urethra

12. Where do sperm mature?

d. Epididymis

13. Where are sperm produced?

c. Seminiferous tubules

15. What is the function of the scrotum?

b. Maintains temperature of testes

16. What does the fluid secreted from the prostate gland do?
a. Neutralizes the acidic vagina

6.
premenstrual syndrome?
- Usually occurs two weeks prior to menses
- Are a collection of physical, p
sychological, and emotional symptoms
- Exact symptoms vary from person to person

7. Is the abnormal growth of prostate cells, but is not cancerous.

b. Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy

8. Is the most common form of cancer in men between the ages of 20 and 34
c. Testicular Cancer

9. Risk factors include genetics, exposure to radiation, and a high fat diet.
d. Breast Cancer

10. This professional can specialize

in counseling, gene therapy, genomics,
microbial genetics, and paternity testing.
a. Geneticist

CHAPTER 28
1. The location of the scrotum and the contraction of its muscle fibers regulate the temperature of
the testes. Normal sperm production requires a temperature about 2–3°C below core body
temperature. This lowered temperature is maintained within the scrotum because it is outside the
pelvic cavity. In response to cold temperatures, the cremaster and dartos muscles contract.
Contraction of the cremaster muscles moves the testes closer to the body, where they can absorb
body heat. Contraction of the dartos muscle causes the scrotum to become tight (wrinkled in
appearance), which reduces heat loss. Exposure to warmth reverses these actions.
2. The internal structure of a testis is divided into internal compartments, 200- 300 lobules and
each lobule contains one to three seminiferous tubules, where sperm are produced. Each
seminiferous tubule contains two types of cells – spermatogenic cells and sustentacular cells. The
less mature spermatogenic cell types are along the outer borders of the seminiferous tubules and
the more advanced forms are arranged closer to the tubule’s lumen with the sustentacular cells
found interspersed. In the spaces between adjacent tubules are interstitial cells, clustered to
secrete testosterone.

3. The process of spermatogenesis takes 65 – 75 days. The spermatogonia, diploid in

chromosome number (46), are the population of stem cells that divide using mitosis to maintain a
pool of these cells. Some of the spermatogonia leave the basement membrane region of the
seminiferous tubules and squeeze through the blood-testis-barrier, to specialize into primary
spermatocytes that are also diploid in number. The primary spermatocytes replicate their DNA
and then divide using meiosis that includes crossing-over to form variation in the product cells.
The products of meiosis I are called secondary spermatocytes that now have a haploid number of
chromosomes (23). The two secondary spermatocytes move through meiosis II and the four cells
that are produced are haploid in number, with a single copy of DNA in each and are now called
spermatids. The final stage of spermatogenesis is spermiogensis that is the development of
haploid spermatids into sperm and this involves each spermatid becoming a single sperm cell.
Finalizing the structural design of the sperm, an acrosome forms at the superior end of the
nucleus with a flagellum at the inferior end and multiplication of mitochondria.
 4. The acrosome is the part of a sperm that contains enzymes that help the sperm fertilize a
secondary oocyte.

5. The role of FSH in the male reproductive system is indirectly stimulating spermatogenesis by
working with testosterone. The role of LH in the male reproductive system is to stimulate
interstitial cells between the seminiferous tubules to secrete testosterone. The secretion of FSH
and LH is controlled by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), stimulating the gonadotrophs
in the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH. The role of testosterone in the male reproductive
system is to function as the principal androgen, working with FSH in stimulating
spermatogenesis and primarily responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics
in the male. The secretion of testosterone is controlled by the secretion of GnRH that causes the
release of LH that in turn causes the release of testosterone from the interstitial cells of the testes.
The role of inhibin in the male reproductive system is to inhibit FSH secretion from the anterior
pituitary to decrease the rate of spermatogenesis. The secretion of inhibin is controlled by rate of
spermatogenesis. If spermatogenesis is proceeding too slowly, less inhibin from the sustentacular
cells is released, to permit more FSH secretion and increase the rate of spermatogenesis. If
spermatogenesis is proceeding to the appropriate degree, the amount of inhibin increases.

6. Within the testes the following ducts transport sperm – straight tubules, rete testis, and efferent
ducts.

7. The ductus epididymis is a single tube that becomes tightly coiled and finally less convoluted
toward the end. It will measure about 6 m in length if uncoiled, lined with pseudostratified
columnar epithelium and encircled by layers of smooth muscle. The free surfaces of the
columnar cells have stereocilia to increase the surface area for reabsorption of degenerated
sperm. There is connective tissue around the muscle layer to carry blood vessels and nerves. The
ductus epididymis is located throughout the structure of the epididymis to receive produced
sperm from the testes and delivered into and through the epididymis to the ductus deferens and is
the location through which sperm maturation occurs to acquire motility and the ability to
fertilize. It also functions to help propel sperm into the ductus deferens and serves as a place of
storage of sperm. The ductus (vas) deferens is about 45 cm long, and ascends along the posterior
border of the epididymis through the spermatic cord and then enters the pelvic cavity where it
loops over the ureter and passes over the side and down the posterior surface of the urinary
bladder. It has a dilated terminal end, the ampulla. The mucosa of the ductus deferens consists of
pseudostratified columnar epithelium and lamina propria (areolar connective tissue) and with
muscularis composed of three layers of smooth muscle. The function of the ductus deferens is to
convey sperm during sexual arousal from the epididymis toward the urethra by peristaltic
contractions and serve as storage for sperm. The ejaculatory duct is about 2 cm long and forms
by the union of the duct from the seminal vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens and is
located superior to the base of the prostate and pass inferiorly and anteriorly through the prostate
to terminate in the prostatic urethra. The function is to eject sperm and seminal vesicle secretions
just before the release of semen from the urethra to the exterior.

8. The prostatic urethra runs through the prostate as it begins from the inferior portion of the
urinary bladder and connects with the membranous urethra. The membranous urethra begins
immediately after the prostate and passes through the deep muscles of the perineum. The spongy
(penile) urethra begins following the membranous urethra and passes through the corpus
spongiosum of the penis to end at the external urethral orifice.

9. Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and then move into a series of
ducts in the following order – straight tubules, rete testis, efferent ducts, ductus epididymis,
ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, spongy urethra to the
outside the body.

10. The structures within the spermatic cord include the ductus deferens, the testicular artery,
veins that drain the testes (the pampiniform plexus), autonomic nerves, lymphatic vessel, and the
cremaster muscle.

11. The seminal vesicles are lying posterior to the base of the urinary bladder and anterior to the
rectum. The function of the seminal vesicles is to secrete an alkaline, viscous fluid that contains
fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting proteins that are different from those in blood. This fluid
serves to neutralize the acidic environment of the male urethra and female reproductive tract that
would otherwise inactivate and kill sperm. The fructose is used for ATP production by sperm
and the prostaglandins contribute to sperm motility and viability and may stimulate smooth
muscle contractions within the female reproductive tract. The clotting proteins help semen
coagulate after ejaculation. The location of the prostate is position inferior to the urinary bladder
and surrounds the prostatic urethra. The prostate secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that
contain citric acid to be used by sperm for ATP production; proteolytic enzymes that function to
breakdown the clotting proteins from the seminal vesicles; seminalplasmin functions as an
antibiotic that can destroy bacteria. The location of the bulbourethral glands is inferior to the
prostate and on either side of the membranous urethra within the deep muscles of the perineum
and their ducts open into the spongy urethra. The functions of the bulbourethral glands are to
secrete an alkaline fluid during sexual arousal into the urethra that protects the passing sperm by
neutralizing acids from the urine in the urethra and secrete mucus that lubricates the end of the
penis and the lining of the urethra decreasing the number of sperm damaged during ejaculation.

12. Semen is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid that consists of the secretions of the
seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicle, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. The functional role is
the seminal fluid provides sperm with a transportation medium, nutrients, and protection from
the hostile acidic environment of the male’s urethra and the female’s vagina.

13. The physiological process involved in erection is the result of sexual stimulation that occurs
from the visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, or imagined sources. As a result of the sexual
stimulation, parasympathetic fibers from the sacral portion of the spinal cord initiate and
maintain an erection. The parasympathetic fibers produce and release nitric oxide that causes
smooth muscle in the walls of the arteriole supplying erectile tissue to relax and allows these
blood vessels to dilate, causing large amounts of blood to enter the erectile tissue of the penis, so
the combination of increased blood flow and widening of the blood sinuses results in an erection.
The expansion of the blood sinuses also compresses the veins that drain the penis, slowing the
blood outflow to help maintain the erection. The physiological process involved in ejaculation is
a sympathetic release of semen from the urethra to the exterior, based on a sympathetic reflex
coordinated by the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. The smooth muscle sphincter at the base of
the urinary bladder closes to prevent urine from being expelled during ejaculation and semen
from entering the urinary bladder. Peristaltic contractions in the ducts prior to and up to the
prostate have propelled semen into the penile urethra, so to lead to emission of discharge of a
small volume of semen before ejaculation. The musculature of the penis, supplied by the
pudendal nerve contracts at ejaculation.

14. The ovaries are held in position in the female’s pelvic cavity by a series of ligaments
including the broad ligament – a fold of the parietal peritoneum, linking the ovaries to the uterus;
the mesovarium – a double layered fold of peritoneum; the ovarian ligament anchors the ovaries
to the uterus too, and the suspensory ligament attaches the ovaries to the pelvic wall.

15. The microscopic structure of the ovary includes the histology of the organ that is comprised
of the germinal epithelium – simple epithelium, low cuboidal or squamous that covers the
surface of the ovary; the tunica albuginea – a whitish capsule of dense irregular connective tissue
located immediately deep to the germinal epithelium; ovarian cortex is the region just deep to the
tunica albuginea that consists of ovarian follicles surrounded by dense irregular connective tissue
that contains collagen fibers and stromal cells; the ovarian medulla is deep to the ovarian cortex
consisting of more loosely arranged connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerves; the ovarian follicles are in the cortex and consist of oocytes in various stages
of development, and the cells surrounding them, which include the follicular cells and the
granulosa cells that serve to nourish the developing oocytes and begin estrogen secretion as the
follicle grows larger; the mature follicle is a large, fluid-filled follicle that is ready to rupture and
expel its secondary oocyte through ovulation; the corpus luteum contains the remnants of a
mature follicle after ovulation and produces progesterone, estrogens, relaxin and inhibin until it
degenerates into fibrous scar tissue, corpus albicans. The functions of the ovaries include the
production of gametes, secondary oocytes that develop into mature ova after fertilization, and
secretion of hormones that includes progesterone, estrogens, inhibin, and relaxin.

16. The process of oogenesis begins in females before birth. During early fetal development,
primordial germ cells migrate from the yolk sac to the ovaries. Germ cells differentiate within
the ovaries into oogonia that have a diploid number of chromosomes and serve as stem cells that
divide using mitosis. A portion of the oogonia develop into larger cells called primary oocytes
that enter prophase I of meiosis I during fetal development, but do not complete that phase until
after puberty. During this arrested stage of development, a single layer of flat follicular cells
surrounds each primary oocyte and the entire structure is called a primordial follicle. The ovarian
cortex surrounds the primordial follicles, so at birth each ovary contains between 200,000 to
2,000,000 primary oocytes. On the average 40,000 primary oocytes are still present at puberty
and around 400 will mature and ovulate during a woman’s reproductive lifetime. Each month
after puberty until menopause, FSH and LH secreted by the anterior pituitary further stimulate
the development of several primordial follicles, but only one will typically reach the maturity
needed for ovulation. The small collection of primordial follicles start to grow, developing into
primary follicles, consisting of a primary oocyte, surrounded by several layers of cuboidal and
low-columnar cells, granulosa cells. A zonal pellucida forms between the primary oocyte and the
granulosa cells and stromal cells surrounding the basement membrane organize into a layer
called the theca folliculi. The primary follicle develops into a secondary follicle that involves the
theca differentiating into two layers – theca interna and theca externa. The granulosa cells begin
to secrete follicular fluid in a cavity called the antrum in the center of the secondary follicle. As
the secondary follicle enlarges, it turns into the mature follicle just before ovulation. The diploid
primary oocyte completes meiosis I, producing two haploid cells with 23 chromosomes each.
The smaller cell is called the first polar body, that contains packet of discarded nuclear material.
The larger cell is the secondary oocyte that gets the majority of cytoplasm. Once a secondary
oocyte is formed, it begins meiosis II, but then stops in metaphase. The mature follicle soon
ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte through ovulation. At ovulation, the secondary oocyte
is expelled into the pelvic cavity and swept into the uterine tube. If fertilization dues not occur,
the cell degenerate. If sperm are present in the uterine tube and one penetrates the secondary
oocyte, meiosis II resumes. The secondary oocyte splits into two haploid cells, again unequal
size, and the large cell is the ovum, the mature egg and the smaller one is the second polar body.
The nuclei of the sperm and the ovum then unite, forming a diploid zygote.

17. Females have two uterine tubes that extend laterally from the uterus, that lie within the folds
of the broad ligaments of the uterus. Their function is to provide a route for sperm to reach an
ovum and transport secondary oocytes and fertilize ova from the ovaries to the uterus.

18. The parts of the uterus are the fundus, the body, the cervix and the isthmus. The fundus is
superior to the uterine tubes and the body that is a more tapered central portion of the organ and
the inferior narrow portion is the cervix that opens into the vagina. Between the body of the
uterus and the cervix is the isthmus. The interior of the body of the uterus is the uterine cavity
and the interior of the cervix is the cervical canal. The internal os is the opening of the cervical
canal into the uterine cavity and the opening of the cervical canal into the vagina is the external
os.

19. There are several ligaments that are either extensions of the parietal peritoneum or
fibromuscular cords that maintain the position of the uterus. The paired broad ligaments are
double folds of peritoneum attaching the uterus to either side of the pelvic cavity. The uterosacral
ligaments are paired peritoneal extensions that lie on either side of the rectum and connect the
uterus to the sacrum. The cardinal ligaments are located inferior to the bases of the broad
ligaments and extend from the pelvic wall to the cervix and vagina and the round ligaments are
between the layers of the broad ligament and extend from a point on the uterus just inferior to the
uterine tubes to a portion of the labia majora of the external genitalia.

20. The histology of the uterus consists of three layers of tissue – perimetrium, myometrium, and
endometrium. The perimetrium is the outermost layer, the serosa and part of the visceral
peritoneum composed of simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue. The
myometrium is the middle layer that consists of three layers of smooth muscle fibers that are
thickest in the fundus and thinnest in the cervix. The middle layer is thicker circular fibers and
the inner and outer layers are longitudinal or oblique. The inner layer of the uterus is the
endometrium that is highly vascularized and has three components. The innermost layer is
composed of** simple columnar epithelium** with ciliated and secretory cells that line the
lumen. The underlying endometrial stroma is a thick region of lamina propria (**areolar
connective tissue). The endometrial glands develop as invaginations of the luminal epithelium
and extend almost to the myometrium. The endometrium is divided into two layers – the stratum
functionalis that lines the uterine cavity and sloughs off during menstruation and the deeper layer
– stratum basale that is permanent and gives rise to a new stratum functionalis after each
menstruation. There are branches of the internal iliac artery called the uterine arteries that deliver
the blood supply to the uterus and these vessels give off branches called arcuate arteries that are
arranged in a circular fashion in the myometrium. The arcuate vessels branch into radial arteries
that penetrate deeply into the myometrium and then just before the branches enter the
endometrium, the vessels divide into two kinds of arterioles – straight arterioles that supply the
stratum basale with materials needed to regenerate the stratum functionalis and the spiral
arterioles that supply the stratum functionalis and change during the menstrual cycle. Blood
leaves the uterus by the uterine veins that flow into the internal iliac veins.

21. The extensive blood supply of the uterus is necessary to support the regrowth of a new
stratum functionalis after menstruation, implantation of a fertilized ovum, and the development
of the placenta.

22. The mucosa of the vagina consists of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and
areolar connective tissue that lies in a series of transverse folds called rugae. This structural
design allows for the vagina to expand during intercourse in the receiving of the penis and for the
baby to exit the birth canal. There are dendritic cells in the mucosa that are antigen-presenting
cells that play a role in immunity. The mucosa of the vagina contains large stores of glycogen,
decomposition of which produces organic acids that serves to retard the microbial growth. The
muscularis layer of smooth muscle functions to stretch considerable to accommodate the penis
during sexual intercourse and a child during birth.

23. The mons pubis is an elevation of adipose tissue covered by skin and coarse pubic hair that
cushions the pubic symphysis. The labia majora is two longitudinal folds of skin that extend
inferiorly and posteriorly covered by pubic hair and contains an abundance of adipose tissue,
sebaceous glands and apocrine sudoriferous glands. The labia minora is medial to the labia
majora and consists of two smaller folds of skin that has a few sudoriferous glands and many
sebaceous glands. The clitoris is a small cylindrical mass composed of two small erectile bodies,
the corpora cavernosa and numerous nerves and blood vessels and is located at the anterior
junction of the labia minora. The exposed portion of the clitoris is the glans clitoris. The clitoris
is capable of enlargement on tactile stimulation and has a role in sexual excitement in the female.
The region between the labia minora is the vestibule and this area includes the hymen, if still
present, the vaginal orifice, the external urethral orifice, and the openings of ducts of several
glands. The vaginal orifice is the opening of the vagina to the exterior. Anterior to the vaginal
orifice and posterior to the clitoris is the external urethral orifice, the opening of the urethra to
the exterior and on either side of the external urethral orifice are the openings of the ducts of the
paraurethral glands. The paraurethral glands are mucus-secreting glands embedded in the wall of
the urethra. On either side of the vaginal orifice are the greater vestibular glands that open by
ducts into a groove between the hymen and labia minora. The greater vestibular glands produce a
small quantity of mucus during sexual arousal and intercourse that adds to cervical mucus and
provides lubrication. The less vestibular glands also open into the vestibule. The bulb of the
vestibule consists of two elongated masses of erectile tissue just deep to the labia on either side
of the vaginal orifice. The bulb of the vestibule becomes engorged with blood during sexual
arousal, narrowing the vaginal orifice and placing pressure on the penis during intercourse.
24. The mammary glands are modified sudoriferous glands that produce milk. A mammary gland
consists of 15 – 20 lobes separated by a adipose tissue. Within each lobe are several lobules
composed of clusters of milk-secreting glands, alveoli embedded in connective tissue.
Contraction of myoepithelial cells surround the alveoli helps propel milk toward the nipples.
Milk is produced in the alveoli and moves into secondary tubules and then into mammary ducts
that expand to form lactiferous sinuses where some milk may be stored before draining into a
lactiferous duct. The support structures for the mammary glands housed within the breasts are
the strands of connective tissue called suspensory ligaments that run between the skin and fascia.

25. Milk is produced in the alveoli and moves into secondary tubules and then into mammary
ducts that expand to form lactiferous sinuses where some milk may be stored before draining
into a lactiferous duct and is then delivered to the nipple.

26. GnRH functions to control the ovarian and uterine cycles. It stimulates the release of FSH
and LH from the anterior pituitary gland. FSH functions to initiate follicular growth in the
ovarian cycle and works with LH to stimulate the ovarian follicles to secrete estrogens. LH
functions to stimulate further development of ovarian follicles, stimulates the theca cells of a
developing follicle to produce androgens, and triggers ovulation and then promotes formation of
the corpus luteum. All of these functions serve to regulate the ovarian cycle. The function of
estrogens promotes the development and maintenance of female reproductive structures,
secondary sex characteristics, and the breasts. Estrogens also function to increase protein
anabolism, including building of strong bones and to lower blood cholesterol level. The other
function of estrogens is to regulate the level of GnRH, LH, and FSH (as estrogens increase, these
hormones decrease). The function of progesterone is to work with estrogens to prepare and
maintain the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized ovum (uterine cycle), and to prepare
the mammary glands for milk secretion and can serve to inhibit the secretion of GnRH and LH if
elevated. The function of inhibin is to inhibit the secretion of FSH and to a lesser extent, LH.

27. The first day of menses is day 1 of a new cycle and the endometrium is sloughed off. This
corresponds to the time of the follicular phase occurring in the ovaries, which includes the
primordial follicles developing into primary follicles and ultimately into a secondary follicle
occurring all under the initial influence of FSH. The endometrium is stimulated to be repair
under the effect of estrogens secreted by the growing ovarian follicles, so the cells of the stratum
basale undergo mitosis and produce a new stratum functionalis. As the endometrium thickens,
the straight endometrial glands develop and the arterioles coil and lengthen to penetrate the
stratum functionalis. The effect is the endometrium thickness more or less doubles. This is
occurring during the preovulatory phase or the proliferative phase, which is the time between the
end of menstruation and ovulation. Some secondary follicles in the ovaries begin to secrete
estrogens and inhibin and this leads to decreased secretion of FSH. The dominant secondary
follicle becomes the mature follicle and continues to enlarge preparing for ovulation. In the
ovarian cycle this is the follicular phase. Ovulation occurs when the mature follicle ruptures and
releases the secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity, around day 14 of the cycle. Following
ovulation, the female experiences postovulatory phase that is the time between ovulation and
onset of the next menses. In the uterus, the events are collectively called the secretory phase
because the progesterone and estrogens produced by the corpus luteum promote the growth and
coiling of the endometrial glands, vascularization of the superficial endometrium and the
thickening of the endometrium. The endometrial glands secrete glycogen at this time too. These
are all preparatory changes that peak approximately 1 week after ovulation at the time a fertilized
ovum might arrive in the uterus. If fertilization does not occur, the levels of progesterone and
estrogens decline because the corpus luteum is degenerating and this prompts the onset of
menses. In the ovaries, this corresponds to the luteal phase because the theca interna cells mix
with the granulosa cells and transform into the corpus luteum cells under the influence of LH.
The corpus luteum then secretes progesterone, estrogens, relaxin and inhibin. If the oocyte is not
fertilized, the corpus luteum lingers for 2 weeks and then degenerates.

28. A prepared labeled diagram of the major hormonal changes that occur during the uterine and
ovarian cycles needs to include appropriate rises and declines of GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogens,
progesterone and inhibin as it relates to specific events occurring in the ovaries and uterine
changes. Refer to the illustration, Fig. 28.24 on page 1071.

29. Oral contraceptives reduce the likelihood of pregnancy by containing hormones designed to
prevent pregnancy. Some contain both progestin and estrogens and their effect is to inhibit
ovulation by suppressing FSH and LH, and this prevents the development of a dominant follicle
in the ovary, so estrogen levels do not rise, midcycle LH surge does not occur and ovulation does
not happen. If ovulation does occur, this oral contraceptive can block implantation in the uterus
and inhibit the transport of ova and sperm in the uterine tubes. Progestins thicken cervical mucus
and make it more difficult for sperm to enter the uterus and block implantation in the uterus.

30. Barrier methods are physical barriers that provide some protection against sexually
transmitted diseases. The male condom is a nonporous, latex covering placed over the penis that
prevents deposition of sperm in the female reproductive tract. The vaginal pouch/female condom
is designed to prevent sperm from entering the uterus and works because one ring lies inside the
sheath and is inserted to fit over the cervix and the other ring remains outside the vagina and
covers the female external genitals. The diaphragm is a rubber, dome-shaped structure that fits
over the cervix and is used in conjunction with spermicide and functions to stop most sperm
from passing into the cervix and the spermicide kills most sperm that do get by and even though
the diaphragm does decrease the risk of some STDs, it does not protect against HIV infection
because the vagina is still exposed. The cervical cap fits snugly over the cervix and must be fitted
by a health-care professional and is used in conjunction with spermicides.

31. An oral contraceptive pill for males would have to focus on preventing sperm production.
This would involve reducing testosterone levels and that would decrease male sex drive and
sexual performance. There could also be emotional impacts of increased depression and mood
changes.

32. In the male the developing sustentacular cells secrete a hormone called Mullerianinhibiting
substance (MIS),which causes apoptosis of cells within the paramesonephric ducts, so the result
is those cells do not contribute any functional structures to the male reproductive system. Human
chorionic gonadotropin targets the primitive interstitial cells in the testes to secrete testosterone
during the eighth week of development. Testosterone stimulates the development of the
mesonephric duct. The testes connect to the mesonephric duct through a series of tubules that
eventually become the seminiferous tubules. The external genitalia of the male embryo results
from some testosterone that is converted to a second androgen, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) that
stimulates this development. In the female the chromosomal combination is two X chromosomes
and no Y chromosome, so the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) is absent and
the genital ridges develop into ovaries. MIS is not produced, so the paramesonephric ducts
flourish and the distal ends of the paramesonephric ducts fuse to form the vagina and uterus. The
mesonephric ducts degenerate without contributing any functional structures to the female
reproductive system because of the absence of testosterone. In the absence of DHT, the genital
tubercle gives rise to the clitoris and the urethral folds remain open as the labia minora and the
labioscrotal swellings become the labia majora. After birth, androgen levels decline because hCG
is no longer present to stimulate the secretion of testosterone.

33. Puberty is when secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop and the potential for
sexual reproduction is reached.

34. Menarche refers to the first menses – first menstrual period. Menopause refers to the
permanent cessation of menses.

CHAPTER 29
1. Fertilization normally occurs in the uterine tube.

2. Polyspermy is blocked by the fusion of a sperm cell with a secondary oocyte. Within a few
seconds, the cell membrane of the oocyte depolarizes, which acts as a fast block to polyspermy,
so now there is an inability of a depolarized oocyte to fuse with another sperm.

3. A morula is a solid sphere of cells that is produced by successive cleavages following the
blastomeres. The morula is surrounded by the zona pellucida and is about the same size as the
original zygote.

4. The blastocyst has two distinct cell populations – the embryoblast and the trophoblast. The
embyroblast is the inner cell mass that is located internally and eventually develops into the
embryo. The trophoblast is the outer superficial layer of cells that forms the sphere-like wall of
the blastocyst and it will ultimately develop into the outer chorionic sac that surrounds the fetus
and the fetal portion of the placenta.

5. About 6 days after fertilization, the blastocyst loosely attaches to the endometrium that lines
the uterus usually in the posterior portion of the fundus or the body of the uterus. About 7 days
after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium more firmly, endometrial glands in
the vicinity enlarge, and the endometrium becomes more vascularized. The blastocyst eventually
secretes enzymes and burrows into the endometrium and becomes surrounded by it.

6. About 8 days after fertilization, the trophoblast develops into two layers in the region of
contact between the blastocyst and endometrium – syncytiotrophoblast and the cytotrophoblast.
These two layers become part of the chorion as they undergo further growth. During
implantation, the syncytiotrophoblast secretes enzymes that enable the blastocyst to penetrate the
uterine lining by digesting and liquefying the endometrial cells. The trophoblast also secretes
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).

7. Cells of the embryoblast differentiate into two layers around 8 days after fertilization –
hypoblast and epiblast. The cells of each of these layers together form a flat disc, bilaminar
embryonic disc.

8. As the amniotic cavity enlarges, a single layer of squamous cells forms a domelike roof above
the epiblast cells and this is the amnion. As the embryonic disc increases in size and begins to
fold, the amnion eventually surrounds the entire embryo, creating the amniotic cavity that
becomes filled with amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid serves as a shock absorber for the fetus,
helps regulate fetal body temperature, helps prevent the fetus from drying out, and prevents
adhesions between the skin of the fetus and surrounding tissues. About the eighth day after
fertilization, cells at the edge of the hypoblast migrate and cover the inner surface of the
blastocyst wall. The migrating columnar cells become squamous and then form a thin membrane,
exocoelomic membrane. The combination of the hypoblast and exocoelomic membrane is what
forms the wall of the yolk sac. The functions of the yolk sac include supplying nutrients to the
embryo during the second and third weeks of development, being the source of blood cells from
the third through the sixth weeks, containing the first cells that will eventually migrate into the
developing gonads, differentiating into the primitive germ cells and forming the gametes,
forming part of the gut, and functioning as a shock absorber, and helping to prevent drying out of
the embryo. The extraembyronic mesoderm combines with two layers of the trophoblast to form
the chorion that surrounds the embryo and later the fetus and eventually becomes the principal
embryonic part of the placenta. The chorion also protects the embryo and fetus from immune
responses of the mother by secreting proteins that block antibody production by the mother and
promoting the production of T lymphocytes that suppress normal immune response in the uterus.
The chorion also produces hCG.

9. The maternal sinusoids are the result of endometrial capillaries around the developing embryo
becoming dilated and this important because it will allow maternal blood and secretions from the
glands to enter the lacunar networks and flow through them so the maternal blood can reach the
developing embryo and deliver rich source of materials for embryonic nutrition and function as a
disposal site for the embryo’s wastes.

10. Gastrulation occurs about 15 days after fertilization and is the first major even of the third
week of development.
11. Following formation of the primitive streak, cells of the epiblast move inward below the
primitive streak and detach from the epiblast through invagination. The cells that displace the
hypoblast form the endoderm. The cells that remain between the epiblast and newly form
endoderm form the mesoderm and the cells that remain in the epiblast form the ectoderm. The
endoderm is important because it ultimately becomes the epithelial lining of the GI tract,
respiratory tract and several endocrine glands, the liver and gallbladder, and several reproductive
glands and the gametes. The mesoderm is important in that it will give rise to the muscles, bones
and other connective tissues and the peritoneum. The ectoderm is important because it develops
into the epidermis of the skin and the nervous system.

12. Induction is the process by which one tissue stimulates the development of an adjacent
unspecialized tissue into a specialized one. An inducing tissue usually produces a chemical
substance that influences the responding tissue.

13. Neurulation is the process by which the neural plate, neural folds, and neural tube form. The
notochord induces ectodermal cells over it to form the neural plate. By the end of the third week,
the lateral edges of the neural plate become more elevated and form the neural fold. The neural
folds approach each other and fuse converting the neural plate into a neural tube. This occurs
first near the middle of the embryo and then progresses toward the head and tail ends. Neural
tube cells then develop into the brain and spinal cord. As the neural tube forms, some of the
ectodermal cells from the tube migrate to form several layers called neural crest that will give
rise to all sensory neurons and postganglionic neurons of the peripheral nerves, adrenal
medullae, melanocytes of the skin, arachnoid mater and pia mater of the brain and spinal cord
and almost all of the skeletal and connective tissue components of the head

. 14. Each somite differentiates into three regions – a myotome, a dermatome, and a sclerotome.
The myotomes develop into skeletal muscles of the neck, trunk, and limbs. The dermatomes
form connective tissue, including the dermis of the skin, and the sclerotomes give rise to the
vertebrae and ribs.

15. The cardiovascular system begins to develop at the beginning of the third week as
angiogenesis begins in the extraembryonic mesoderm in the yolk sac, connecting stalk and
chorion. About 3 weeks after fertilization, blood cells and blood plasma begin to develop outside
the embryo from hemangioblasts in the blood vessels in the walls of the yolk sac, allantois, and
chorion. These then develop into pluripotent stem cells that form blood cells. The heart forms
from splanchnic mesoderm in the head end of the embryo on days 18 and 19. This region of
mesodermal cells is the cardiogenic area. By the end of the third week, the primitive heart tube
bends on itself, becomes S-shaped and begins to beat. It then joins blood vessels in the other
parts of the embryo, connecting stalk, chorion, and yolk sac to form a primitive cardiovascular
system.

16. The placenta is formed by the chorionic villi of the embryo and the decidua basalis of the
endometrium of the mother combining.

17. During the fourth week after fertilization, the embryo undergoes significant changes in
regard to shape and nearly tripling in size. The embryo converts from a flat, two-dimensional
trilaminar embryonic disc to a three-dimensional cylinder and this process is called embryonic
folding. The cylinder consists of endoderm in the center (gut), ectoderm on the outside (skin) and
mesoderm in between. The main force responsible for embryonic folding is the different rates of
growth of various parts of the embryo, especially the rapid longitudinal growth of the nervous
system. The foldings cause the embryo to curve into a C-shape.

18. The primitive gut forms in part as a result of the head folding to bring the mouth into position
and the tail fold bringing the developing anus into eventual position. The lateral folds form as the
lateral margins of the trilaminar embryonic disc bend ventrally and as they move toward the
midline, the lateral folds incorporate the dorsal part of the yolk sac into the embryo, which is the
formation of the primitive gut. The significance of the primitive gut is it is the forerunner of the
GI tract.

19. The development of the somites and the development of the neural tube, five pairs of
pharyngeal arches or branchial arches begin to develop on each side of the future head and neck
regions. Within each pharyngeal arch is an artery, a cranial nerve, skeletal cartilaginous rods that
support the arch, and skeletal muscle tissue that attaches to and moves the cartilage rods.

20. Upper and lower limb buds lead to the development of the upper and lower limbs
respectively as outgrowths of mesoderm covered by ectoderm.

21. By the seventh week, the various regions of the limbs become distinct and the beginnings of
digits appear. At the start of the eighth week, the final week of the embryonic period, the digits
of the hands are short and webbed. By the end of the eighth week, all regions of limbs are
apparent; the digits are distinct and no longer webbed due to removal of cells via apoptosis.

22. During the fetal period, tissues and organs that developed during the embryonic period grow
and differentiate. Very few new structures appear during this period, but the rate of body growth
is much faster. During the last 2.5 months of intrauterine life, half of the full-term weight is
added. At the beginning of the fetal period, the head is half the length of the body, but by the end
of the fetal period, the head size is only one-quarter the length of the body. The limbs also
increase in size from one-eighth to one-half the fetal length. The fetus is less vulnerable to the
damaging effects of drugs, radiation, and microbes than it was as an embryo. Skin is pink and
wrinkled around weeks 21- 25, but begins to smooth out in weeks 30-34 and has usually become
bluish pink as birth approaches. In weeks 26-29 the red bone marrow becomes the major site for
blood cell production and the testes begin to descend toward the scrotum in the males at 28- 32
weeks. Body fat increases percentage of the total body mass during weeks 30- 34 and doubles as
birth approaches.

23. This question could be answered, for instance, following the developmental changes in the
head, the external genitalia, or integumentary system structures. For the head, in weeks 9 – 12
the head is about half the length of the fetal body; during weeks 13-16 the head is relatively
smaller than rest of body; during weeks 17-20 the head is more proportionate to rest of body and
even more proportionate during weeks 21-25. For the external genitalia, during weeks 9 – 12 the
gender is distinguishable; during weeks 28-32, the testes begin to descend toward the scrotum
and by weeks 35-38 the testes are usually in scrotum for the full-term male infants. For the skin,
weeks 17-20, eyebrows and head hair are visible and lanugo covers the fetus; by weeks 21-25 the
skin is pink and wrinkled; in weeks 26-29 toenails are visible; during weeks 30-34, the skin is
pink and smooth and by weeks 35-38 the skin is usually bluish-pink.

24. Symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome are mental retardation and birth defects including slow
growth before and after birth, characteristic facial features – short palpebral fissures, a thin upper
lip and sunken nasal bridge – defective heart and other organs, malformed limbs, genital
abnormalities and central nervous system damage, behavioral problems, such as hyperactivity,
extreme nervousness, reduced ability to concentrate and an inability to appreciate cause-and-
effect relationships.

25. Cigarette smoking leads to low infant birth weight and a strong association between smoking
and a higher fetal and infant mortality rate. Cardiac abnormalities and anencephaly, increased
chance of developing cleft lip and palate and increased respiratory problems.

26. Information gained from fetal ultrasound is progression of the pregnancy, determining the
accurate fetal age, confirmation of pregnancy, evaluating fetal viability and growth, determining
fetal position, identifying multiple pregnancies and any fetal-maternal abnormalities and serve as
an adjunct to procedures such as amniocentesis. Information gained from an amniocentesis is
analyzing the fetal cells and dissolved substances and can detect certain genetic disorders, such
as Down Syndrome, hemophilia, Tay-Sachs disease, sickle cell disease, and certain muscular
dystrophies, also used to help determine survivability of the fetus. Information gained through
the procedure of chorionic villi sampling is detection of the same defects as amniocentesis but
can be performed as early as 8 weeks of gestation and the test results are available in only a few
days. The noninvasive prenatal tests are safer, more efficient and less expensive for screening a
large population

27. The hormones involved in pregnancy include progesterone, estrogens, hCG, relaxin, human
chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) or human placental lactogen (hPL), and corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH). The functions of progesterone and estrogens are to maintain the lining
of the uterus during pregnancy and prepare the mammary glands to secrete milk. Elevated levels
of progesterone ensures that the uterine myometrium is relaxed and that the cervix is tightly
closed. The function of hCG is to stimulate the corpus luteum to continue to produce
progesterone and estrogens which is necessary to prevent menstruation and for continued
attachment of the embryo and fetus to the lining of the uterus. The functions of relaxin are to
increase the flexibility of the pubic symphysis and ligaments of the sacroiliac and sacrococcygeal
joints and help dilate the uterine cervix during labor for the combined effect of increasing the
ease of delivery of the baby. The functions of hCS/hPL are to prepare the mammary glands for
lactation, enhance maternal growth by increasing protein synthesis and to regulate certain aspects
of metabolism in both mother and fetus including decrease the use of glucose by the mother and
promote the release of fatty acids from her adipose tissue, making more glucose available to the
fetus. The function of CRH is thought to be a part of the “clock” that establishes the timing of
birth and a possible second effect is to increase the secretion of cortisol which is needed for
maturation of fetal lungs and the production of surfactant in the developing fetus.
28. The structural and functional changes that occur in the mother include the following. Near
the end of the third month of pregnancy, the uterus occupies most of the pelvic cavity and as the
fetus continues to grow the uterus extends higher and higher into the abdominal cavity to the
point of nearly reaching the costal margin at the xiphoid process toward the end of the
pregnancy. This uterine growth pushes the maternal intestines, liver and stomach superiorly,
elevating the diaphragm and widening the thoracic cavity. Pressure on the stomach may force the
stomach contents superiorly into the esophagus, leading to heartburn and the compression of the
ureters and urinary bladder occurs increasing the frequency of urination. The physiological
changes of pregnancy also include weight gain, amniotic fluid production, development of the
placenta, uterine enlargement, and increased total body water. There is increased storage of
proteins, triglycerides and minerals, marked breast enlargement in preparation for lactation, and
lower back pain caused by lordosis. In the cardiovascular system the stroke volume increases by
30% and cardiac output increases by 20-30% to accommodate increased maternal blood flow to
the placental and increased metabolism. Heart rate increases 10-15% and blood volume increases
30-50% mostly during the second half of pregnancy in order to meet the additional demands of
the fetus for nutrients and oxygen. If a woman lies supine, the enlarged uterus compresses the
aorta, leading to diminished blood flow to the uterus; compression of the inferior vena cava
decreases venous return and increases edema in lower limbs and may produce varicose veins;
and compression of the renal artery can lead to renal hypertension. There are respiratory
functional changes during pregnancy to meet the added oxygen demands of the fetus including
tidal volume increases by 30-40%, expiratory reserve volume can be reduced by up to 40%,
functional residual capacity can decline by up to 25%, minute ventilation can increase by up to
40%, airway resistance in the bronchial tree can decline by 30-40%, and total body oxygen
consumption can increase by about 10-20%. Dyspnea also occurs. Changes occur in the digestive
system such as increased appetite due to the added nutritional demands of the fetus; a general
decrease in GI tract motility can cause constipation, delay gastric emptying time, and produce
nausea, vomiting, and heartburn. Urinary system changes include increased frequency and
urgency to urinate and stress incontinence. There is an increase in renal plasma flow up to 35%
and increase in glomerular filtration rate up to 40% to accommodate faster elimination of the
extra wastes produced by the fetus. There are changes in the skin during pregnancy. Increased
pigmentation around the eyes and cheekbones, in the areolae of the breasts, and in the linea alba
of the lower abdomen. Striae over the abdomen can occur as the uterus enlarges and hair loss
increases. Changes in the reproductive system include edema and increased vascularity of the
vulva and increased pliability and vascularity of the vagina. The uterus increases because of
hyperplasia of the muscle fibers in the myometrium in early pregnancy and hypertrophy of the
muscle fibers during the second and third trimesters.

29. Changes that occur in pregnancy that may impact exercise are a pregnant woman may fatigue
more easily than usual or morning sickness may interfere with regular exercise. As pregnancy
progresses, weight gain and posture changes lead to increased energy to perform activities and
certain maneuvers, so they can become more difficult to execute. Certain joints, such as the
pubic symphysis become less stable in response to the increased relaxin, so walking with widely
spread legs and a shuffling motion may occur during the pregnancy. Changes in blood flow to
accommodate adequate blood flow to the placenta can prompt increased heat generated during
exercise and cause dehydration and further increase body temperature, so excessive exercise and
heat buildup should be avoided because elevated body temperature has been linked to neural tube
defects.

30. Toward the end of gestation, the levels of estrogens in the mother’s blood rise sharply,
producing changes that overcome the inhibiting effects of progesterone. The increase in
estrogens results from increasing the secretion by the placental of CRH which stimulates the
release of ACTH from the fetus and ACTH stimulates the fetal adrenal glands to secrete cortisol
and dehydroepiandorosterone (DHEA), a major adrenal androgen. The placental then converts
DHEA into an estrogen. The elevated estrogens cause the receptors for oxytocin on uterine
muscle fibers to increase and oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions. Relaxin increasing the
flexibility of the pubic symphysis and helps to dilate the uterine cervix. Oxytocin is responsible
for the positive-feedback cycle that occurs to ensure labor progresses.

31. True labor occurs when uterine contractions happen at regular intervals and usually produces
pain, so as the interval between contractions shortens, the contractions intensify and there is
often the localization of pain in the back that is intensified by walking. Also in true labor there is
dilation of the cervix and the “show” of discharge of a blood-containing mucus into the cervical
canal. False labor differs in that pain is felt in the abdomen at irregular intervals and does not
intensify and walking does not alter it significantly and there is no “show” and no cervical
dilation.

32. During the stage of dilation in true labor there are regular contractions of the uterus, usually a
rupturing of the amniotic sac and complete dilation of the cervix. During the expulsion stage of
true labor the baby is delivered. During the placental stage, the placenta or “afterbirth” is
expelled by powerful uterine contractions and these contractions constrict blood vessels that
were torn during delivery and reduce the likelihood of hemorrhage.

33. Respiratory adjustments are important at birth because the fetus depends entirely on the
mother for obtaining oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide because the fetal lungs are
collapsed or partially filled with amniotic fluids. After delivery the baby’s supply of oxygen
from the mother ceases and any amniotic fluid in the fetal lungs is absorbed. Carbon dioxide will
build up in the blood which stimulates the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata causing
the respiratory muscles to contract and the baby to draw his or her first breath. The first
inspiration is unusually deep because the lungs contain no air and the baby also exhales
vigorously and naturally cries. Cardiovascular adjustments are important at birth because the
closure of the foramen ovale between the atria of the fetal heart must occur at the moment of
birth so to divert deoxygenated blood to the lungs of the fetus the first time. Once the lungs begin
to function, the ductus arteriosus shuts off caused by contractions of smooth muscle in its wall
and it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. Tying off the umbilical cord eliminates blood flow
through the umbilical arteries, so they fill with connective tissue and their distal portions become
the medial umbilical ligaments. The umbilical vein becomes the ligamentum teres of the liver.
When the umbilical cord is severed, the ductus venosus collapses and venous blood from the
viscera of the fetus flows into the hepatic portal vein to the liver and then the hepatic vein to the
inferior vena cava and the remnant of the ductus venosus becomes the ligamentum venosum.
Pulse changes occur after birth because oxygen use increases, thereby stimulating an increase in
the rate of red blood cell and hemoglobin production and white blood cell count at birth is very
high, but the count decreases rapidly by the seventh day.

34. Hormones necessary for lactation are prolactin (PRL), prolactin –releasing hormone (PRH),
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), and oxytocin. The functions of PRL are the principal
hormone in promoting milk production. PRH leads to increased PRL release. PIH decreases PRL
release. Oxytocin causes the release of milk into the mammary ducts via the milk ejection reflex
and stimulates contraction of the smooth muscle cells surrounding the glandular cells and ducts,
the resulting compression moves the milk from the alveoli of the mammary glands into the
mammary ducts where it can be suckled, which is responsible for milk ejection (let-down).
Oxytocin also inhibits the release of PIH, so to increase PRH and PRL secretion to maintain
lactation.

35. The benefits of breast-feeding over bottle-feeding are the nutritional gain of fatty acids,
lactose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins and water that are ideal for the baby’s digestion, brain
development and growth. Breast milk also has several types of white blood cells, such as
neutrophils and macrophages that serve as phagocytes to ingest microbes in the baby’s GI tract.
Macrophages also produce lysozyme and other immune system components. Plasma cells
produce antibodies against specific microbes and T lymphocytes kill microbes directly or help
mobilize other defenses. Breast milk also contains an abundance of beneficial molecules,
including IgA antibodies that bind to microbes in the baby’s GI tract and prevent their migration
into other body tissues. These maternal antibodies afford the infant protection against the specific
infectious agents it may be exposed. There are two milk proteins that bind to nutrients that many
bacteria need to grow and survive. Some fatty acids can kill certain viruses by disrupting their
membranes and lysozyme kills bacteria by disrupting their cell walls and interferons enhance the
antimicrobial activity of immune cells. There is decreased incidence of diseases later in life, such
as reducing possible lymphoma, heart disease, allergies, respiratory and GI infections, ear
infections, diarrhea, diabetes mellitus and meningitis. Breast-feeding supports optimal infant
growth, enhances intellectual and neurological development and fosters mother-infant relations
by establishing early and prolonged contact between them. Breast milk fats and iron are more
readily metabolized and contain lower sodium content so it is more suited for infant needs.
Premature infants benefit even more from breastfeeding because the milk produced by mothers
of premature infants seems to be specially adapted to the infant’s needs in that it has a higher
protein content than the milk of mothers of full-term infants. A baby is less likely to have an
allergic reaction to its mother’s milk than to milk from another source.

36. Genotype refers specifically to the different gene combinations that occupy the chromosome
positions on the alleles. Phenotype refers to how the genetic makeup is expressed in the body;
the physical or outward expression of a gene. Dominant means the trait that dominates or masks
the presence of another allele and is fully expressed. Recessive means the trait whose presence is
completely masked if there is a dominant allele present. Homozygous refers to having the same
alleles on homologous chromosomes. Heterozygous refers to having different alleles on
homologous chromosomes

37. Genomic imprinting is the phenomenon in which the phenotype is dramatically different,
depending on the parental origin. Nondisjunction is a condition that results from an error in cell
division in which an abnormal number of chromosomes occurs. Homologous chromosomes
during meiosis I or sister chromatids during anaphase of mitosis or meiosis II fail to separate
properly.

38. Sickle cell disease is an example of incomplete dominance. Those with homozygous
dominant genotype form normal hemoglobin, but those with homozygous recessive genotype
have sickle cell disease and severe anemia. Even though those with heterozygous genotype are
usually healthy, they do have minor problems with anemia because half of their hemoglobin is
normal and half is not.

39. Multiple-allele inheritance is based on the fact that some genes may have more than two
alternative forms. An example of multiple-allele inheritance would be the inheritance of the
ABO blood group, where there are four blood types (phenotypes) of the ABO group – A, B, AB,
and O and the result is from the inheritance of six combinations of three different alleles of a
single gene. The six possible genotypes produce four blood types.

40. Complex inheritance is the situation that the combined effects of many genes and
environmental factors control an inherited trait. Examples of complex inheritance are skin color,
hair color, eye color, height, metabolism rate, and body build.

41. Because females have two X chromosomes in every cell except of their bodies developing
oocytes, females have a double set of all genes on the X chromosome, so the X-chromosome
inactivation occurs as an effect to reduce the Xchromosome genes to a single set in females.

They should note the uneven cytoplasmic division that produces small polar bodies and a
single large oocyte, and that meiosis is only completed in the female upon fertilization.

Answer: The acidic pH of the vagina helps prevent bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections in this
region.
Answer: During ovulation, the oocyte is a secondary oocyte.
13. What changes would you expect to observe in the ovarian cycle if the LH surge did not occur? 

Answer: If the LH surge did not occur during an ovarian cycle, ovulation and corpus luteum
formation would not occur.

sperm
The complete process of spermatogenesis takes about 64 days. It involves three steps:

1. Mitosis. Spermatogonia (sper-ma-tō-GŌ-nē-uh) are stem cells in the seminiferous

tubules that undergo cell divisions throughout adult life. Some of these cells
 differentiate into primary spermatocytes (sper-MA-tō-sıīts), which prepare to begin
meiosis.
2. Meiosis. Primary spermatocytes then undergo meiotic divisions that
produce spermatids (SPER-ma-tidz), undifferentiated male gametes.
3. Spermiogenesis. In spermiogenesis, spermatids differentiate into physically
mature sperm.
4. What effect would a low FSH level have on sperm production? 
5.

6. Answer: Low FSH levels would lead to low levels of testosterone in the seminiferous
tubules, decreasing both the sperm production rate and sperm count.

During mitosis, the spermatogonium divides, forming another spermatogonium and a primary
spermatocyte. During meiosis I, the primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary
spermatocytes. During meiosis II, each secondary spermatocytes divides into two spermatids.
During spermiogenesis (the physical maturation), the four spermatids develop into four sperm.

Mitosis, the production of genetically identical cells, and meiosis, the production of gametes,
differ significantly in terms of the events that take place in the nucleus. 
Mitosis is part of the process of somatic cell division, producing two daughter cells each
containing identical numbers and pairs of chromosomes. The pattern is illustrated in Figure 28–
8a. Because daughter cells contain both members of each chromosome pair, they are
called diploid (DIP-loyd; diplo, double) (2n = 46) cells. (You can review the description of
mitosis and cell division in Chapter 3.)

Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that produces only gametes. In contrast to mitosis,
meiosis follows the pattern in Figure 28–8b. It involves two cycles of cell division (meiosis
I and meiosis II) and produces four cells, each containing 23 individual chromosomes. These
cells are called haploid (HAP-loyd; haplo, single) (n = 23) cells and contain only one member of
each homologous pair of chromosomes. Because gametes contain half the number of
chromosomes found in somatic cells, the fusion of the nuclei of a male gamete and a female
gamete produces a cell that has the normal number of chromosomes, rather than twice that
number. The events in the nucleus shown in Figure 28–8b are the same for the formation of
sperm in males or oocytes in females.

Mitosis is part of the process of somatic cell division, producing two daughter cells each
containing identical numbers and pairs of chromosomes. 

Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that produces only gametes. 

It involves two cycles of cell division (meiosis I and meiosis II) and produces four cells, each
containing 23 individual chromosomes. 

human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes altogether. Each pair
consists of one chromosome provided by the father, and another provided by the mother, at the
time of fertilization. The two members of each of the 22 pairs have similar sizes and genes and
are known as homologous (huh-MOL-ō-gus) chromosomes.
A decrease in the levels of estrogens and progesterone signals the beginning of menstruation, the
end of the uterine cycle.

he physiological events of sexual intercourse in both sexes are arousal, erection, lubrication,
orgasm, and resolution. Emission and ejaculation are additional phases that occur only in males.

Parasympathetic stimulation in females during sexual arousal causes (a) engorgement of the erectile
tissue of the clitoris and vestibular bulbs, (b) increased secretion of cervical and greater vestibular
glands, (c) increased blood flow to the wall of the vagina, and (d) engorgement of the blood vessels
in the

20. What structure in a sexually indifferent embryo may develop into a penis or clitoris and what
hormone is involved in that development? 

Answer: The genital tubercle of a sexually indifferent embryo will develop into a penis in the
presence of testosterone or a clitoris without testosterone.

23. Why does the level of FSH increase and remain high during menopause? 

Answer: At menopause, circulating estrogen levels begin to decrease. Estrogen has an inhibitory
effect on FSH (and on GnRH). As the level of estrogen decreases, the levels of FSH increase and
remain high.

Phases of the uterine cycle

 Menstrual phase
• Degeneration of the functional zone of the endometrium
• Caused by
constricted spiral arteries
• Process of endometrial sloughing (menses, or menstruation)
– Lasts ~1–7 days
– ~35–50 mL blood lost

 Proliferative phase
• Uterine gland basal cells multiply
and spread, restoring uterine
epithelium
• Stimulated and sustained by
estrogens secreted from
developing ovarian follicles
• Builds the functional zone to
several millimeters thick
• Uterine glands manufacture
glycogen-rich mucus
 – Can be metabolized by an early embryo

 Secretory phase
• Uterine glands enlarge
– Increased secretion of glycoproteins to support embryo
• Arteries supplying uterine wall elongate and spiral through the
functional zone
• Stimulated by both progesterone and estrogens from the corpus
luteum
• Begins at ovulation and lasts until menses

Ovarian and uterine cycles

 Ovarian and uterine cycles are controlled by cyclical changes in hormones
 Two cycles must operate synchronously for proper reproductive function
 Steps in ovarian cycle hormonal regulation
1. Release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH)
– From hypothalamus
– Causes production and secretion of FSH
– Causes production (not secretion) of LH

2.Follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

– Begins when FSH stimulates some secondary follicles to become
tertiary follicles
– As follicles develop, FSH levels decline (as a result of negative
feedback effects of inhibin)
– Developing follicles also secrete estrogens (especially estradiol)
o Low levels of estrogens inhibit LH secretion
o Inhibition decreases as estrogen levels climb
o Estrogen decreases basal body temperature about 0.3ºC
(0.5ºF) lower than during the luteal phase

3. Luteal phase
– GnRH and elevated estrogen levels stimulate LH secretion
– Massive surge in LH on or around day 14 triggers:
 o Completion of meiosis I by the primary oocyte
o Forceful rupture of the follicular wall
o Ovulation (~9 hours after LH peak)
o Formation of corpus luteum
– Luteal phase begins after ovulation
–
– Corpus luteum secretes progesterone
o Stimulates and sustains endometrial development
– Progesterone levels increase, and estrogen levels fall
o Suppresses GnRH
– If pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates
o Progesterone levels fall
o GnRH increases and begins a new cycle
o
o

They should note the uneven cytoplasmic division that produces small polar bodies and a
single large oocyte, and that meiosis is only completed in the female upon fertilization.

Steps in oogenesis
 Mitosis of oogonium (plural, oogonia)—female reproductive stem cells
• Mitosis completed prior to birth
• For each oogonium, produces one oogonium and one primary oocyte

 Meiosis I
• Begins between 3rd and 7th month of fetal development
• Primary oocytes begin meiosis I but stop at
prophase I until puberty
– Rising FSH levels trigger start of the ovarian cycle
 – Each month, some of the primary oocytes are stimulated to
complete meiosis I
• Yields haploid secondary oocyte and a polar body
– Secondary oocyte gets the majority of cytoplasm
 Ovary releases a secondary oocyte (not a mature ovum)
• Meiosis does not complete unless fertilization occurs
 Meiosis II
• Secondary oocyte begins meiosis II
– Suspended in metaphase II at ovulation
At fertilization, the secondary oocyte divides into a second polar body and a mature ovum (both
haploid)

Stages of the ovarian cycle

 Primordial follicle in egg nest
• Primordial follicle
– Inactive primary oocyte surrounded by a simple squamous layer of
follicle cells
• Egg nests
– Clusters of primary oocytes
in the outer portion of the
ovarian cortex, near the
tunica albuginea
 Formation of primary follicles
• Follicular cells enlarge, divide, and form several layers around the primary
oocyte
• Follicular cells now called granulosa cells
• Zona pellucida (pellucidus, translucent)
– Region that develops around the oocyte
• Thecal endocrine cells (theca, box)
– Layer of cells that form around the follicle
• Thecal cells and granulosa cells work together to produce estrogen
 Formation of secondary follicles
• Follicle wall thickens, and follicular cells secrete fluid
• Fluid-filled pockets expand and separate the inner and outer layers of the
follicle
 Formation of tertiary follicle
• Occurs about day 10–14 of cycle
• One secondary follicle becomes a tertiary follicle, or mature graafian
follicle
– Roughly 15 mm in diameter
• Expanded central chamber (antrum) is filled with follicular fluid
– Oocyte projects into the antrum
• Granulosa cells form a protective layer (corona radiata) around the
secondary oocyte
 Ovulation
 • Tertiary follicle releases secondary oocyte and corona radiata into the
pelvic cavity
• Marks end of follicular phase and start of luteal phase
 Formation of corpus luteum (lutea, yellow)
• Empty tertiary follicle collapses
• Remaining granulosa cells proliferate
• Secrete progesterone and estrogens
– Progesterone stimulates maturation of the uterine lining
 Formation of corpus albicans
• Knot of pale scar tissue produced by fibroblasts
• Formed by degeneration of the corpus luteum when fertilization does not
occur after 12 days
• Marks the end of the ovarian cycle
•
•
 Vaginal canal
• Internal passageway
• Lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Layers of the ovaries
 Germinal epithelium
• Layer of squamous or cuboidal cells covering the ovary
• Continuous with the visceral peritoneum
 Tunica albuginea
• Dense connective tissue layer just deep to the germinal epithelium
 Interior of the ovary
• Cortex (superficial layer where oocytes are produced)
• Medulla (deep to the cortex)

• Primordial follicle
– Inactive primary oocyte surrounded by a simple squamous layer of
follicle cells

Each testicle is covered by tough, fibrous layers of tissue called the tunica. The outer
layer is called the tunica vaginalis and the inner layer is called the tunica albuginea

testes simple squamous epithelium

The ovary is divided anatomically into the cortex and medulla. The cortical aspect of
the ovary is covered by cuboidal epithelium during development that converts to
squamous epithelium with age.
Primordial follicles contain a primary oocyte and are surrounded by a single layer of
flattened follicular cells.
Primary follicles still contain a primary oocyte but the follicular cells become more
cuboidal and are now known as granulosa cells. Follicular (granulosa) cells proliferate
(membrane granulosa) but are separated from the oocyte by a thick periodic acid
Schiff (PAS) positive basement membrane called the zona pellucida. The organized
stromal cells around the follicles are called theca cells.
Secondary follicles start develop spaces between granulosa cells that coalesce to
eventually form a large space called the follicular antrum. The granulosa cells secrete
PAS positive material into these spaces. The stromal cells surrounding the follicle
form two layers, the theca interna and the theca externa.

Graafian (tertiary, mature) follicles are large preovulatory follicles which bulge

from the surface of the ovary. Once the follicular antrum is formed, the oocyte is
surrounded by a remnant of granulosa cells called the cumulus oophorus. The cells of
the cumulus oophorus immediately adjacent to the oocyte are known as the corona
radiata.

The uterine tubes are divided anatomically into the infundibulum, the ampulla and the
isthmus. The mucosa is typically composed of ciliated columnar epithelium although
in some species (bovine and porcine) it is composed of ciliated pseudostratified
epithelium. The cilia move the fertilized ova towards the uterine horns.

The parenchyma of the testicle is divided into lobules by loose connective tissue
bands (septuli testes). These lobules are composed of tubules lined by stratified
epithelium composed of maturing germ cells (spermatogonia, spermatocytes,
spermatids and spermatozoa) and Sertoli cells. These tubules are supported by a
basement membrane which contains fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. The Sertoli cells
are triangular or oval in shape with a prominent nucleolus and fine chromatin. These
tubules (seminiferous tubules) constitute the exocrine portion of the testes. The
maturing germ cells are stratified so that the spermatogonia constitute the basilar
compartments closest to the basement membrane. The spermatocytes, spermatids and
spermatozoa constitute the next layer or the apical compartment with the
spermatocytes adjacent to the basilar compartment and the spermatozoa closest to the
lumen.

The endocrine portion of the testes is comprised by the Leydig or interstitial cells
which are present between seminiferous tubules primarily located in the extra-tubular
connective tissue. These cells are responsible for testosterone secretion

Compartments of the seminiferous tubule

 Nurse cells are joined by tight junctions
 • Form a blood testis barrier protecting developing sperm cells from the
body’s immune system
• This layer of nurse cells
divides the seminiferous
tubule into two
compartments
– Basal compartment
o Contains spermatogonia
– Luminal compartment
o Where meiosis and
spermatogenesis occur

Corpus hemorrhagicum

The accumulation of blood that fills the remains of the follicular antrum following

ovulation.

Corpus luteum

The structure formed following ovulation responsible for the production of progesterone.

Endometrium

The innermost glandular layer of the uterus.

Mesonephric ducts (Wolffian ducts)

Embryonic precursors to the male tubular genitalia.

Mesometrium (broad ligament of the uterus)

The female genital ligament that attaches to and supports the uterus.

Mesosalpinx

The female genital ligament that attaches to and supports the uterine tube.

Mesovarium

The female genital ligament that supports and envelopes the ovary

Myometrium
 The middle layer of the uterus composed of smooth muscle.

Oogenesis

Development and maturation of oocytes within the ovary

Ovarian follicles

Ovarian structure that contains an oocyte and associated cells that support the

development of the oocyte.

Ovary

Female gonadal organ that functions to produce ova and hormones.

Paramesonephric ducts (Muellarian

ducts)

Embryonic precursors to the female tubular genitalia.

Perimetrium

The outermost layer of the uterus composed of connective tissue and mesothelium.

1. In addition to the urethra, this muscular duct travels through the prostate gland: Ejaculatory duct
2. Spermatozoa become functionally mature while in this structure: Epididymis
3. This structure has a urinary and reproductive function: Urethra
4. The corpus spongiosum is found in this structure: Penis
5. Interstitial (Leydig) cells, found in this structure, produce testosterone: Testis
6. This structure transports sperm cells from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct: Ductus deferens
7. This two-chambered structure contains the testes: Scrotum
8. Secretions from this structure are a component of semen: Seminal gland

Gametogenesis: the process by which sperm and ova are formed

Fertilization: the union of an ovum and sperm to produce a zygote
Spermatogenesis: the process of developing many haploid sperm
Oogenesis: the process of developing the ova
Diploid: a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes
Haploid: a cell that contains one set of chromosomes
Zygote: the diploid fertilized ovum
Gamete: sex cells AKA sperm and ova
Spermiogenesis: the process by which sperm mature and develop
Meiosis: a special type of cell division that produces 4 haploid gametes
Locus is the term for a gene’s position on a chromosome. Each gene in the human genome, which has
between 20,000 and 30,000 total genes, has a specific locus in the chromosome, and the loci correspond
to specific bands in the chromosome. Each gene codes for at least one protein, many of which are enzymes
needed for specific metabolic reactions to take place.

Penis: Copulatory organ

Ductus deferens: Stores sperm; moves sperm to the ejaculatory duct
Epididymis: Stores sperm; moves sperm to the ductus deferens
Ejaculatory duct: Transports sperm from the ductus deferens to the urethra
Bulbourethal gland: Secretes mucus to lubricate glans penis
Urethra: Transports semen out of the penis
Scrotum: Houses the testes
Seminal vesicle: Produces alkaline secretion with nutrients and prostaglandins
Prostate gland: Secretes slightly alkaline substances with anticoagulants
Testis: Produces sperm and testosterone

1. Dominant-recessive inheritance : The dominant gene is expressed when present; the recessive gene
is expressed only in the absence of the dominant gene.
2. Sex-linked inheritance : Inherited traits determined by genes on the X or Y chromosomes.
3. Polygenic inheritance: Inheritance that results in continuous or qualitative phenotypic variations
between two extremes; an example is skin color.
4. Incomplete dominance: The heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between those of the
homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive.
5. Multiple-allele inheritance: Inheritance of the ABO blood group type is an example of this type of
inheritance.

Match these vocabulary terms to their meanings.

The 46 chromosomes of a cell displayed in homologous pairs is a karyotype.
The expression of a genotype, or the traits shown once proteins are produced, represent the phenotype.
A fetal test to examine bits of placenta and perform karyotype analysis is chorionic villus sampling.
The genetic makeup, or DNA sequence, of a person is their genotype.

1. Gene recombination : Means by which genes trade places, some maternal and some paternal on
each chromosome.
2. Chromosome segregation : Distribution of chromosomes to different gametes.
3. Chromosome crossover : Results in chromosomes that have mixed contributions from each parent.
4. Independent assortment : A particular gene's allele received by a gamete has no influence over
selection of a different gene's allele.

Match these prefixes and suffixes to their meanings.

The word root meso- means in the middle or intermediate.
The word root labio- means lips.
The word root acro- means end, tip, or height.
The word root sperm- means seed or sperm.
The word root -metrium means layer of the uterus.
The root word gon- means "reproductive."
The root word zyg- means "joined together."
The root word lact- means "milk."
The root word circum- means "around."
The prefix pheno- means show, showing or phenol.
The prefix chori- means chorion or choroid.
The prefix karyo- means nucleus of a cell, nut, or kernel.
The prefix gen(o)- means gene or generating offspring.
Which form of inheritance most often results in a recessive trait being expressed more often in males than
in females?
X-linked inheritance

When a gene is carried on the X chromosome, the male will express that trait, even if it is recessive. This
is because males have only one X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes and can usually
mask a recessive trait carried on only one of them.

The layer of muscle that is part of the spermatic cord is the cremaster muscle. It is deep to the dermis
of the skin and extends as part of the spermatic cord down into the scrotum. It even surrounds the testes
along with connective tissue.

The body of the spermatic cord is a structure that includes the ductus deferens, blood vessels,
nerves, and lymphatics. This structure connects to each individual testis and supplies blood, nutrients,
and nerve stimulation throughout the enclosed components. These cords connect the abdominopelvic
cavity to the testes and need to descend with the testes through the inguinal canal during development
and settle into the scrotum thereafter
The spermatic cord contains the ductus deferens, the deferential artery, a testicular artery, branches of the
genitofemoral nerve, and the pampiniform plexus of a testicular vein.

The male gonad is the testis. This organ is normally paired (testes), much like the kidneys, and produces
the gametes known as sperm within the epithelia of the seminiferous tubules. Although the testes
originate in the abdominopelvic cavity early in development, they later need to descend into scrotum. The
testes are also the source of androgens such as testosterone.

The fleshy pouch that suspends the testes outside of the body cavity is the scrotum. Early in male
development, the testes reside inside the abdominopelvic cavity. Later, around the time of birth, the testes
descend out of the abdominopelvic cavity and move through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, where
they remain for the rest of the person’s life. The testes need to descend into the scrotum because
spermatogenesis requires a slightly lower temperature than body temperature.