GTE LAB MANUAL Ver 4 - 1

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
M.V.G.R. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A)
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
Name:____________________________________
Roll No.:__________________________________
Section:___________________________________
A1
Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory Manual
Preface
For building super structures, civil engineers must assess the quality of soils and their strength
characteristics to plan the nature and size of foundations. A variety of experiments are planned
and included in this laboratory manual which teach the students how to conduct these tests and
assess the properties of soils. All experiments refer to standard procedures in respective parts of
IS Code 2720.
The first experiment covers finding the natural moisture content of soil which will give an idea
of the state of soil in the field. Natural moisture content of the soil should be known to
determine the bearing capacity and possible settlement. The second experiment teaches finding
specific gravity of soil which is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio, degree of
saturation etc. The third experiment in the manual covers finding in situ density of natural soil
which is needed for the determination of bearing capacity of soils, for the purpose of stability
analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on underlying strata for the calculation of
settlement and the design of underground structures.
The fourth experiment teaches grain size analysis which is helpful in classification of soils. The
data obtained from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams
and to determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc. Grain size analysis and
permeability tests are very useful in analysis for predicting soil water movement. The
knowledge of permeability is useful in solving problems involving yield of water bearing strata,
seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank
affected by seepage, settlement etc. This method covers the determination of the relationship
between the moisture content and density of soils.
Liquid limit tests throw light on stress history and general properties of the soil. From the results
of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated. The compression index value helps in
settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of soil is closer to liquid limit, the soil is
considered to be soft. If the moisture content is less than liquid limit, then the soil is brittle and
stiffer.
The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength. Vane shear test and direct
shear test are included in the lab manual so that students can to assess the structural strength of
soil. Vane shear test is very useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper
and quicker method used for measurement of shear strength of cohesive soils. Direct shear test
is used for testing the stregth of sandy soils. In many engineering problems such as design of
foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges, pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal
friction and cohesion of the soil involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to
predict these parameters quickly.
When it is not possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the field, it is cheaper to take the
undisturbed soil sample and test its strength in the laboratory. Also to choose the best material
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for an embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the selected samples prepared in the lab.
Under these conditions, unconfined compression test can be conducted on undisturbed and
remoulded soil sample.
The standard consolidated undrained test is a compression test, in which the soil specimen is first
consolidated under all round pressure in the triaxial cell before failure is brought about by
increasing the major principal stress. It may be performed with or without measurement of pore
pressure although for most applications the measurement of pore pressure is desirable. The test is
conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation. It is very effective in
determining rate of consolidation, degree of consolidation and compression index. This
information is useful in predicting the rate and extent of settlement of structures founded on fine-
grained soils which is very important for foundation design.
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration test to evaluate subgrade strength of
roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to
determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used
method for the design of flexible pavement. Free swell or differential free swell, also termed as
free swell index, is the increase in volume of soil without any external constraint when subjected
to submergence in water. This test is also included in the laboratory manual.
This third version of the manual has been verified to be compliant with relevant IS Codes which
are available in the laboratory. Students are advised to refer to the code books frequently. If any
deviation is observed by the students, the can contact the lab in-charge or authors for
clarifications.
Department of Civil Engineering ii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Vision of the Institution
Maharaj Vijayaram Gajapathi Raj (MVGR) College of Engineering strives to become a centre par
excellence for technical education where aspiring students can be transformed into skilled and well-
rounded professionals with strong understanding of fundamentals, a flair for responsible innovation in
engineering practical solutions applying the fundamentals, and confidence and poise to meet the
challenges in their chosen professional spheres.
Mission of the Institution

The management believes imparting quality education in an atmosphere that motivates learning as a social
obligation which we owe to the students, their parents/guardians and society at large and hence the effort
is to leave no stone unturned in providing the same with all sincerity. Towards that end, the management
believes special focus has to be on the following areas:
 Have on-board staff with high quality experience and continuously updating themselves with
latest research developments and sharing that knowledge with students.
 Having a well stream-lined teaching learning process that is continuously assessed for
effectiveness and fine-tuned for improvement.
 Having state-of-the-art lab and general infrastructure that gives students the necessary tools and
means to enhance their knowledge and understanding.
 Having a centralized department focused on improving placement opportunities for our students
directly on campus and coordinating the training programs for students to complement the
curriculum and enhance their career opportunities.
 Having advanced research facilities and more importantly atmosphere to encourage students to
pursue self-learning on advanced topics and conduct research.
Department Vision
To become a pre-eminent Department of Civil Engineering that brings out technically competent,
ethically sound and globally employable professionals capable of addressing societal challenges by
providing sustainable solutions.
Department Mission
Aspire to reach higher quality benchmarks in training students on all skills expected of a civil
engineering professional through a meticulously planned yet flexible learning process administered
through the following:
M1. Design and develop curriculum for UG and PG programs of Civil Engineering that adds value to
student competencies abreast with changing industry needs.
M2. Impart students with knowledge of Civil Engineering and use of modern tools and provide the best
learning resources.
M3. Provide an enabling environment to equip students to serve the society as leading professionals,
academicians, innovators and entrepreneurs.
M4. Promote and undertake academic research to address societal challenges.
M5. Provide testing and design consulting services to the industry and create Industry-Academia
synergy for improving employability of students.
Department of Civil Engineering iii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO 1: DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE: Graduates will have the fundamental knowledge of mathematics,
science, economics and computing and in-depth knowledge in Civil Engineering concepts through
theoretical, laboratory and project-based experiences so as to design, develop and solve engineering
problems.
PEO 2: EMPLOYMENT: Graduates will get employed in national and international; government and
private organizations, and will succeed in their chosen engineering careers through their skills,
knowledge, personality and aptitude for innovation.
PEO 3: HIGHER STUDIES & LIFELONG EDUCATION: Graduates will pursue advanced degrees
in engineering and other fields; and will have skills of continued, independent and life-long learning to
become experts in their profession by self-instilled passion and systematic approach.
PEO 4: PROFESSIONAL CITIZENSHIP: Graduates will organize and present information, write and
speak well, work effectively with strong organizational skills in multidisciplinary teams on team-based
engineering projects and practice ethics and have a sense of social responsibility.
PEO 5: MODERN TOOLS: Graduates will plan, design, execute, maintain and rehabilitate civil
engineering structures / systems and solve civil engineering problems using analytical methods or modern
tools and techniques
Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,
and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information
to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
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10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to
manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

1. An ability to solve civil engineering problems using analytical methods and modern tools and
techniques
2. An ability to plan, design, execute, maintain and rehabilitate civil engineering structures and systems
Department of Civil Engineering v MVGR College of Engineering (A)

COURSE INFORMATION SHEET

Programme: B. Tech, Civil Engineering
Course name: Geotechnical engineering Laboratory
Course instructors: Mr. B.Ramu, Mrs. T.Jahnavi, Mr. A. Sai Kumar
Course code: A1CEL208
Schedule: P 3
Number of credits: 2
Pre-requisites: Soil Mechanics
Course Description:
 Geotechnical engineering lab is conducted to know the soil properties such as index
properties (Grain size analysis, Atterberg limits, relative density), engineering properties
(shear strength, permeability, compressibility) and field dry density.
 This course has applications in various elements of foundations design, earthen dams,
roads, railways, etc.
Course Objectives:
1 Explain tests to determine index properties of the soils

Explain tests to perform compaction of fine and coarse grained soils and their in-situ
2
density
3 Explain tests to determine engineering properties of the soils
Course Outcomes:
After successful completion of this course, the student is expected to

1. Conduct tests on soils and classify them based on index properties
2. Conduct tests on compaction of fine and coarse grained soils and their in-situ density
3. Conduct tests to determine engineering properties of the soils
Course Outcomes (CO) –Program Outcomes (PO) Mapping Table
A1CEL208 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LAB

Course Designed by Department of Civil Engineering
CO/PO mapping 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 2 3 2 2 2 2
CO2 2 3 2 2 2 2
CO3 2 3 2 2 2 2
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SYLLABUS
LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS
1) Atterberg limits and indices
a. Liquid limit b. Plastic limit c. Shrinkage limit
2) Determination of field density
a. Core Cutter method

b. Sand replacement method
3) Grain size analysis
a. Sieve analysis
b. Hydrometer/pipette analysis
4) Determination of permeability of soil
a. Constant head test for coarse grained soils

b. Variable head test for fine grained soils
5) Proctor compaction test:
a. IS Light weight compaction for coarse grained soils including determination of

specific gravity
b. IS Light weight compaction for fine grained soils including determination of
specific gravity
6) Unconfined compression (UCC) test
7) Direct shear test
8) Tri-axial test
9) Vane shear test
10) California bearing ratio (CBR) test
11) Differential free swell
12) Relative density (to be demonstrated)
13) Consolidation test (Demonstration)
14) Swell pressure test (Demonstration)
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LESSON PLAN
No. of Periods
S. No. Topic(s) proposed to be covered
required
a. Grain size analysis - Sieve Analysis method
1 3
b. Shrinkage limit test
a. Liquid limit test
2 3
b. Plastic limit test
Determination of field density
3 3 a. Core Cutter method
b. Sand replacement method
4 3 Proctor compaction test along with determination of specific gravity
5 3 Direct shear test

Determination of permeability of soil
6 3 a. Constant head test for coarse grained soils
b. Variable head test for fine grained soils
7 3 California bearing ratio (CBR) test
8 3 Unconfined compression (UCC) test
9 3 Tri-axial test
a. Vane shear test
10 3
b. Differential free swell
a. Hydrometer /pipette analysis
11 3
b. Relative density
a. Consolidation test
12 3
b. Swell pressure test
References:
1. Determination of soil properties by J.E. Bowles
2. Soil testing (Laboratory manual) by H.D. Charan and K.S. Grover.
3. IS Code 2720 – relevant parts.
4. Soil mechanics and foundation engineering by Dr.K.R.Arora.
Department of Civil Engineering viii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................................. i
Vision of the Institution ................................................................................................................. iii
Mission of the Institution ............................................................................................................... iii
Department Vision ......................................................................................................................... iii
Department Mission ....................................................................................................................... iii
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. iv
Program Outcomes (POs) .............................................................................................................. iv
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs) ............................................................................................... v
COURSE INFORMATION SHEET ............................................................................................. vi
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST .......................................................................................................... 1
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................. 4
ATTERBERG LIMITS TEST ...................................................................................................... 21
TEST FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY ..................................................... 38
COMPACTION TEST ................................................................................................................. 45
TEST FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY ..................................................... 53
CBR TEST .................................................................................................................................... 62
DIRECT SHEAR TEST ............................................................................................................... 73
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST ..................................................................................... 82
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST ............................................................................................ 90
VANE SHEAR TEST ................................................................................................................. 100
DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL TEST ..................................................................................... 104
CONSOLIDATION TEST ......................................................................................................... 107
MEASUREMENT OF SWELLING PRESSURE OF SOILS ................................................... 115
RELATIVE DENSITY OF SOIL ............................................................................................... 122
Department of Civil Engineering ix MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Experiment No: Date:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Reference:
IS 2720 (part 3) Section 1- Determination of Specific Gravity of fine grained soil
IS 2720 (part 3) Section 2- Determination of Specific Gravity of fine grained soil
Aim: To determine specific gravity of fine grained soil particles soil using by density bottle
method and for fine sand to coarse sand using pycnometer method.
Theory:
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of soil solids at a
stated temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature.
Determination of specific gravity of the soils is used in finding out the degree of saturation and
unit weight of moist soils. The unit weights are needed in pressure, settlement and stability
problems in soil engineering.
Apparatus:
1. Pycnometer (1 litre capacity)
2. Density bottle (50 ml capacity),
3. Balance (accuracy 0.001 g),
4. Funnel and Spoon,
5. Distilled and deaired water,
6. Vacuum pump,
7. Thermometer.
Procedure:
1. Wash, dry and weigh the pycnometer or density bottle (W1).
2. Place about 20 gm of oven dry soil sample in the density bottle and 200 gm weight for
pycnometer. Weigh the bottle with the soil (W2)
3. Add sufficient deaired water to cover the soil, and connect the bottle to a vacuum pump to
remove all entrapped air.
4. Disconnect the pump and fill the bottle with water up to the calibration mark.
5. Clean the exterior surface of the bottle pycnometer or density bottle with dry cloth, and weigh
the bottle with contents (W3).
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6. Empty the bottle and clean it. Fill it with distilled water up to the mark and record its weight
(W4).Conduct the test for 3 times.
Note: The average of the values obtained shall be taken as the specific gravity of the soil
particles and shall be reported to the nearest 0.01. If the results differ by more than 0.03 from
the average value, the tests shall be repeated.
Observations and Calculations:
Density bottle method
Soil Type:
Test 1 2 3 4
Density bottle No.
Mass Density bottle W1 (g)
Mass of Density bottle + dry soil, W2 (g)
Mass of Density bottle + soil + water, W3 (g)
Mass of Density bottle + water, W4 (g)
Specific gravity of soil, GS = (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))
Pycnometer method
Soil Type:
Test 1 2 3 4
Pycnometer No.
Mass Pycnometer W1 (g)
Mass of Pycnometer + dry soil, W2 (g)

Mass of Pycnometer + soil + water, W3 (g)
Mass of Pycnometer + water, W4 (g)
Specific gravity of soil, GS = (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))

Result:
Specific gravity of soil grains by using density bottle method =
Specific gravity of soil grains by using Pycnometer method =
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:
Observation Record Viva - Voce Total (20 M)
10 Marks 5 Marks 5 Marks

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS
(SIEVE AND HYDROMETER ANALYSIS)
Aim: To determine the grain size distribution in soils by using sieve analysis as per IS code 2720
part 4
Purpose: With a view to establish uniform procedures for determination of different
characteristics of soils and also for facilitating comparative studies of the results, this standard is
followed. An analysis of this kind express quantitatively the proportions by weight of the various
sizes of particles present in the soil. In a soil the gravel, sand, silt and clay fractions are
recognized as containing particles of decreasing magnitude. The actual range of dimensions of
the particles is given in IS: 1498-1970. The results of a grain size analysis may also be
represented graphically in the form of a grain size distribution curve in which the cumulative
percentages finer than known equivalent grain sizes are plotted against these sizes, the latter
being on a logarithmic scale. The results of grain size analysis are widely used in soil
classification. The data obtained from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters
for earth dams and to determine the suitability of soils for road construction. This test is
performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a soil. The
mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-
sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer
particles.
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF SOILS FRACTION RETAINED ON 4.75 mm IS SIEVE (DRY
METHOD):
Apparatus:
1. Balance sensitive to 0.1 percent of the weight of sample to be weighed.
2. Sieves – 100 mm IS Sieve, 75-mm IS Sieve, 19-mm IS Sieve and 75-mm IS Sieve and
3. Rubber Pestle and Mortar
Preparation of Sample: The soil sample received from the field shall be sieved and the soil
fractions retained on and passing 4.75-mm IS Sieve shall be taken separately for the analysis.
Procedure:
1. The portion of the soil sample retained on 4.75-mm IS Sieve, shall be weighed and the
mass recorded as the mass of the sample uncorrected for hygroscopic moisture.

2. The quantity of the soil sample taken shall depend on the maximum particle size
contained in the soil. The stipulations are as follows:
Maximum size of material present Mass to be taken for the
in substantial quantity (mm) analysis (kgs)
75 60
40 25
25 13
19 6.5
12.5 3.5
10 1.5
6.5 0.75
4.75 0.4
3. The sample shall be separated into various fractions by sieving through IS 100, 75, 19
and 4.75 mm. While sieving through each sieve, the sieve shall be agitated so that the
sample rolls in irregular motion over the Sieve. The material from the sieve may be
rubbed, if necessary, with the rubber pestle in the mortar taking care to see that individual
soil particles are not broken and re-sieved to make sure that only individual particles are
retained. The quantity taken each time for sieving on each sieve shall be such that the
maximum weight of material retained on each sieve at the completion of sieving does not
exceed the values given below:
IS sieve designation 450 mm diameter 300 mm diameter

sieve (kg) sieve ( kg)
80 mm 15 6
20 mm 4 2
4. The mass of the material retained on each sieve shall be recorded. If the sample appears
to contain over 5 percent moisture, the water content of the material shall be determined
and the masses corrected accordingly. When the sample contains less than 5 percent
moisture it is not necessary to determine the water content for dry weight computations
and all the determinations may be made on the basis of wet weight only.
5. If the soil contains more than about 20 percent gravel particles and the fines are very
cohesive with considerable amounts adhering to the gravel after separation, the gravel
shall be washed on 4.75-mm IS Sieve using sodium hexa-meta phosphate solution, if

necessary. For further analysis a fresh portion of the fraction passing 4.75-mm IS Sieve
shall be taken.
6. Calculations - The percentage of soil retained on each sieve shall be calculated on the
basis of the total mass of soil sample taken and from these results the percentage passing
through each -of the sieves shall be calculated.
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF SOIL PASSING 4.75 mm IS SIEVE AND RETAINED ON 75-
MICRON IS SIEVE
Apparatus
1. Balance - Sensitive to 0.1 percent of the mass of sample to be weighed.
2. Sieves - The following Indian Standard Sieves- 4.75, 2.36, 1.18, 0.6, 0.3, 0.15, 0.075 mm.
3. The sieves should be periodically checked up for aperture sizes.
4. Oven - Thermostatically controlled to maintain the temperature between 105º and 110oC,
with interior of non-corroding material.
5. Trays
6. Brushes - sieve brushes and a wire brush or similar stiff brush.
7. Mortar with a Rubber Covered Pestle,
8. Mechanical Sieve Shaker and riffler
9. Reagents - sodium hexametaphosphate (chemically pure ) or a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and sodium carbonate ( analytical grade ) or any other dispersing agent which
has been found suitable.
Procedure
1. Analysis by Wet Sieving - The portion of the soil passing 4.75-mm IS Sieve obtained
shall be oven-dried at 105 to 110°C. The oven-dried material shall then be riffled so that
a fraction of convenient mass is obtained. This shall be about 200 g if a substantial
proportion of the material only, just passes the 4.75-mm IS Sieve or less if the largest size
is smaller. The fraction shall be weighed to 0.1 percent of its total mass and the mass
recorded. The riffled and weighed fraction shall be spread out in the large tray or bucket
and covered with water.
2. Two grams of sodium hexametaphosphate or one gram of sodium hydroxide and one
gram of sodium carbonate per liter of water used should then be added to the soil. The
mix should be thoroughly stirred and left for soaking.

3. The soil soaked specimen should be washed thoroughly over the nest of sieves nested in
order of their fineness with the finest sieve (75-micron IS Sieve) at the bottom. Washing
shall be continued until the water passing each sieve is substantially clean. Care shall be
taken to see that the sieves are not over loaded in the process.
4. The fraction retained on each sieve should be emptied carefully without any loss of
material in separate trays. Oven dried at 105 to 110°C and each fraction weighed
separately and the masses recorded.
5. The permissible maximum mass of sample on the 200 mm diameter sieves shall be as
follows:
IS sieve designation Maximum mass of sample in grams
2 mm 200
425 micron 50
75 micron 25
6. Calculation - The cumulative mass of soil fraction retained on each sieve shall be
calculated. The percentage of soil fraction retained on each sieve shall be calculated on
the basis of the mass of the sample passing 4.75-mm IS Sieve taken for the initial
analysis.
The combined gradation on the basis of the total soil sample taken for analysis shall then
be calculated.
Particle size distribution curve:

7. Observations and calculations:

Cumulative
IS Sieve
Weight Percentage of Percentage Percentage
S.No Designation
retained (kg) weight retained weight retained finer (100-X)
(mm)
(X)
From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

% Gravel (>4.75mm) = _______
% Sand (4.75mm to 0.075mm) = _______
% Fines (<0.075mm) = _______
D10= ________ mm
D30= ________ mm
D60= ________ mm
Co-efficient of uniformity Cu= D60/D10= ________
Co-efficient of curvature CC= D302/(D60*D10) = ________
D10 = Particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size
Note: Well graded soil: All soil particles sizes are available
Poorly graded soil or gap graded : Some particle sizes are missing
Uniformly Graded soil: Same size particle are available


Analysis of result:

SIZE ANALYSIS OF THE FRACTION PASSING 75-MICRON IS SIEVE OUT OF THE
PORTION PASSING 4.75-mm IS SIEVE
Hydrometer Method:
This method is not applicable, if less than 10 percent of the material passes 75-micron IS Sieve.
Apparatus:
1. Hydrometer –fulfilling the following requirements:
a) There shall be no abrupt changes in the cross section of the hydrometer, such as will
hinder cleaning or drying or permit air bubbles to be trapped.
b) The hydrometer shall be graduated on the basis of a liquid having a surface tension of 55
dynes/cm.
c) The graduation lines shall be at intervals of 0.0005, every alternate line shall extend
beyond the shortest lines, every tenth graduation shall exceed that of all the intervening
lines and shall be numbered in full.
d) The basis of the scale shall be density (g/ml) at 27°C.
e) The maximum permissible scale error on the hydrometer is plus or minus one scale
division.999
2. Glass measuring cylinders - two of 1000 ml capacity with ground glass or rubber stoppers
about 7 cm diameter and 33 cm high marked at 1000 ml volume.
3. Thermometer -to coves the range 0- 50°C accurate to 0.50 o C
4. Stirring apparatus Sieves – 2 mm, 425 micron, 75 micron and a receiver.
5. Balance - accurate to 0.01 g.
6. Oven- thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of 105 to 110 o C, with interior
of non-corroding material.
7. stop watch, Centimeter scale Porcelain evaporating dishes
8. Wide-mouth –conical flask or conical beaker - of 1000 ml
9. Buchner or Hirch funnel - about 10 cm in diameter.
10. Filter flask - to take the funnel.
11. Measuring cylinder - of 100 ml capacity.
12. Wash bottle - containing distilled water.
13. Filter papers Blue litmus paper , Glass rod - about 15 to 20 cm long and 4 to 5 mm in
diameter.

14. Reagents - The reagents shall be of analytical quality.
Calibration of Hydrometer:
The volume of the hydrometer bulb ( Vh ) shall be determined in one of the following ways:
1. From the volume of water displaced-Approximately 800 ml of water shall be poured into the
1000 ml measuring cylinder. The reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded.
The hydrometer shall be immersed in the water and the level shall again be observed and
recorded. The difference between the two readings shall be recorded as the volume of the
hydrometer bulb in milliliters plus the volume of that part of the stem that is submerged. For
practical purposes the error due to the inclusion of this stem volume may be neglected.
2. From the mass of the hydrometer – The hydrometer shall be weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.
The mass in grams shall be recorded as the volume of the hydrometer in milliliters. This
includes the volume of bulb plus the volume of the stem below the 1.000 graduation mark.
For practical purposes the error due to the -inclusion of this stem may be neglected.
Calibration
a) The sectional area of the 1000 ml measuring cylinder in which the hydrometer is -to be used
shall be’ determined by measuring the distance between two graduations. The sectional area (A)
is equal to the volume included between the two graduations divided by the measured distance in
centimeters between them.
b) The distance from the lowest calibration mark on the stem of the hydrometer to each of the
other major calibration marks (Rh) shall be measured and recorded.
c) The distance from the neck of the bulb to the nearest calibration mark shall be measured and
recorded.
d) The distance H corresponding to a reading Rh is the sum of the distances measured in (b) and
(c).
e) The distance (h) from the neck to the bottom of the bulb shall be measured and recorded as the
height of the bulb.
f) The effective depth (H R) corresponding to each of the major calibration marks (Rh) shall be
calculated from the following formula:
H R = H 1 + ½ *(h – V h/A)
Where HR = effective depth;
HI = length from neck of bulb, to graduation R h , in cm;

h = twice the length from neck of bulb to its centre of volume, in cm;
V h, = volume of hydrometer bulb, in ml; and A = area of measuring cylinder in cm 2
The relationship between H R and R h may be plotted as a smooth curve which may be used
for finding the effective depth ( H e ) corresponding to hydrometer readings (R h ) obtained
during test.
Corrections (individual):
1. Meniscus Correction (Cm): Since the suspension is opaque, the readings will be taken at the
top of the meniscus while the actual should be from the bottom of the meniscus. It is constant
for a hydrometer (Always positive).
The hydrometer shall be inserted in a 1000 ml measuring cylinder containing about 700 ml of
water. By placing the eye slightly below the plane of the surface of the liquid, and then
raising it slowly until the surface seen as an ellipse becomes a straight line, the point where
the plane intersects the hydrometer scale shall be determined. By placing the eye slightly
above the plane of the surface of the liquid, the point where the upper limit of the meniscus
intersects the -hydrometer scale shall be determined. The difference between the two
readings shall be recorded as the meniscus correction C m. This is a constant for a given
hydrometer.
2. Temperature Correction (Ct): If the temperature is less than 27ºC, the correction is negative
and vice-versa. Temperature should be measured from starting till end of the tests at regular
intervals and are averaged. Then it is compared with the standard temperature (27ºC).
3. Dispersion Agent Correction (Cd): Addition of calgon always increases the specific gravity of
the specimen. Hence, this correction is always negative.
Procedure:
Pre-treatment of soil:-
1. The percentage of soluble salts shall be determined. In case it is more than one percent, the
soil shall be washed with water before further treatment, taking care to see the soil particles
are not lost.
2. Two samples each of mass 50 to 100 g approximately shall be obtained by riffling from the
air dried sample passing the 4.75-mm IS Sieve obtained. The actual amount of soil required
will vary according to the type of soil, 50 g with a clay soil and 100 g with a sand soil.

3. The moisture content (w) of one sample shall be determined. The other sample shall be
accurately weighed (Ws) the nearest 0.01 g and placed in the wide mouth conical flask.
4. 150 ml of hydrogen peroxide shall then be added and the mixture stirred gently with a glass
rod for a few minutes after which it shall be covered with a cover glass and left to stand
overnight.
5. The mixture in the conical flask shall be gently-heated. Care shall be taken to avoid frothing
over and the contents of the dish shall be periodically stirred. As soon as vigorous frothing
has subsided the volume shall be reduced to about 50 ml by boiling. With very organic soils
additional peroxide may be required to complete the oxidation.
6. In the case of soils containing calcium compounds, the mixture shall be allowed to cool and
about 50 ml of hydrochloric acid added. The solution shall be stirred with a glass rod for a
few minutes and allowed to stand for one hour or for longer periods, if necessary. If the soil
contains a considerable amount of calcium salts more acid may be required. When the
treatment is complete the solution shall have an acid reaction to litmus. In the case of soils
containing no calcium compounds or soluble salts and having a low organic content (less
than 2 percent) the pre-treatment prescribed may be omitted and the dispersing agent shall be
added direct to the soil taken for analysis. The mixture shall then be filtered and washed with
warm water until the filtrate shows no acid reaction to litmus.
7. The damp soil on the filter paper and funnel shall be transferred without any loss whatsoever
to the evaporating dish (weighed to 0.01 g) using a jet of distilled water. Only the minimum
quantity of distilled water shall be used. The dish and contents shall be placed in an oven and
dried at 105 to 110oC. The dish and contents shall then be transferred to the desiccator and
allowed to cool. They shall then be weighed to 0.01 g, and the mass of soil remaining after
pre-treatment shall be recorded (Ws).
Dispersion of soil –
1. To the soil in the evaporating dish 100 ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution shall be
added and the mixture shall then be warmed gently for about 10 minutes and then transferred
to the cup of the mechanical mixer using a jet of distilled water to wash all traces of the soil
out of the evaporating dish. The amount of water used may be about 150 ml.
2. The soil suspension shall then be stirred well for 15 minutes.

3. The suspension shall then be transferred to the 75-micron IS Sieve placed on a receiver and-
the soil shall be washed on this sieve using a jet of distilled water from a wash bottle.
Particular care shall be taken to wash off all traces of suspension adhering to the dispersion
cup. The amount of distilled water during this operation may be about 500 ml.
4. The suspension that has passed through the sieve shall be transferred to the 1000 ml
measuring cylinder and made up to exactly 1000 ml with distilled water. This suspension
shall then be used for the sedimentation analysis.
5. The material retained on the 75-micron IS Sieve may be oven-dried and analyzed; the
cumulative percentages of the soil fraction retained on each sieve shall be calculated.
Sedimentation:
1. A rubber bung shall be inserted in the mouth of the measuring cylinder which shall then be
shaken vigorously and finally be inverted end -over end. Immediately the shaking has ceased,
the measuring cylinder shall be allowed to stand and the stop watch started.
2. The hydrometer shall be immersed to a depth slightly below its floating position and then
allowed to float freely.
3. Hydrometer readings shall be taken after periods of 1/2, 1, 2 and 4 minutes. The hydrometer
shall then be removed slowly, rinsed in distilled water arid kept in a cylinder of distilled
water at the same temperature as the soil suspension.
4. The hydrometer shall be re-inserted in the suspension and readings taken after periods of 8,
15 and 30 minutes, 1, 2 and 4 hours after shaking. The hydrometer shall be removed, rinsed
and placed in the distilled water after each reading.
5. After 4 hours hydrometer readings shall be taken once or twice within 24 hours, the exact
periods of sedimentation being noted. Finally a reading may be taken at the end of 24 hours.
In taking all readings, insertion and withdrawal of the hydrometer before and after taking a
reading shall be done carefully to avoid disturbing the suspension unnecessary. Ten seconds
shall be allowed for each operation. Vibration of the sample shall be avoided.
8. The temperature of the suspension shall be observed and recorded once during the first 15
minutes and then after every subsequent reading. The temperature shall be read with an
accuracy of at least plus or minus 0.5oC. Hydrometer readings shall also be taken in pure
distilled water at the corresponding temperatures and the temperature correction (Mt)
calculated as the difference between this reading and the reading corresponding to the density

of water at the calibration temperatures. A chart of such corrections for all temperatures may
also be prepared for ready use.
9. The temperature of the suspension over the period of the test should not differ from the mean
temperature by more than plus or minus 2oC in order not to cause an error in the particle size
of more than 2 percent. This requirement will generally be fulfilled if the maximum
difference in room temperature is not greater than about 8°C. If the variation in temperature
is likely to be greater than this the constant temperature bath should be used.
10. The correction (Cd) to be applied for the dispersing agent shall be ascertained by placing
exactly 50 ml of the sodium hexa-metaphosphate solution in a previously weighed glass
weighing bottle and after evaporating the water by drying at 105 to 110 o C in an oven, the
mass of dispersing agent (Wd) shall be calculated. The dispersing agent correction (Cd) shall
then be calculated from the formula: x = 2 Wd. This correction is independent of the
temperature.
Loss in mass in pre-treatment
The loss in mass in pre-treatment of the soil shall be calculated using the formula
P = 100- W b (w+100) / W a
Where P = loss in mass in percentage
Wb = mass of soil after pre treatment
w =air dry moisture content of the soil taken for analysis and
W a = mass of air dry soil used.
Sieving - The percent of soil sample passing each of the sieve used in the analysis shall be
calculated using the mass of the pre-treated soil and as percentages of the total soil sample taken
for analysis.
Sedimentation
a) Diameter of the particle: - The diameter of the particle in suspension at any sampling time 1
shall be calculated from the formula:
D= [30µ/ (980) (Gs – 1) x He/ t]1/2
where
D = diameter of particle in suspension, in mm;

µ = coefficient of viscosity of water at the temperature of the suspension at the time of
taking the hydrometer reading, in poises;
Gs = specific gravity of the soil fraction used in the sedimentation analysis;
H R = effective depth corresponding to Rh in cm
t = time elapsed between the beginning of sedimentation and taking of hydrometer
reading in minutes.
The hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus (Rh) shall be calculated from the following
formula:
Rh = R’h + Cm
Where R h = hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus,
R ‘ h = hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus, and
C, = meniscus correction.
Percentage finer than D: The percentage by mass (W) of particles smaller than corresponding
equivalent particle diameters shall be calculated from the formula:
W% = 100 Gs (R h + M t – x) / W b (G s – 1)
where Gs = specific gravity of soil particles,
W b = weight of soil after pre-treatment;
R h = hydrometer reading corrected for meniscus
Mt = temperature correction; and
x = dispersion agent correction.
The values of W shall be calculated for all the values of D obtained and shall be expressed as
percentage of particles finer than the corresponding value of D. These percentages shall then be
expressed as combined percentage of the total soil sample taken for the analysis.
Plot the grain size curve D versus the adjusted percent finer on the Semi-logarithmic sheet.

% Finer
% Finer
t (min)
Rh Rh=R’h+Cm He (He/t)1/2 D Rh+Mt–x w.r.t.
w.r.t. total
(gm/ml) mass
mass wd
x*wt/100
Calculations:


Viva Questions:
1) What is meant by “GM” as per IS soil classification?

2) How much particle size of clay and sand?
3) What is mean by well graded soil and draw graph?
4) What is meant by “MI” as per IS soil classification?
5) For uniform graded soil, what is value of Cu and Cc?
6) Why do you use a semi log graph in case of grain size analysis?
7) When will you go for wet sieve analysis?
8) How much particle size of silt and gravel?
9) For well graded sand, what is value of Cu and Cc?
10) What is mean by uniform graded soil and draw graph?
11) Write down the classification of sand based on particle size?
12) What is formula for “Cu”?
13) What is formula for “Cc”?
14) Which parameters are plotting on graph, in the case of grain size analysis?
15) What is the application of Sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis?
16) What type of soils is poorly graded soil?

ATTERBERG LIMITS TEST
References:
1. IS 2720 (part 5)- 1985 reaffirmed in 1996- Determination of Liquid and Plastic limits
2. IS 2720 (part 6)- 1972 reaffirmed in 1996- Determination of Shrinkage factors
Introduction:
A fine-gained soil can exist in any of several states; the status of the state depends on the amount
of water in the soil system. When water is added to a dry soil, each particle is covered with a film
of adsorbed water. If the addition of water is continued, the thickness of the water film on a
particle increases. Increasing the thickness of the water films permits the particles to slide past
one another more easily. The behavior of the soil, therefore, is related to the amount of water in
the system.
In 1911, A. Atterberg defined the boundaries of four states in terms of "limits" as follows:
Liquid limit: The boundary between the liquid and plastic states;
Plastic limit: The boundary between the plastic and semi-solid states;
Shrinkage limit: The boundary between the semi-solid and solid states.
These limits have since been more definitely defined by A. Casagrande as the water contents
which exist under the following conditions:

Liquid limit: The water content at which the soil has such small shear strength that it
flows to close a groove of standard width when jarred in a specified manner.
Plastic limit: The water content at which the soil begins to crumble when rolled into
threads of 3mm size.
Shrinkage limit: The water content that is just sufficient to fill the pores when the soil is
at the minimum volume it will attain by drying.
Plasticity index
The amount of water which must be added to change a soil from its plastic limit to its liquid limit
is an indication of the plasticity of the soil. The plasticity is measured by the "plasticity index",
which is equal to the liquid limit minus the plastic limit.
Although the liquid and plastic limits are necessarily determined on soils which have had their
natural structure completely destroyed by kneading or "remolding", the shrinkage limit can be
obtained on soils in either their undisturbed or their remolded states. The difference between the
undisturbed and remolded shrinkage limits may be an indication of the amount of natural
"structure" a soil possesses.
Liquidity index
The condition of an in situ soil is often partially revealed by its "water-plasticity ratio" or
“liquidity index”, which is the ratio of the difference between the natural water content and the
plastic limit to the plasticity index. A high liquidity index, which means that the natural water
content is high relative to the liquid limit, indicates a very low remolded strength. For example,
if the ratio is greater than 100%, the soil exists at water content greater than the liquid limit, and
its remolded strength is thus less than that very small amount which it would possess at the liquid
limit. The plasticity index and the percentage finer than 2-μm particle size can be used to
determine its activity number.
The liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils are used extensively, either
individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as
compressibility, hydraulic conductivity (permeability), compactness, shrink-swell, and shear
strength.

The liquid limit of a soil containing substantial amounts of organic matter decreases dramatically
when the soil is oven-dried before testing. Comparison of the liquid limit of a sample before and
after oven-drying can therefore be used as a qualitative measure of organic matter content of a
soil
Because such soil properties as compressibility, permeability, and strength, as well as the limits
are dependent on the water films, approximate relationships exist between these properties and
the limits. Some general relationships between the limits and engineering properties as given by
A. Casagrande are listed in Table 1.
For a given soil, we can often set up definite semi-empirical relationships between a property and
the limits or indices. From such expressions, we can then make predictions of the properties of
another sample of the same soil by knowing the limits. Such a procedure is often very helpful
because the limits are usually more easily determined than the compressibility, permeability or
strength.
On construction jobs in which detailed studies of the underlying soil conditions are made, plots
of the limits against depth can be made (along with other test results).
The limits furnish an excellent basis for the classification and identification of fine-grained soils.
They are also often used directly in specifications for controlling soil for use in fills, and in semi-
empirical methods of design. From the preceding discussion, we can see that even though the
limits do not furnish numbers which can be substituted directly into scientifically derived
formulas, they are extremely useful to the soil engineer.

Test for the determination of Liquid Limit
Aim: To determine Liquid Limit of Soil as per IS 2720- Part 5
Apparatus:
1. Casagrande liquid apparatus,
2. Grooving tool,
3. Spatula,
4. Flat glass plate,
5. Balance,
6. Oven,
7. Wash bottle and
8. Containers.
Soil Sample : Liquid limit can be determined either on disturbed or undisturbed soil. Natural
soils used for liquid and plastic limit determinations should not be dried prior to testing because
drying may alter the soil by causing the particles to subdivided or agglomerate, by driving off
adsorbed water which is not completely regained on rewetting, or by effecting a chemical change
in any organic matter in the soil. These effects can significantly change the limits, especially the

liquid limit. The liquid limit of oven dried organic soils tends to be lower than that of the air
dried soil sample.
Procedure:
1. About 120 gm of air-dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing 425
micron I.S sieve is to be obtained.
2. Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform paste. The
paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup to cause closer of
standard groove for sufficient length.
3. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of Casagrande apparatus and spread into portion
with few strokes of spatula.
4. Trim it to a depth of 1cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of soil to the
dish.
5. The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool along the
diameter through the centre line of the follower so that clean sharp groove of proper
dimension is formed.
6. Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of two revolutions per second until the two
halves of soil cake come in contact with each other for a length of about 1 cm by flow only.
7. The number of blows required to cause the groove close for about 1 cm shall be recorded.
8. A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup for water content determination.
9. Repeat the test with different moisture contents at least three more times for blows between
10 and 40.
Computation/Calculation:
Liquid Limit (wL) - ‘A flow curve’ shall be plotted on a semi logarithmic graph representing
water content on the arithmetical scale and the number of drops on the logarithmic scale. The
flow curve is a straight line drawn as nearly as possible through the four or more plotted points.
The moisture content corresponding to 25 drops as read from the curve shall be rounded off to
the nearest whole number and reported as the liquid limit of the soil.
Flow Index (If) - The flow curve (straight line) plotted on semi-logarithmic graph shall be
extended at either end so as to intersect the ordinates corresponding to 10 and 100 drops. The

slope of this line expressed as the difference in water contents as 10 drops and at 100 drops shall
be reported as the flow index.
The flow index may be calculated from the following equation also:
If = (w1 – w2) / log10 (N2 / N1)
Observation and Calculations Table:

Determination number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of drops
Container number
Weight of container (W1) (g)
Weight of container and wet soil, (W2) (g)
Weight of container and dry soil, (W3) (g)
Weight of water, WW (g) = W2 – W3

Weight of dry soil, Wd (g) = W3 – W1
Moisture in percent, w (%) = WW/Wd
Result:

Test for the determination of plastic limit
Aim: Determination of plastic limit of a Soil in accordance IS 2720 (part 5)
Apparatus:
1. Porcelain Evaporating Dish
2. Spatula
3. Ground glass plate
4. Containers - air-tight to determine moisture content,
5. Balance - sensitive to 0.01 g.
6. Oven - thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the
temperature between 105°C and 110°C.
7. Rod - 3 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long.
Procedure:
1. Take about 20gm of thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425
micron I.S. sieve obtained in accordance with I.S. 2720 (part 1).
2. Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish till the soil mass becomes
plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.
3. Allow it to season for sufficient time (for 24 hrs) to allow water to permeate throughout
the soil mass
4. Take about 10gms of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass plate with
just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a threaded of uniform diameter throughout its
length. The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90 strokes per minute.
5. Continue rolling till you get a threaded of 3 mm diameter.
6. Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.
7. Continue the process until the thread crumbles when the diameter is 3 mm.
8. Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for moisture content
determination.
9. Repeat the test to atleast 3 times and take the average of the results calculated to the
nearest whole number.

Container Number
Weight of container (g) (W1)
Weight of container and wet soil thread (g) (W2)
Weight of container and dry soil thread(g) (W3)
Weight of water, WW (g) = W2 – W3

Weight of dry soil, Wd (g) = W3 – W1
Moisture in percent, w (%) = WW/Wd
Result: Plastic limit of given soil sample is _____________
Result Summary:
Liquid Limit (WL) (%)
Flow Index (IF) (%)
Plastic limit (WP) (%)
Plasticity Index (IP) (%) = WL - WP
Consistency Index (IC) = (WL – WN)/ IP
Liquidity Index (IL) = (WN – WP)/ IP
Toughness Index (IT) = IP/ IF
Application: These test methods are used as an integral part of several engineering classification
systems to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soil and to specify the fine-grained fraction
of construction materials.

Soil Classification based on Plasticity Index

Plasticity index (PI) Soil classification
0 Non plastic
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium plastic
>17 High plastic
Consistency of Cohesive soils using Consistency Index and Liquidity Index:


Analysis of results:

Test for the determination of Shrinkage Limit
Aim: To determine the shrinkage factors, namely shrinkage limit of the soil, shrinkage ratio,
shrinkage index and volumetric shrinkage of soil as per IS 2720 – Part 6
Theory:
Shrinkage Limit is defined as the maximum water content expressed as percentage of oven-dry
weight at which any further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in volume of the
soil.
Shrinkage index is the difference between the plastic limit and shrinkage limit of a soil
Shrinkage Ratio ( R) -The ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of the dry
volume, to the corresponding change in water content above the appropriate shrinkage limit’,
expressed as a percentage of the weight of the oven-dried soil.
Volumetric Shrinkage (Volumetric Change) ( Vs ) - The decrease in volume, expressed as a
percentage of the soil mass when dried, of a soil mass when the water content is reduced from a
given percentage to the appropriate shrinkage limit.
Apparatus:
1. Evaporating Dish
2. Spatula
3. Shrinkage Dish
4. Straight Edge
5. Glass Cup Glass Plates -- two, each 73 x 73 mm, 3 mm thick.
6. Oven
7. 425micron IS Sieve.
8. Balances
9. Mercury
10. Desiccator

PROCEDURE
Preparation of soil paste
1. Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing through 425-micron I.S. sieve.
2. Place about 30 gm the above soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed with
distilled water (Use water content around the liquid limit) and make a creamy paste.
Filling the shrinkage dish
3. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil sticking
to the dish.
4. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3 rd of the amount of wet soil with the
help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges and no
apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2nd and 3rd layers also till the dish is
completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish
smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
5. Weigh immediately, the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
6. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8hrs, until the colour of the pat turns from dark to light.
Then oven-dry the pat about 12 to 16 hrs.
7. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the weight of
the dish with dry sample.
8. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
9. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil as
follows. Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury till it
overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess mercury.
Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the volume of the
shrinkage dish directly. Record this volume as the volume of the wet soil pat.

Volume of the Dry Soil Pat
10. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
 Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and
pressing it. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup to
remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish.
 Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. The Pat floats then submerge it with the pronged
glass plate. The mercury spills over into the larger plate. Pour the mercury that is spilled
(by the soil pat) into the measuring jar and find the volume of the soil pat directly.

Observations:
Weight of shrinkage dish in gm (W1)
Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil pat in gm (W2)
Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil pat in gm (W3)
Weight of dry soil pat in gm (W0) = W3-W1
Weight of water in gm (W5) = W2-W3
Moisture content of soil pat in percent w = W5/W0

Evaporating dish weight (W6) in gm
weight of glass cup (W7) in gm
Weight of mercury in glass up + weight of glass cup + weight
of evaporating dish (W8) in gm
Weight of mercury in glass cup in gm (W9) = W8 – W7 – W6
Volume of wet soil pat ( V) in ml

Weight of mercury displaced by the dry soil pat + weight of
evaporating dish in gm (W10)
Weight of mercury displaced by the dry soil pat in gm W11 =
W10 – W6
Volume of dry soil pat ( VO ) in ml = W11/ 13.6
Shrinkage limit WS = (w – ( V- V0)/W0)
Shrinkage Limit (WS) - Calculate the shrinkage limit using the following formula:
WS = (w – (V- V0)/W0
where
Ws = shrinkage limit in percent, w = moisture content of wet soil pat in percent.
V = volume of wet soil pat in ml, V0 = volume of dry soil pat in ml, and
W0 - weight of oven-dry soil pat in g.
Shrinkage Index (Is) - Calculate the shrinkage index using the following formula:
Is = Ip – ws where Ip = plasticity index

Shrinkage Ratio (R) - Calculate the shrinkage ratio using the following formula:
R = W0 / V0
where W0 = weight of oven-dry pat in g, and V0 = volume of oven-dry soil pat in ml.
Volumetric Shrinkage: (Volumetric Change) it is calculated using the following formula:
Vs = ( W1 – Ws ) * R
Where W1 = given moisture content in percent, Ws = shrinkage limit and R = shrinkage ratio
Calculations:
Result:

Viva Queations
1) Which parameters are plotting on graph, in the case of liquid limit?

2) Why do you use a semi log graph in the case of liquid limit test?
3) At liquid limit, what is the shear strength of soil?
4) What is mean by liquid limit?
5) At liquid state, what is the shear strength of soil?
6) What is mean by plastic limit?
7) What is the value of plasticity index for sand?
8) What is use of plasticity chart?
9) What is mean by plasticity index?
10) Which parameters are plotting on graph in case of plasticity chart?
11) What is meant by shrinkage limit?
12) Why volume is does not change, if decreases water content at shrinkage limit ?
13) What is the degree of saturation at shrinkage limit?
14) Why mercury is used in shrinkage limit test?
15) What are the applications of atterberg limits?
MARKS AWARDED:
10Marks 5 Marks 5 Marks

TEST FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY

A. Dry density by Core Cutter method
Aim: Determination of in-situ dry density by Core cutter method as per IS:2720 part 29
Apparatus:
1. Cylindrical core cutter, 100 mm internal diameter and 130 mm long;
2. Steel rammer, mass 9kg.
3. Steel dolly, 25mm height and 100 mm internal diameter,
4. Weighing balance, accuracy 1 g;
5. Palette knife;
6. Straight edge, steel rule, etc.
Thoery: - IS:2720 (Part XXIX )-1975 deals with the determination of dry density of soil in-place
by using a core-cutter. The in-place density of soil is needed for stability analysis, for the
determination of the degree of compaction of compacted soil, etc. The core-cutter method is less
accurate than the sand-replacement method and is not recommended, unless speed is essential or
unless the soil is well compacted. The test has been made applicable to soil 90 percent of which
passes the 4.75mm IS Sieve.
Procedure:-
1. Determine the internal diameter and height of the core cutter to the nearest 0.25 mm.
2. Determine the weight Wc of the cutter to the nearest gram.
3. Expose a small area of the soil mass to be tested. Level the surface, about 300 mm square in
area. Place the dolley over the top of the core cutter and press the core cutter into the soil
mass using the rammer. Stop the process of pressing when about 1.5 mm of the dolley
protrudes above the soil surface. Remove the soil surrounding the core cutter, and take out
the core cutter. Some soil would project from the lower end of the cutter. The ends of the soil
core shall then be trimmed flat to the ends of the cutter by means of the straight edge.
4. Weigh the core cutter filled with the soil to the nearest gram Ws
5. Remove the core of the soil from the cutter. Take a representative sample for the water
content determination.

Observations
1. Core cutter No.

2. Internal diameter (D) (cm)
3. Internal height (H) (cm)
4. Weight of empty core cutter (Wc) (g)
5. Weight of core cutter with soils (Ws) (g)

6. Weight of soil W= Ws – Wc
7. Volume of cutter (V) =∏/4*D2* H
Determination of Water content (w)
Container Number
Weight of container and wet soil (g) (W2)
Weight of container and dry soil (g) (W3)
Weight of water WW (g) = W2 – W3

Weight of dry soil Wd (g) = W3 – W1
Moisture in percent w (%) = WW/Wd

Calculations:
Bulk density of soil (γ) (gm/cc) = W/V =
Dry density of soil (gm/cc) (γd) = γ / (1 + w) =
Result:-
Dry density of given sample =
B. Dry density by Sand replacement method
Aim: Determination in-situ dry density by the sand replacement method as per IS 2720 part 28
Apparatus:
1. Small Sand pouring cylinder
2. Calibrating container, 100 mm diameter and 150 mm height
3. Soil cutting and excavating tools, such as a scraper tool, bent spoon
4. Glass plate, 450 mm square, 9 mm thick
5. Metal container to collect excavated soil
6. Metal tray, 300 mm square and 40 mm deep with a hole of 100 mm in diameter at the centre
7. Weighing balance – accurate to 1 gram
8. Moisture content cans
9. Oven
10. Desiccator.
11. Clean, uniform sand passing 1 mm IS sieve and retained on 600 micron IS sieve in sufficient
quantity.
Theory:- IS ; 2720 (Part XXVIII ) deals with the determination of dry density of soil, in-place,
by the sand replacement method. The in-place density of natural soil is needed for the
determination of bearing capacity of soils, for the purpose of stability analysis of natural slopes,

for the determination of pressures on underlying strata for calculation of settlement etc. In
compacted soils the in-place density is needed to check the amount of compaction that the soil
has undergone for comparison with design data. The correct estimation of the in-place density of
both natural and compacted soils is therefore of importance.
A hole of specified dimensions is excavated in the ground. The weight of the excavated soil is
determined. The volume of the hole is determined by filling it with clean, uniform sand whose
dry density (d ) is determined separately by calibration. The volume of the hole is equal to the
weight of the sand filled in the hole divided by its dry density.
Part – I Calibration
Procedure:-
1. Determine the internal volume of the calibrating container by filling it with water and
determining the mass of water required. The mass of water in grams is approximately equal
to the volume in milliliters. The volume may also be determined from the measured
dimensions of the container.
2. Fill the sand-pouring cylinder with sand within about 10 mm of its top. Determine the weight
of the cylinder and sand (W1) to the nearest gram and maintained constant throughout the
test.

3. Place the sand-pouring cylinder vertically on the calibrating container. Open the shutter to
allow the sand run out from the cylinder into the calibrating container till it fills the cone of
the cylinder and the calibrating container. When there is no further movement of the sand in
the cylinder, close the shutter.
4. Lift the pouring cylinder from the calibrating container and weigh it to the nearest gram
(W2). The weight (W1- W2 ) is equal to weight of sand occupied in the calibrating container
as well as in the cone of sand pouring cylinder.
5. Again fill the pouring cylinder with sand, within 10 mm of its top
6. Place the cylinder over a plane surface, such as a glass plate and open the shutter and allow
the sand to run out of the cylinder and when there is no further movement of sand close the
shutter. The sand now passes through is space occupied in the cone portion of cylinder.
7. Remove the cylinder. Collect the sand left on the glass plate. Determine the weight of sand
(W3) that had filled the cone by weighing the collected sand.
8. Determine the dry density of sand, as-shown in the data sheet, part-I.
Part-II. Dry Density Procedure: -

1. Expose an area of about 450 mm square on the surface of the soil mass. Trim the surface
down to a level surface, using a scraper tool.
2. Place the metal tray on the leveled surface. Excavate the soil through the central hole of the
tray, using the hole in the tray as a pattern. The depth of the excavated hole should be about
150 mm. Collect all the excavated soil in a metal container, and determine the weight of the
soil (W4).Remove the metal tray from the excavated hole.
3. Fill the sand-pouring cylinder within 10 mm of its top. Place the cylinder directly over the
excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out of the cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the
shutter when the hole is completely filled and no further movement of sand is observed.
Remove the cylinder from the filled hole. Determine the weight of the cylinder (W5).
4. Take a representative sample of the excavated soil. Determine its water content.
Determine the dry density of soil as shown in the data sheet

Observations and Calculations Table:
Part-I. Calibration for Dry Density of Sand
S. No. Observations and calculations
1. Volume of calibrating container (Vc) (cc)

Weight of pouring cylinder (W1), filled with sand
2.
(g)
Weight of pouring cylinder after pouring sand into
3. calibrating container and cone portion of cylinder (
W2) (g)
4. Weight of sand in the cone (W3) (g)
Weight of sand in the calibrating container W (g) =
5.
W1 - W2 - W3
6. Dry density of sand (γd sand) = W/ Vc
Part – II Dry Density of Soil
S.No. Observations and calculations
Observations
1. Weight of excavated soil (W4)
Weight of pouring cylinder filled with sand after

2. pouring the sand in hole and in cone portion of
cylinder (W5)
Calculations
3. Weight of sand in the hole W6 = W1 – W5 – W3
Volume of sand in the hole V (cc) = W6 / dry

4.
density of sand (γd sand)
5. Bulk density of soil (γ) (gm/cc) = W4 /V
6. Water content, (w)

Dry density of soil (γd soil) (gm/cc)= γ /
7.
(1+w)

Determination of water content (w):
Container Number

Result:- Dry density of soil (γd) =

COMPACTION TEST
Aim: To determine the relation between moisture content and dry density relationship for the
given soil sample by IS light weight and heavy weight compaction test.
Standard Reference: IS 2720 part 7
Theory:
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles and
reduce the void ratio. It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process
of placing fill such as in the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and
reinforced earth walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction of
buildings. There is usually no change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil
particles. The objectives of compaction are:
 To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.
 To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
 To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through.
Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content and
the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive effort is the amount of
mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several different methods are used to compact
soil in the field, and some examples include tamping, kneading, vibration, and static load
compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping or impact compaction method. Soils are
compacted by forcing smaller particles to move into spaces between larger ones thus increasing
the density and decreasing the void ratio.
There are several tests with standard procedures such as:
 Indian Standard Light Compaction Test (similar to Standard Proctor Test)
 Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test (similar to Modified Proctor Test)
Indian Standard Light Compaction Test
Soil is compacted into a 1000 cm3 mould in 3 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a
2.6 kg rammer dropped from a height of 310 mm above the soil. The compaction is repeated at
various moisture contents.

Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test
It was found that the Light Compaction Test (Standard Test) could not reproduce the densities
measured in the field under heavier loading conditions, and this led to the development of the
Heavy Compaction Test (Modified Test). The equipment and procedure are essentially the same
as that used for the Standard Test except that the soil is compacted in 5 layers, each layer also
receiving 25 blows. The same mould is also used. To provide the increased compactive effort, a
heavier rammer of 4.9 kg and a greater drop height of 450 mm are used.
Apparatus:
1. Proctor mould having a capacity of 944 cc with an internal diameter of 10.2 cm and a height
of 11.6 cm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a detachable base plate.
2. Rammer: A mechanical operated metal rammer having a 5.08 cm diameter face and a weight
of 2.5 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement to control the height of
drop to a free fall of 30 cm.
3. Sample extruder.
4. A balance of 15 kg capacity.
5. Sensitive balance.
6. Straight edge.
7. Graduated cylinder.
8. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, towel, spatula etc.
9. Moisture tins.

Test Procedure:
(1) Obtain a 2.5 kg quantity of air dried soil passing through 20 mm IS Sieve in a large mixing
pan in respect of light weight compaction and 6 kgs of air dried soil passing through 19 mm
IS Sieve in respect of heavy compaction.
(2) The sample shall be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil
type. With gravel and sand a moisture content of 4 to 6 % is suitable while for cohesive soil
and a moisture content of 8 to 10 % below plastic limit. In case of clays with high plasticity
after adding water to air dried sample the sample must be kept in sealed container for a
minimum period of 16 hours in order to distribute water uniformly throughout the sample.
(3) The weight of the compaction mold with its base (without the collar) shall be taken by using
the balance and record the weight as W1.
(4) The mould shall be placed on a solid base and for light weight test; the moist soil shall be
compacted in three layers of approximately equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows
from 2.60 kg rammer dropping from a height of 310 mm above soil. And for heavy weight
test, soil is compacted in 5 layers giving 56 blows to each layer using rammer of 4.5 kg
dropping from a height of 450mm above soil. The blows are distributed uniformly over the
surface of each layer. It is to ensure that the tube of the rammer is kept clear of soil so that
the rammer always falls freely.
(5) The amount of the soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould leaving not more than about 6
mm to be struck off when the extension is removed. The extension shall be removed and the
compacted soil shall be leveled off carefully to the top of the mold by means of a straight
edge.
(6) The mould and the compacted soil shall be weighed to the nearest 1 gram and it is denoted as
W2.
(7) The compacted soil specimen shall be removed from the mold and placed in the mixing tray.
A representative sample is collected and kept for moisture content determination.
(8) Suitable increments of water shall be added successively and mixed into the sample and the
above procedure shall be repeated for each increment of water added.
(9) The total number of determinations made shall be at least five and the range of moisture
content at which the maximum dry density occurs is within that range.
10. Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the x-axis. Draw a
smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
11. On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or “zero air voids curve”. The values
of dry density and corresponding moisture contents for plotting the curve can be computed
from the standard formula.
12. The percentage moisture content corresponding to the maximum dry density on the moisture
content/ dry density curve shall be reported as the optimum moisture content.

Observations and calculations:

A. Light weight compaction:
S.No. Observations 1 2 3 4 5
1 Volume of mould (V) (cc)
2 Weight of mould (W1) (g)
3 Weight of mould + compacted soil (W2) (g)

4 Weight of compacted soil (W3) (g) = W2 – W1
5 Bulk density (γ) (g/cc) = W3/V
6 Container Number
7 Weight of container (W4) (g)
8 Weight of container and wet soil (W5) (g)
9 Weight of container and dry soil (W6) (g)
10 Weight of water WW (g) = W5 – W6
11 Weight of dry soil Wd (g) = W6 – W4
12 Moisture in percent w (%) = WW/Wd
13 Dry density (γd) (g/cc) = γ/(1+w)
100% saturation line or zero air voids line

14
Dry density (γd) (g/cc) = G γw / (1+wG)

Result:
From Compaction Curve,
Maximum Dry density =
Optimum Moisture Content =
B. Heavy weight compaction:

S.No. Observations 1 2 3 4 5
1 Volume of mould (V) (cc)
2 Weight of mould (W1) (g)
3 Weight of mould + compacted soil (W2) (g)
4 Weight of compacted soil (W3) (g) = W2 – W1
5 Bulk density (γ) (g/cc) = W3/V
6 Container Number
7 Weight of container (W4) (g)
8 Weight of container and wet soil (W5) (g)
9 Weight of container and dry soil (W6) (g)
10 Weight of water WW (g) = W5 – W6
11 Weight of dry soil Wd (g) = W6 – W4
12 Moisture in percent w (%) = WW/Wd
13 Dry density (γd) (g/cc) = γ/(1+w)
14 100% saturation line or zero air voids line

Dry density (γd) (g/cc) = G γw / (1+wG)
Result:
From Compaction Curve,
Maximum Dry density =
Optimum Moisture Content =
Application:

The nature and magnitude of compaction in a fine grained soil has a significant influence on the
engineering behavior of the compacted soil. Some of the properties that are affected when
compacted at the same dry density, one on dry of optimum moisture and another on wet
optimum are as follows:
Property Comparison
Sturcture:
Particle arrangement Dry side more random
Water deficiency Dry side more deficiency, more swell and low pore pressure
Permanence Dry side structure more sensitive to change
Permability
Magnitude Dry side more permeable
Permanence Dry side permeability reduced much more by permeation
Compressibility
Magnitude Wet side more compressible in low stress range- dry side in high
stress range
Rate Dry side consolidation more rapidly
Strength:
As molded
Undrained Dry side much more
Drained Dry side some what higher
After saturation
Undrained Dry side some what higher if swelling is prevented, higher on wet
side if swelling is allowed
Drained Dry side about the same or slightly greater
Pore water pressure at Wet side higher
failure
Stress strain modulus Dry side much greater
Sensitivity Dry side more apt to be sensitive



TEST FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY
(HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY)
Theory:
The permeability of a soil is one of its most fundamental and important properties. It enters into
nearly all seepage, settlement, and stability problems confronting the soil engineer. The amount
of leakage through and under dams, the rate at which a building settles, and the rate at which the
strength of a deposit increases after it has been subjected to a consolidating pressure are typical
of the many problems in which the permeability of a soil can be a critical factor. Permeability (or
hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow through a soil. The major
factors affecting the permeability of soils are: 1. Soil composition. 2. Permeant characteristics.
3.Void ratio.4. Structure.5. Degree of saturation.
Aim: The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of soils
using the constant head and falling test methods.
Standard Reference:
IS Code 2720- part 17 - Standard Test Method for Permeability of Soils using Constant Head and
the Falling Head Test Method.

Equipment:
1. Mould assembly including drainage base and drainage cap,
2. compaction rammer,
3. glass stand pipes for falling head, varying in diameter from 5 to 20 mm fixed on wall,
4. constant head tank ,
5. IS sieves,
6. mixing pan, graduated cylinder, meter scale, stop
watch,
7. 75micron wire gauge,
8. thermometer, and
9. A source of de-aired water.
A. CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR TESTING
A. UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE
1. Note down the sample number, bore hole number and its depth at which the sample was taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extraction frame, and push the plunger to get a
cylindrical form sample not longer than 35 mm in diameter and having height equal to that of
mould.
4. The specimen shall be placed centrally over the porous disc to the drainage base.
5. The angular space shall be filled with an impervious material such as cement slurry or wax, to
provide sealing between the soil specimen and the mould against leakage from the sides.
6. The drainage cap shall then be fixed over the top of the mould.
7. Now the specimen is ready for the test.
B. DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE
1.A 2.5 kg sample shall be taken from a thoroughly mixed air dried or oven dried material.
2.The initial moisture content of the 2.5 kg sample shall be determined. Then the soil shall be
placed in the air tight container.

3.Add required quantity of water to get the desired moisture content.
4.Mix the soil thoroughly.
5.Weigh the empty permeameter mould.
6.After greasing the inside slightly, clamp it between the compaction base plate and extension
collar.
7.Place the assembly on a solid base and fill it with sample and compact it.
8.After completion of a compaction the collar and excess soil are removed.
9.Find the weight of mould with sample.
10.Place the mould with sample in the permeameter, with drainage base and cap having discs
that are properly saturated.
TEST PROCEDURE
1. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet to
the constant head reservoir.
2. Open the bottom outlet.
3. Establish steady flow of water.
4. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.
5. Repeat three times for the same interval.
Record of Observation and Calculations:
1. The inside diameter and the height of the permeameter are measured and recorded as
diameter D and length L of the specimen. The heights H1 and H 2 are measured to determine
the head loss h. The temperature of water T is also measured and recorded.
2. During the test, observations are made of volume of water, Q collected in a graduated jar in
time t and are recorded.
3. The permeability kT at temperature T is calculated as:
kT = (Q / A i t)
k 27 = k T ( coefficient of viscosity at T o C) / (coefficient of viscosity at 27 o C )
where k 27 = permeability at 27 o C
Q = quantity in cm 3
A = area of specimen in cm 2
i = hydraulic gradient
t = time in seconds

Presentation of Results: The values of permeability at T o C and 27°C are reported as a number
with units of cm/s.
Observations:
Diameter of specimen ( D ) = cm
Length of specimen ( L ) = cm
Area of specimen (A ) = cm 2
Volume of specimen ( V) = cm 3
Head Loss h = H 1 –H 2 = cm
Hydraulic Gradient i = (h/L) =
o
Temperature of water T = C
Quantity Time t Permeability
S. No.
(cm3) (seconds) k T = (Q/ Ait)
Weight of wet soil specimen after test, Wt = ________ g

Weight of dry soil specimen, W, = ________ g
Water content, W = ______percent
Specific gravity of specimen G, =
Void ratio e = (VG sγw –W s) / W s
Degree of saturation S = W s G/ e
= _______ percent
Result:
Permeability at 27 o C = ________

B. FALLING HEAD TEST:
PREPARATION OF THE SPECIMEN
The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of specimen, the
undisturbed soil sample and the disturbed or made up soil sample.
A. UNDISTURBED SOIL SPECIMEN
It is prepared as follows:
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2.Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3.Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a cylindrical
shaped specimen not larger than 85 mm diameter and height equal to that of the mould.
4.This specimen is placed centrally over the drainage disc of base plate.
5.The annular space in between the mould and specimen is filled with an impervious material
like cement slurry to block the side leakage of the specimen.
6.Protect the porous disc when cement slurry is poured.
7.Compact the slurry with a small tamper.
8.The drainage cap is also fixed over the top of the mould.
9.The specimen is now ready for test.
B. DISTURBED SPECIMEN
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic compaction.
(a)Preparation of statically Compacted (disturbed) specimen.
1.Take 800 to 1000 gms of representative soil and mix with water to O.M.C determined by I.S
Light Compaction test. Then leave the mix for 24 hours in an airtight container.
2.Find weight W of soil mix for the given volume of the mould and hence find the
dry
3.Now, assemble the permeameter for static compaction. Attach the 3 cm collar to the bottom
end of 0.3 liters mould and the 2 cm collar to the top end. Support the mould assembly over 2.5
cm end plug, with 2.5 cm collar resting on the split collar kept around the 2.5 cm- end plug. The
inside of the 0.3 lit. Mould is lightly greased.
4.Put the weighed soil into the mould. Insert the top 3 cm end plug into the top collar, tamping
the soil with hand.

5.Keep, now the entire assembly on a compressive machine and remove the split collar. Apply
the compressive force till the flange of both end plugs touch the corresponding collars. Maintain
this load for 1 mt and then release it.
6.Then remove the top 3 cm plug and collar place a filter paper on fine wire mesh on the top of
the specimen and fix the perforated base plate.
7.Turn the mould assembly upside down and remove the 2.5 cm end plug and collar. Place the
top perforated plate on the top of the soil specimen and fix the top cap on it, after inserting the
seating gasket.
8.Now the specimen is ready for test.
(B) Preparation of Dynamically Compacted Disturbed sample:
1.Take 800 to 1000 gms of representative soil and mix it with water to get O.M.C, if necessary.
Have the mix in airtight container for 24 hours.
2.Assemble the permeameter for dynamic compaction. Grease the inside of the mould and place
it upside down on the dynamic compaction base. Weigh the assembly correct to a gram (w). Put
the 3 cm collar to the other end.
3.Now, compact the wet soil in 2 layers with 15 blows to each layer with a 2.5 kg dynamic tool.
Remove the collar and then trim off the excess. Weigh the mould assembly with the soil (W2).
4.Place the filter paper or fine wore mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated
base plate on it.
5.Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket and
place the top perforated plate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.
6.Now, the specimen is ready for test.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1.Prepare the soil specimen as specified and Saturate it. Deaired water is preferred.
2. Assemble the permeameter in the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.
4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow some water to flow until steady
flow is obtained.
5. Note down the time interval ‘t’ for a fall of head in the stand pipe ‘h’.
6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine ‘t’ for the same head.
7. Find ‘a’ by collecting ‘q’ for the stand pipe. Weigh it correct to 1 gm and find ‘a’ from q/h=a.

Record of Observations and Calculations:
1. The dimensions of specimen, length L and diameter D, are measured and recorded.
2. Area of stand-pipe is recorded. The temperature T, of water is also measured and recorded.
3. During the test, observations are made of initial time ti, final time tf , initial head h1 final head
h2 in stand-pipe, and log(h1 /h2 ) are calculated.
4. At temperature T of water, the permeability KT is calculated as
The permeability at 27°C is given by

k 27 = k T ( coefficient of viscosity at T o C) / (coefficient of viscosity at 27 o C
Observations:
Diameter of specimen ( D ) =________ cm Length of specimen ( L )=______ cm
Area of specimen (A) =________ cm 2 Volume of specimen (V) = ______cm3
Temperature of water T = ______ °C , Diameter of stand-pipe (d) = cm2
Area of stand-pipe (a) =________cm2
Determination of permeability (K T):
Initial Final Initial Final head

S. No Time (t) = t f - ti KT
time (t i) time (t f) head h1 h2
Result:
Permeability at 27 o C =

Viva questions:
1) Explain Darcy’s law of flow through soil?
2) Is it sandy soil have less permeable comparative silty soil?
3) What are compaction parameters?
4) If void ratio increases what will happen to permeability and why?
5) Which soils, constant head method is suitable and why?
6) Is it silty soil have more permeable comparative clay soil?
7) Which soils have less permeability?
8) Which soils, falling head method is suitable and why?
9) If void ratio decreases what will happen to permeability and why?
10) Which soils have more permeability?
What are the applications of permeability test?


CBR TEST
Aim: To find out the California bearing ration CBR value of the soil as per the procedure laid
down in IS 2720 part 16.
Theory: The strength of a sub grade is an important factor in the determination of the thickness
required for a flexible pavement. The results of the tests are used in conjunction with empirical
curves based on experience for the design of flexible pavements.
The CBR value of a soil is considered to be an index which in some fashion is related to its
strength. The value is highly dependent on the condition of the material at the time of testing.
Recently, attempts have been made to correlate CBR values with parameters like modulus of sub
grade reaction, modulus of resilience and plasticity index, with considerable success.
Standard Load: Load which has been obtained from the test on crushed stone which was
defined as having a California Bearing Ratio of 100 percent.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR): The ratio expressed in percentage of force per unit area
required to penetrate a soil mass with a circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25
mm/min to that required for corresponding penetration in a standard material. The ratio is usually
determined for penetration of 2.5 and 5 mm. Where the ratio at 5 mm is consistently higher than
that at 2.5 mm, the ratio at 5 mm is used.
Apparatus:
1. Moulds with Base Plate, Stay Rod and Wing Nut
2. Collar
3. Spacer Disc
4. Metal Rammer
5. Expansion Measuring Apparatus - adjustable stem with perforated plates and tripod
6. Weights
7. Loading Machine - With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head
or base which enables the plunger to penetrate into the specimen at a deformation rate of
1.25 mm/min- The machine shall be equipped with a load machine device that can read to
suitable accuracy
8. Penetration plunger

9. Dial Gauges - Two dial gauges reading to 0’01 mm.10. Sieves – 4.75 mm IS Sieve and
19 mm IS Sieve
10. Other general apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straightedge, scales, soaking tank or pan,
drying oven, filter paper, dishes and calibrated measuring jar.

Preparation of test specimen:
The test may be performed on: a) undisturbed specimens, and b) remolded specimens which may
be compacted either statically or dynamically.
Remolded Specimens –
1 The dry density for a remolding shall be either the field density or the value of the maximum
dry density estimated by the compaction test or any other density at which the bearing ratio is
desired.
2 The water content used for compaction should be the optimum water content or the field
moisture as the case may be.
3 Soil Sample - The material used in the remolded specimen shall pass a 19-mm IS Sieve.
Allowance for larger material shall be made by replacing it by an equal amount of material
which passes a 19-mm.IS Sieve but is retained on 4.75-mm IS Sieve.
Dynamically Compacted Specimen –
1 For dynamic compaction, a representative sample of the soil weighing approximately 4.5 kg
or more for fine-grained soils and 5.5 kg or more for granular soils shall be taken and mixed
thoroughly with water.
2 If the soil is to be compacted to the maximum dry density at the optimum water content the
exact mass of soil required shall be taken and the necessary quantity of water added so that
the water content of the soil sample is equal to the determined optimum water content.
3 The mould with the extension collar attached shall be clamped to the base plate.
4 The spacer disc shall be inserted over the base plate and a disc of coarse filter paper placed
on the top of the spacer disc.
5 The soil-water mixture shall be compacted into the mould in accordance with the methods
applicable to the 150 mm diameter mould specified.
6 The extension collar shall then be removed and the compacted soil carefully trimmed even
with the top of the mould by means of a straightedge.
7 Any hole that may then, develop on the surface of the compacted soil by the removal of
coarse material, shall be patched with smaller size material; the perforated base plate and the
spacer disc shall be removed, and the mass of the mould and the compacted soil specimen
recorded.

8 A disc of coarse filter paper shall be placed on the perforated base plate, the mould and the
compacted soil shall be inverted and the perforated base plate clamped to the mould with the
compacted soil in contact with the filter paper.
9 If the sample is to be soaked, representative samples of the material at the beginning of
compaction and another sample of the remaining material after compaction shall be taken for
determination of water content. Each water content sample shall weigh not less than about 50
grams.
10 If the sample is not to be soaked, a representative sample of material from one of the cut-
pieces of the material after penetration shall be taken to determine the water content.
Procedure:
Test for Swelling:
1 A filter paper shall be placed over the specimen and the adjustable stem and perforated plate
shall be placed on the compacted soil specimen in the mould.
2 Weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and pavement to the
nearest 2.5 kg shall be placed on the compact soil specimen.
3 The whole mould and weights shall be immersed in a tank of water allowing free access of
water to the top and bottom of the specimen.
4 The tripod for the expansion measuring device shall be mounted on the edge of the mould
and the initial dial gauge reading recorded.
5 This set-up shall be kept undisturbed for 96 hours noting down the readings every day
against the time of reading.
6 A constant water level shall be maintained in the tank through-out the period.
7 At the end of the soaking period, the change in dial gauge shall be noted, the tripod removed
and the mould taken out of the water tank.
8 The free water collected in the mould shall be removed and the specimen allowed to drain
downwards for 15 minutes.
9 Care shall be taken not to disturb the surface of the specimen during the removal of the
water.
10 The weights, the perforated plate and the top filter paper shall be removed and the mould
with the soaked soil sample shall be weighed and the mass recorded.

Note: The swelling test may be omitted if it is unnecessary and the penetration test may be
carried out directly.
Penetration Test:
1 The mould containing the specimen, with the base plate in position but the top face exposed,
shall be placed on the lower plate of the testing machine.
2 Surcharge weights, sufficient to produce an intensity of loading equal to the weight of the
base material and pavement shall be placed on the specimen.
3 If the specimen has been soaked previously, the surcharge shall be equal to that used during
the soaking period.
4 To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the surcharge weights, 2.5 kg annular weight
shall be placed on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after which the
remainder of the surcharge weights shall be placed.
5 The plunger shall be seated under a load of 4 kg so that full contact is established between
the surface of the specimen and the plunger.
6 The load and deformation gauges shall then be set to zero. In other words, the initial load
applied to the plunger shall be considered as zero when determining the load penetration
relation.
7 Load shall be applied to the plunger into the soil at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute.

8 Reading of the load shall be taken at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0
and 12.5 mm The maximum load and penetration shall be recorded if it occurs for a
penetration of less than 12.5 mm.
9 The plunger shall be raised and the mould detached from the loading equipment. About 20 to
50 g of soil shall be collected from the top 30 mm layer of the specimen and the water
content determined. If the average water content of the whole specimen is desired, water
content sample shall be taken from the entire depth of the specimen.
10 Undisturbed specimen for the test should be carefully examined after the test is completed
for the presence of any oversize soil particles which are likely to affect the results if they
happen to be located directly below the penetration plunger.
11 The penetration test may be repeated as a check test for the rear end of the sample.
Table of observations:
Specimen Data: The specimen data shall be recorded on the data sheet as shown in Appendix A.
Apart from soil identification etc, this includes the condition of the specimen at the time of
testing, type of compaction adopted, the amount of soil fraction above 20 mm that has been
replaced and the water content and density determinations before and after the mould has been
subjected to soaking.
Penetration Data: The readings for the determination of expansion ratio and the load
penetration data shall be recorded in the data sheet as shown in Appendix B.
Calculation:
Expansion Ratio: The expansion ratio based on tests conducted as specified in shall be
calculated as follows:
Expansion ratio = ( df – ds) x100 / h
Where df =final dial gauge reading in mm,
d s = initial dial gauge reading in mm, and
h = initial height of the specimen in mm.
The expansion ratio is used to qualitatively identify the potential expansiveness of the soil.
Load Penetration Curve: The load penetration curve shall be plotted. This curve is usually
convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may be convex downwards due to
surface irregularities. A correction shall then be applied by drawing a tangent to the point of
greatest slope and then transposing the axis of the load so that zero penetration is taken as the

point where the tangent cuts the axis of penetration. The corrected load-penetration curve would
then consist of the tangent from the new origin to the point of tangency on the re-sited curve and
then the curve itself, as illustrated in Fig.
California Bearing Ratio: The CBR values are usually calculated for penetrations of 2.5 and 5
mm. Corresponding to the penetration value at which the CBR values is desired, corrected load
value shall be taken from the load penetration curve and the CBR calculated as follows:
California Bearing Ratio = ( PT/ Ps) x 100
Where PT =corrected unit ( or total ) test load corresponding to the chosen penetration
from the load penetration curve, and Ps=unit ( or total ) standard load for the same depth of
penetration as for Pr taken from the table given in Fig.
Penetration depth mm Unit standard Total standard

2
load (kg/cm ) load( kgs)
2.5 70 1370
5 105 2055

Note:
Generally, the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration will be greater than that at 5 mm penetration
and in such a case, the former shall be taken as the CBR value for design purposes. If the CBR
value corresponding to a penetration of 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test shall be repeated.
If identical results follow, the CBR corresponding to 5 mm penetration shall be taken for design.
Appendix A
Condition of specimen= undisturbed/remolded =
Type of compaction= Static/dynamic =
Soil fraction above 20 mm replaced= ________kg
After Test
Water content Before soaking field
Top Centre Bottom
Can No.
Wt of can + wet soil in g
Wt of can + dry soil in g
Wt of water
Wt of can
Wt of dry soil
Water content( %)
Condition of specimen Before soaking After soaking

Wt of mould + soil
Wt of mould
Wt of soil
Volume of the specimen
Bulk density ( g/cc)
Average water content( %)
Dry density (g/cc)

Appendix B
Penetration data
Surcharge weight used:
Surcharge weight used: ______ kg
Period of soaking in days : ______
Initial height of specimen (H) = ________ mm
Initial dial gauge reading(ds) = ________
Final dial gauge reading( dt) = _______
Expansion ratio (dt - ds) x100/h = _______
After compaction of soil in CBR mould:
1. Weight of CBR mould (W1) =
2. Weight of CBR mould + Weight of soil (W2) =
3. Weight of soil (Ws) = W2 – W1
4. Bulk density (γ) = Ws/V
5. Water content (w) =
6. Dry density (γd max) = γ / (1+w) =
Determination Water content (w) (%):
Container Number


Observations and calculations
Unit standard load

Proving ring dial Total
Penetration dial Penetration (kg/cm2) = Total
gauge reading standard
gauge reading (mm) standard load /Plunger
(Load) Load (kg)
area
50 0.5
100 1
150 1.5
200 2
250 2.5
300 3
400 4
500 5
600 6
700 7
800 8
900 9
1000 10
1100 11
1250 12.5
CBR of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration (%) = PT/PS*100 = _________
CBR of specimen at 5 mm penetration (%) = PT/PS*100 = __________
Result:
CBR of specimen = __________ %

Viva questions:
1) What is dimension of CBR mould?

2) What are applications of CBR test?
3) What is the formula for CBR value?
4) If CBR value at 2.5mm penetration is less than the CBR value at 5mm penetration, then
what will happen?
5) If CBR value at 2.5mm penetration is greater than the CBR value at 5mm penetration,
then what will happen?
6) In CBR test, which type of hammer using?
7) In CBR test, how much hammer weight?
8) In CBR test, how many blows & how many layers?
MARKS AWARDED:
observation Record Viva - Voce Total Marks

(20 marks)

DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Aim: Determination of shear strength of soil with a maximum particle size of 4.75 mm in
undrained conditions.
Theory: - Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing stresses. The shear
strength is expressed as
S = c’ +  tan ’
Where c’ = effective cohesion,  = effective stress and ’ = effective angle of shearing
resistance. The shear tests can be conducted under three different drainage conditions. The direct
shear test is generally conducted on sandy soils as a consolidated-drained test.
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges, pipes,
sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil involved are
required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The
laboratory report cover the laboratory procedures for determining these values for cohesionless
soils.


Apparatus:
1. Shear box grid plates, porous stones, base plates, and loading pad and water jacket.
2. Weights - for providing the required normal loads,
3. Proving ring - force measuring of suitable capacity, fitted with a dial-gauge accurate to 0.002
mm to measure the shear force. For normal testing, proving-rings of 2 kN is used.
4. Micrometer Dial-Gauges - accurate to 0.01 mm; one suitably mounted to measure horizontal
movement and the other suitably mounted to measure the vertical compression of the
specimen. Sample Trimmer or Core Cutter, Stop Clock,
5. Balance – of 1 kg capacity, sensitive to 0.1 g.
6. Spatula and a Straight Edge
Preparation of specimen:
Cohesion-less soils may be tamped in the shear box itself with the base plate and grid plate as
required in place at the bottom of the box.
Procedure:
1. The shear box with the specimen, plain grid plate over the base plate at the bottom of the
specimen, and plain grid plate at the top of the specimen should be fitted into position in the
load frame. The serrations of the grid plates should be at right angles to the direction of
shear.
2. The loading pad should be placed on the top grid plate and the required normal stress should
be applied and the rate of longitudinal displacement/shear stress application so adjusted that
no drainage can occur in the sample during the test.
3. The test may now be conducted by applying horizontal shear load to failure or to 20 percent
longitudinal displacement, whichever occurs first.
4. The shear load readings indicated in the proving ring assembly and the corresponding
longitudinal displacements should be noted at regular intervals.
5. At the end of the test, the specimen should be removed from the box and the final moisture
content measured.
6. A minimum of three (preferably four) tests shall be made on separate specimens of the same
density.
7. The normal stresses to be selected for the test should correspond to the field conditions and
design requirements.

Calculations and report:
 Results of tests shall be recorded in given in Appendix B. From the calibration chart of the
proving-ring, the loads corresponding to the load dial readings obtained during the test
should be calculated. The loads so obtained divided by the corrected cross-sectional area of
the specimen gives the shear stress in the sample.
 The corrected cross-sectional area shall be calculated from the following equation: Corrected
area = Ao ( 1- δ/3)
where Ao = initial area of the specimen in cm2, and δ is displacement in cm.
 The longitudinal displacement at a particular load shall be noted directly from the strain dial
readings.
 The stress and longitudinal displacement readings should be plotted and the maximum stress
and corresponding longitudinal displacement together with the normal load applied during
the test shall be recorded.
 The maximum shear stress and the corresponding longitudinal displacement and applied
normal stress should be recorded for each test and the results should be presented in the form
of a graph in which the applied normal stress is plotted as abcissa and the maximum shearing
stress is plotted as ordinate to the same scale. The angle which the resulting straight line
makes with the horizontal axis and the intercept which the straight line makes with the
vertical axis shall be reported as the angle of shearing resistance and cohesion intercept
respectively.
 The normal stress-maximum shear stress relationship may not be a straight line in all cases.
In such cases, the shear parameters may be obtained by drawing a tangent to the normal
stress expected in the field.
Rate of strain:
For sandy soils, a rate of strain of 0.2 mm/min may be suitable.
For clayey soils, a rate of strain of 0.01 mm/min or slower may be used
In the case of cohesive soils, the failure may be assumed as taking place at 5 percent
deformation.

Observations and calculations:
Area of specimen A= Thickness of soil specimen H =
Volume of specimen V =
Weight of soil sample (WS) (g) = Bulk density (gm/cc) (γ) = Ws / V =
Rate of strain=
Sample 1: Normal stress=
Horizontal Horizontal Stain (e) Corrected Force Shear Shear
Displacement Displacement = δl/30 area (Ac) dial gauge force stress
dial gauge (δl) (mm) (where δl (cm2) reading (kg) (kg/cm2)
reading is in mm) = A * (1-e)

Sample 2: Normal stress=
Horizontal Horizontal Stain (e) Corrected area Force dial Shear Shear
2
Displacement Displacement = δl/l (Ac) (cm ) gauge force stress
dial gauge (δl) (mm) = A * (1-e) reading (kg) (kg/cm2)
reading

Sample 3 Normal stress=
Horizontal Horizontal Stain (e) Corrected area Force Shear Shear
2
Displacement Displacement = δl/l (Ac) (cm ) dial gauge force stress
dial gauge (δl) (mm) = A * (1-e) reading (kg) (kg/cm2)
reading

1. Plot Shear stress verses Shear displacement curve and find shear stress at failure and its
corresponding displacement.
2. Plot Normal stress vs shear stress curve and find:
a) Cohesion intercept, and
b) Angle of internal friction
Summary of Results:
Angle of
Normal Shear stress at Shear stain at
Test no Cohesion internal
stress failure failure
friction

Viva queations:
1) What is shear strength equation in case of sands?

2) In case of direct shear test, what will happen to area?
3) What are dimensions of shear box?
4) What are shear strength parameters?
5) What is shear strength equation in case of clays?
6) What is the application of shear strength of soil?
7) What are the applications of direct shear test?
Total Marks
observation Record Viva - Voce For (20
marks)

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
Aim: Determine the unconfined compressive strength of clayey soil, undisturbed, remoulded or
compacted, using controlled rate of strain as per IS 2720 part 10
Apparatus:
1. Loading frame of capacity of 2 t, with constant rate of movement.
2. Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils.
3. Soil trimmer.
4. Frictionless end plates of 75 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease coating).
5. Evaporating dish (Aluminum container).
6. Soil sample of 75 mm length.
7. Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy).
8. Balance of capacity 200 g and sensitivity to weigh 0.01 g.
9. Oven
10. Sample extractor and split sampler.
11. Dial gauge (sensitivity 0.01mm).
12. Vernier calipers
Theory:
The shear strength of a cohesive soil is made up of two components; friction as in cohesion less
soils and a second component called “cohesion”. The term cohesion is often used loosely for the
shear strength of soil when tested with no lateral load applied to the specimen. The unconfined
compression test is taken as special form of the triaxial test. The unconfined compression test
measures the compressive strength of a cylinder of a soil to which no lateral support is offered.
The shear strength is taken as equal to half the compressive strength. It is used only in cohesive
soils because cohesion less soil will not form an unsupported cylinder. In case of unconfined
compression the failure plan will tend to develop in the weakest portion of the clay unlike in
direct shear test where the clay is forced to shear along a pre-determined surface which may not
be the weakest one.

Procedure:
1. The initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen shall be measured and the specimen
placed on the bottom plate of the loading device. The upper plate shall be adjusted to make
contact with the specimen.
2. The deformation dial gauge shall be adjusted to a suitable reading, preferably in multiples of
100. Force shall be applied so as to produce axial strain at a rate of 0.5 to 2 percent per
minute causing failure with 5 to 10.
3. The force reading shall be taken at suitable intervals of the deformation dial reading.
Note: Up to 6 % axial strain force, readings may be taken at an interval of 0.5 mm of the
deformation dial reading. After 6% axial strain, the interval may be increased to 1.0 mm
and, beyond 12 % axial strain it may be increased even further.
4. The specimen shall be compressed until failure surfaces have definitely developed, or the
stress-strain curve is well past its peak, or until an axial strain of 20 percent is reached.
5. The failure pattern shall be sketched careful and shown on the data sheet or on the sheet
presenting the stress-strain plot.
6. The angle between the failure surface and the horizontal may be measured, if possible, and
reported.

7. The water content of the specimen shall be determined using samples taken from the failure
zone of the specimen.
8. Stress-strain values shall be calculated as follows:
a) The axial strain, e, shall from the following relationship:
e= δL/ Lo
where δL is the change in the specimen length as read from the dial gauge indicator and
Lo = the initial length of the specimen.
The average cross-sectional area A at a particular strain shall be determined from
the following relationship
b) The average cross-sectional area, A, at a particular strain shall be determined from the
following relationship:
A = Ao / (1-e)
Where Ao = the initial average cross-sectional area of the specimen.
c) Compressive stress shall be determined from relationship (P/A) where P is compressive force
and A is average cross sectional area.
In the case of soils which behave as if the angle of shearing resistance is zero (as in the case of
saturated clays under un-drained conditions), the undrained shear strength or cohesion of the soil
may be taken to be equal to half the unconfined compressive strength obtained.
Remarks: An indication of typical values of shear strength is given by the following
classification of clay based on consistency
Unconfined compressive strength in kg per
Consistency
square centimeter
Very soft <0.25
Soft 0.25-0.50
Medium 0.50-1.00
Stiff 1.00-2.00
Very stiff 2.00-4.00
Hard >4.00
The unconfined compressive strength is related to consistency of the clays. Sensitivity is defined
as the ratio of unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed soil to that of remolded soil. A

sensitivity of greater than 3 or 4 is considered high. Since high sensitivity means that a large
portion of the strength of the soil is lost on remolding we shall be very cautious about using such
a soil in a structure where remolding or progressive action is likely to occur.
i. Undisturbed /remolded / compacted =

ii. Initial diameter, D =
iii. Initial length, L =
iv. Initial area, Ao =
v. Initial volume, V=
vi. Rate of Strain =
vii. Maximum Dry density (γd max) =
viii. Optimum water content (w) =
Sample 1:
Deformation Axial Axial Corrected Proving ring Axial force Compressiv

dial gauge deformation strain Area (Ac) dial gauge (F) (Kg) e stress =
reading (mm) (δl) (e) = δl/l = A/(1-e) reading F/AC
(cm2) (Kg/cm2)


Sample 2:
Deformation Axial Axial Corrected Proving ring Axial force Compressiv

dial gauge deformation strain Area (Ac) dial gauge (F) (Kg) e stress =
reading (mm) (δl) (e) = δl/l = A/(1-e) reading F/AC
(cm2) (Kg/cm2)


Viva Questions:
1) What is dimension of soil sample?

2) In case of UCS test, what will happen to area & why?
3) In case of UCS test, what is area equation?
4) What are the applications of UCS test?
5) What is shear strength of soil?
6) What is coulomb’s shear strength equation?
7) What types of shear tests are performed in laboratory?
8) What are the limitations of direct shear test?
9) Draw mohr’s circle for cohesive soil, cohesion less soil and both?
10) What are shear strength parameters?
MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks For

observation Record Viva - Voce
(15 marks)

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

Aim: To determine the compressive strength of a specimen of saturated cohesive soil in the
triaxial compression apparatus under conditions in which the cell pressure is maintained constant
and there is no change in the total water content of the specimen as per IS 2720 Part 11.
Theory:
Triaxial test is more reliable because we can measure both drained and untrained shear strength.
The result of any test made in accordance with this standard requires interpretation in relation to
the nature of the soil and the way in which the specimen was obtained and prepared. This test is
limited to specimens in the form of right cylinders of nominal diameter 38, 50, 70 and 100 mm
and of height approximately equal to twice the nominal diameter In case of remolded samples;
ratio of diameter of specimen to maximum size of particle in the soil should not be less than 5.
Apparatus:
1. Split mould of diameter and length to suit the test specimen.
2. Trimming Knife Sharp-bladed for example a spatula
3 Piano Wire Saw.
4 Metal Straight edge.
5 Metal Scale.
6 Non-Corrodible Metal or Plastic- End-Caps- of the same diameter as the test specimen. The
upper end cap is to have a central spherical seating to receive the loading ram. Plastic upper
end cap, 20 mm thick, is normally satisfactory for use on soft or very soft soils. Metal end
caps are considered preferable for use on stiff soils. A metal upper end cap 12 to 20 mm thick
is normally satisfactory.
7 Seamless Rubber Membrane: In the form of a tube, open at both ends of internal diameter
equal to the specimen diameter and of length 50 mm greater than the height of the specimen.
The membrane thickness should be selected having regard to the size, strength and nature of
the soil to be tested. A thickness of 0.2 to 0.3 mm is normally satisfactory.
8 Membrane Stretcher with the size of the specimen.
9 Rubber Rings circular to suit the diameter of the end caps.
10 Apparatus for Moisture Content Determination

11 Balance
12 Extruder
13 Soil lathe
14 Meter box- for cutting the ends of the specimen perpendicular to their axes.
15 Triaxial Test Cell: Tri-axial test cell of dimensions appropriate to the size of the specimen
capable of being opened for the insertion of the specimen, suitable for use with the fluid
selected for use at internal pressures up to 1 MPa and provided with a means of applying
additional axial compressive load to the specimen by means of a loading ram. A transparent
chamber is required. The base of the cell shall be provided with a suitable central pedestal
with drainage outlets with valves.
16 An Apparatus for Applying Deaired pressure on the Fluid within the Cell To an accuracy of
10 kPa (preferably 5 kPa) with a gauge for measuring the pressure. The gauge shall be
regularly calibrated.

17 Machine Capable of Applying Axial Compression to the specimen at convenient speeds to
cover the range 0.05 to 5 mm per minute. The machine should have a capacity of 50 KN. A
means of measuring the axial compression of the specimen to an accuracy of 0.01 mm shall
be provided and the machine shall be capable of applying an axial compression of about one
third the height of the specimen tested. Provision shall be made for measuring the additional
axial load on the specimen.
18 Proving ring of 1 KN capacity with sensitivity of 2 N for low strength soils and one of 10 KN
capacities with sensitivity of 10 N for high strength soils are found suitable.
Preparation of specimens:
Undisturbed Specimens:
1. The object of the specimen preparation is to produce cylindrical specimens of height twice
the specimen diameter with plane ends normal to the axis and with the minimum change of
the soil structure and moisture content.
2. The method of sample preparation will depend on whether the sample is received in the
laboratory in a tube or as a block sample.
3. In case of the specimen obtained from a tube sampler of the internal diameter as that of a
specimen, when the ends of the sampling tube are not flat and normal to the axis of the tube,
a length of the sample sufficient to form a specimen shall be extruded from the tube and cut
off.
4. This specimen shall then be placed in the split mould and the ends trimmed flat and normal
to its axis. Precautions shall be taken to prevent adhesion between the soil and the extruder
for example, by interposing oiled paper discs or lightly oiling the face of the extruder.
5. The length, diameter and mass of the specimen shall be measured to an accuracy enabling the
bulk density to be calculated to an accuracy of plus or minus one percent.
6. The specimen shall be placed on one of the end caps and the other end cap shall be put on top
of the specimen.
7. The rubber membrane shall then be placed around the specimen using the membrane
stretcher and the membrane sealed to the end caps by means of rubber rings.
8. The specimen is then ready to be placed on the pedestal in the triaxial cell.
9. The pedestal should be either covered with a solid end cap or the drainage valve should be
kept closed.

Remolded samples shall be prepared at the desired moisture and density by static and dynamic
methods of compaction or by any other suitable method, where necessary.
Testing:
1. The specimen prepared shall be placed centrally on the pedestal of the triaxial cell.
2. The cell shall be assembled with the loading ram initially clear of the top cap of the
specimen and the cell containing the specimen shall be placed in the loading machine.
3. The operating fluid shall be admitted to the cell and the pressure raised to the desired value.
4. The loading machine shall be adjusted to bring the loading ram a short distance away from
the seat on the top cap of the specimen and the initial reading of the load measuring gauge
shall be recorded.
5. The loading machine shall then be further adjusted to bring the loading ram just in contact
with the seat on the top cap of the specimen and the initial reading of the load gauge
measuring the axial compression of the specimen shall be recorded.
6. A rate of axial compression shall be selected such that failure is produced within a period of
approximately 5 to 15 minutes.
7. The test shall be commenced, a sufficient number of simultaneous readings of the load and
compression measuring gauges being taken to define the stress strain curve.
8. The test shall be continued until the maximum value of the stress has been passed or until an
axial strain of 20 percent has been reached.
9. The specimen shall then be unloaded and the final reading of the load measuring gauge shall
be recorded as a check on the initial reading.
10. The cell shall be drained of fluid and dismantled, and the specimen taken out.
11. The rubber membrane shall be removed from the specimen and the mode of failure shall be
noted.
12. The specimen shall be weighed and samples for the determination of the moisture content of
the specimen shall be taken.
13. If there is a moisture change in the specimen it should be recorded and discretion used with
regard to acceptability of the test.

Calculations:
 The difference between the initial reading and any subsequent reading of the loading
measuring device is the axial load applied to the specimen in addition to that due to cell
pressure.
 The area of the specimen normal to its axis at any stage of the test shall be computed on the
assumption that the sample deforms as a right cylinder. This area at any strain is given by:
A = Ao / 1-e
where Ao = initial area of the specimen normal to the axis, and
e = ( Lo - L )/Lo where Lo = initial length of the specimen, and
L = length of the specimen at the stage of test at which area is to be
determined.
 The principal stress difference for any stage of the test shall be determined by dividing the
additional axial load by the corresponding area A.
Reporting of results:
1. The dimensions of each test specimen, the bulk density, the moisture content, the cell
pressure, the value of the maximum principal stress difference and the corresponding strain
and time to failure and the rate of strain at which the test was conducted shall be reported.
2. The stress-strain curve of the test shall be plotted with the axial strains abscissa and the
principal stress difference as ordinate.
3. The shear parameters shal1 be obtained from a plot of Mohr circles for which purpose peak
values of principal stress difference or principal stress ratio or the ultimate value as desired
shall be used.

i. Undisturbed /remolded / compacted =

ii. Initial diameter, D =
iii. Initial length, L =
iv. Initial area, Ao =
v. Initial volume, V=
vi. Rate of Strain =
vii. Maximum Dry density (γd max) =
Optimum water content (w) =

Cell pressure:
Compression Load Compression Strain Corrected Load Deviator Vertical Vertical
gauge gauge of sample area stress stress stress/lateral
reading reading stress

Cell pressure:

Cell pressure:

MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

VANE SHEAR TEST
Aim: Conducting laboratory vane shear test on cohesive soils of low shear strength for
determining their undrained shear strength as per IS 2720 part 30
Theory:
The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength. Vane shear test is a useful
method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and quicker method. The test can
also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement of shear
strength of cohesive soils, is useful for soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2) for
which triaxial or unconfined tests cannot be performed. The test gives the undrained strength of
the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful for evaluating the
sensitivity of soil.
APPARATUS
Vane: The vane shall consist of four blades each fixed at 900 to the adjacent blades as illustrated
in Fig. The vane should not deform under the maximum torque for which it is designed. The
penetrating edge of the vane blades shall be sharpened having an included angle of 90°. The vane
blades shall be welded together suitably to a central rod. The apparatus is a motorized. The
following provisions are to be made:
 Fixing of vane and shaft to the apparatus in such a way that the vane can be lowered
gradually and vertically into the soil specimen.
 Fixing the tube containing the soil specimen to the base of the equipment for which it should
have suitable hole.
 Arrangement for lowering the vane into the soil specimen contained in the tube fixed to the
base gradually and vertically and for holding the vane properly and securely in the lowered
position shall be made.
 Arrangement for rotating the vane steadily at a rate of approximately 1/60 rev/min and for
measuring the rotation of vane shall be made.
 A torque applicator to rotate the vane in the soil and a device for measuring the torque
applied to an accuracy of 0.05cm.kgf and a set of springs capable of measuring shear strength
of 0.5 kgf/cm shall be provided.

Procedure
1 The specimen in the tube should be at least 37.5 mm in diameter and 75 mm long. Mount the
specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus and fix it
securely to the base.
2 If the specimen container is closed at one end it should be provided at the bottom with a hole
of about 1 mm diameter.
3 Lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length gradually with minimum
disturbance of the soil specimen so that the top of the vane is at least 10 mm below the top of
the specimen.
4 Note the readings of the strain and torque indicators.
5 Rotate the vane at a uniform rate approximately 0.10 per second by suitably operating the
torque applicator handle until the specimen fails.
6 Note the final reading of the torque indicator.

7 Torque readings and the corresponding strain readings may also be noted at desired intervals
of time as the test proceeds.
8 Just after the determination of the maximum torque rotate the vane rapidly through a
minimum of ten revolutions.
9 The remolded strength should then be determined within 1 minute after completion of- the
revolution.
Computations:
 For vane testing instruments that do not read the torque directly, a calibration curve to
convert the readings to cm.kgf of torque shall be provided. These calibration curves shall be
checked periodically.
 Calculate the shear strength of the soil using the following formula :
 This formula is based on the following assumptions: a) Shearing strengths in the horizontal
and vertical directions are the same; b) At the peak value, shear strength is equally mobilized
at the end surface as well as at the centre; and c) The shear surface is cylindrical and has a
diameter equal to the diameter of the vane.
 It is important that the dimensions of the vane are checked periodically to ensure that the
vane is not distorted or worn.
Calculations:

Result: Shear Strength of the given sample = __________

MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL TEST
Aim: To determine of free swell (Differential free swell) index of soil in accordance with the
procedure laid in IS Code 2720 - Part 40
Purpose: Free swell is the increase in volume of a soil, without any external constraints, on
submergence in water. The possibility of damage to structures due to swelling of expensive clays
need be identified, at the outset, by an investigation of those soils likely to possess undesirable
expansion characteristics. Inferential testing is resorted ‘to reflect the potential of the system to
swell under different simulated conditions.
Actual magnitude of swelling pressures developed depends upon the dry density, initial water
content, surcharge loading and several other environmental factors. X-RD, DTA and SEM are
some of the sophisticated tests which can be used to identify the expansive soils. However, such
tests are highly sophisticated and are not available in routine laboratories. Hence one should rely
on some simple tests like free swell tests. This simple test helps to identify the potential of a
soil to swell which might need further detailed investigation regarding swelling and swelling
pressures under different field conditions.
Apparatus:
1 Sieve - 425-micron IS Sieve,
2 Glass Graduated Cylinders - Two, each of 100 ml capacity,
3 glass rod
Procedure:
1) Take two 10 g soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425 micron IS Sieve.
2) Each soil specimen shall be poured in each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100 ml
capacity.
3) One cylinder shall then be filled with kerosene and the other with distilled writer up to
the 100 ml mark in each cylinder.
4) After removal of entrapped air by gentle shaking or stirring with a glass rod, allow the
soils in both the cylinder to settle. Sufficient time (not less than 24 hours) shall be
allowed for the soil sample to attain equilibrium state of volume without any further
change in the volume of the soils.

5) The final volume of soils in each of the cylinders shall be read out.
6) In case of highly swelling soils, such as sodium betonies, a sample of weight 5 grams or
alternatively a cylinder of 250 ml capacity may be used to accommodate the swollen soil.
Calculation:
The level of the soil in the kerosene graduated cylinder shall be read as the original volume of
the soil samples, kerosene being a non-polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil. The level
of the soil in the distilled water cylinder shall be read as the free swell level. The free swell
index ( Differential free swell ) of the soil shall be calculated as follows:
Free swell index, percent = ( Vd – Vk ) / (Vk ) x 100
where
Vd = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled
water,
Vk = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing kerosene.
The degree of expansiveness and consequent damage to the structures with light loading may be
qualitatively judged as shown below:
Interpretation:
Degree of expansiveness Differential free swell, percent
Low Less than 20
Moderate 20 to 35
High 35 to 50
Very high Greater than 50
In areas of soil showing high or very high differential free swell values, conventional shallow
strips footings may not be adequate.
Calculations:

Result: Free Swell Index of the given soil sample is = _____
MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

CONSOLIDATION TEST
Aim: To determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by conducting one
dimensional test.
Standard Reference:
IS Code 2720- part 15- 1986 - Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation
Properties of Soils.
Purpose:
When a saturated soil mass is subjected to a load increment, the load is usually carried initially
by water in the pores because the water is incompressible in comparison with the soil structure.
The pressure which results in the water because of the load increment is named as “hydrostatic
excessive pressure” because it is in excess of that pressure due to the weight of water. As the
water drains from the soil pores, the load increment is shifted to the soil structure. The transfer
of load is accompanied by a change in the volume of soil equal to the volume of water drained.
This process is known as “Consolidation”.
The rate at which volume change or consolidation occurs in soil, directly related to permeability
of the soil because the permeability controls the speed at which the pore water can escape. The
permeability of most sands is so high that the time required for consolidation after a load
application can be considered negligible except for cases where a large mass of sand is subjected
to a rapid shear or shock. On the other hand the low permeability of clay makes the rate of
volume change after a load application a factor which must be considered. Laboratory
consolidation studies therefore are almost entirely limited to soils for low permeability. This test
is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally confined
soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the measured data,
the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This data is useful in
determining the compression index, the recompression index and the preconsolidation pressure
(or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained can also be used to
determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary compression of the
soil.

Significance:
The consolidation properties i.e. the compression
index and the coefficient of consolidation
determined from the consolidation test indicate
the compressibility and rate of compression of soil
respectively. They are used to estimate the
magnitude and the rate of both primary and
secondary consolidation settlement of a structure
or an earth fill. Estimates of this type are of key
importance in the design of engineered structures
and the evaluation of their performance.
Equipment:
1. Consolidation device (including ring- The minimum diameter of the ring shall be 60 mm and
the height of the ring shall be not less than 20 mm with a diameter height ratio of 3. The
height of the specimen shall not be less than 10 times the maximum particle size ) ,
2. porous stones, water reservoir, and load device ),
3. Dial gauge (at an accuracy of at least 0.01 % of the specimen height),
4. Sample trimming device,
5. glass plate,
6. Metal straight edge,
7. Clock,
8. Moisture can, Filter paper and
9. Balance.

Test Procedure:
1. First step is to collect the soil specimen using consolidation metal ring. The ring should be
clean and dried and its weight, inner diameter and height are measured using weighing
balance and calipers respectively.
2. Now press the metal ring into the soil sample using hands and it is taken out with soil
specimen.
3. The soil specimen should project about 10 mm on either side of metal ring.
4. Now trim the excess soil content on top and bottom of the rings using Knife or spatula or fine
metal wires. This excess soil can be used to measure the water content of soil sample.
5. Make sure that the ring should not contain any soil on its outer part and weight the metal ring
with soil specimen.
6. Take two porous stones and saturate them by boiling (15 minutes) or by submerging (4 to 8
hours) in distilled water.
7. Assemble the consolidometer. Place the parts of consolidometer from bottom to top in the
order beginning with bottom porous stone, filter paper, specimen ring, filter paper and top
porous stone.
8. Place the loading pad on the top porous stone and lock the consolidometer using metal
screws provided.
9. Mount the whole assembly on the loading frame and center it such that the load applied is
axial.
10. Arrange the dial gauge in a position in such a way that it should allow sufficient space for
swelling of soil specimen.
11. Water reservoir is connected to the mounted assembly to saturate the soil. The water level in
the water reservoir should be of same level as the soil specimen.
12. Now apply the initial trail load which should not allow any swelling in the soil. In general 5
kN/m2 initial load applied for ordinary soils and 2.5 kN/m2 is applied for very soft soils.
13. Leave the load until there is no change in dial gauge reading or for 24 hours and note down
the final reading of dial gauge for initial load.
14. First load increment of 10 kN/m2 is applied and start the stop watch immediately and note
down the readings of dial gauge at various time intervals. In general, readings are taken at
0.25, 1, 2.5, 4, 6.25, 9, 16, 25, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hrs.

15. In general primary consolidation of soil (90% of consolidation) is reached within 24 hours.
Hence readings are noted up to 24 hours.
16. Next apply the second load increment of 20 kN/m2 and repeat same procedure as said in 14th
step.
17. Similarly apply the load increments 50, 100, 200, 400 and 800 kN/m2 and repeat the same
procedure and note down the readings.
18. When values of last load increment are noted, now reduce the load to ¼ of the last load value
and leave it for 24 hours. At this point note down the dial gauge reading. Reduce the load
again and again and repeat the procedure until the load gets 10 kN/m2. At every point note
down the final gauge readings.
19. Now remove the assembly from loading frame and dismantle it.
20. Take out the specimen ring and wipe out the excess water and Weigh the specimen ring and
note down.
21. Finally Put the specimen in oven and determine the dry weight of specimen.

 Height of ring =
 Diameter of ring =
 Area of ring =
 Volume of ring =
 Weight of ring =
 Specific Gravity of Solids, G =
 Weight of ring + soil specimen =
 Initial water content =
 Initial height of specimen, H =
 Final Water Content =
 Final weight of soil specimen =

Table 1: Dial gauge readings for different loads at different times
Intensity of load
(kN/m2)
Horizontal
10 20 50 100 200 400 800
Time Interval
(vertical)
0 minutes
0.25 minutes
1.0 minutes
2.5 minutes
4 minutes
6.25 minutes
9 minutes
16 minutes
25 minutes
30 minutes
1 hour
2 hours
4 hours
8 hours
24 hours
 Height of solids,
 Height Voids, H v = H – Hs

 Void ratio, e = Hv/Hs
Table 2: Void ratio calculation for different pressure intensities

Intensity Initial
Final Dial Specimen Height of Height of Void
Pressure Dial
Reading height, H solids, Hs voids, Hv Ratio, e
(kN/m2) Reading
10
20
50
100
200
400
800

 Dial gauge reading Vs. square root of time – to determine
the coefficient of consolidation (Cv).
 Final void ratio Vs. Effective stress – to determine

coefficient of compressibility (av) and coefficient of
volume change (mv).
 Final void ration Vs logarithmic of effective stress –

To determine Compression Index (Cc).
 Coefficient of permeability: k = Cv * γw * av

Viva Questions:
1) What is the application of consolidation test?

2) What are parameters are constant during consolidation test?
3) Define co-efficient of compressibility?
4) What are assumptions of Terzaghi’s one dimensional consolidation theory?
5) How co-efficient of compressibility graph is look in the case of loading ?
6) What are parameters are decreases during consolidation test?
7) Explain over consolidated clays?
8) What is meant by consolidation?
9) What are parameters are increases during consolidation test?
10) Explain normally consolidated clays?
11) How co-efficient of compressibility graph is look in the case of loading & unloading
condition?
12) What are the applications of consolidation test?
MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

MEASUREMENT OF SWELLING PRESSURE OF SOILS

SCOPE
This standard covers the laboratory method of conducting one dimensional swelling pressure test
using either fixed or the floating rings on both undisturbed and remolded soils in the partially
saturated condition to determine the swelling pressure of the soil. Two methods, namely,
consolidometer method in which the volume change of the soil is permitted and the
corresponding pressure required to bring back the soil to its original volume is measured and the
constant volume method in which the volume change is prevented and the consequent pressure is
measured are covered.
Swelling Pressure is defined as the pressure which the expansive soil exerts, if the soil is not
allowed to swell or the volume change of the soil is prevented.
A. CONSOLIDOMETER METHOD
Apparatus and equipment:
Consolidometer: A device to hold the sample in a ring either fixed or floating with porous
stones (or ceramic discs) on each face of the sample. A consolidometer shall also provide means
for submerging the sample, for applying a vertical load and for measuring the change in the
thickness of the specimen. The provision for fixing of the dial gauge shall be rigid; in no case
shall the dial gauge be fixed to a cantilever arm. Suitable provision shall be made to enable the
dial gauge to be fixed in such a way that the dial gauge records accurately the vertical expansion
of the specimen. The specimen shall be 60 mm in diameter and shall be at least 20 mm thick.
However, the thickness shall not be less than 10 times the maximum diameter of the grain in the
soil specimen. The diameter to thickness ratio shall be a minimum of 3.
The ring shall be made of a material which is noncorrosive in relation to the soil tested. The
inner surface shall be highly polished or coated with a thin coating of silicon grease or with a low
friction material. The thickness of the ring shall be such that under assumed hydrostatic stress
conditions in the sample the change in diameter of the ring will not exceed 003 percent under the
maximum load applied during the test. The ring shall have one edge beveled suitably so that the
sample is pressed into the ring with least disturbance.

The ring shall be placed with its cutting edge upwards in the consolidometer and clamped with a
special clamp which should in no way damage the sharp edge. The clamp should be made
circular with
central hole equal in diameter of the porous’ stone and should be perfectly concentric with the
sample. The ring shall be provided with a collar of internal diameter same as that of the ring and
of effective height 20 mm. The collar shall rest securely on the specimen ring. The Porous Stones
shall be of silicon carbide or aluminium oxide and of medium grade. It shall have a high
permeability compared to that of the soil being tested. The diameter of the top stone shall be 0.2
to 0.5 mm less than the internal diameter of the ring. The thickness of the stone shall be a
minimum of 15 mm. The top stone shall be loaded through a corrosion-resistant plate of
sufficient rigidity and of minimum thickness 10 mm to prevent breakage of the stone. The
loading plate shall have suitable holes for free drainage of water. Dial Gauge - accurate to 0.01
mm with a traverse of at least 20 mm shall be used. Water Reservoir is used to keep the soil
sample submerged. Soil Trimming Tools - Fine wire-saw, knife, spatula, etc for trimming sample
to fit into the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with minimum disturbances, Oven,
balance of sensitive to 0.01 g and Containers
Preparation of test specimen:

 Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples - The container ring shall be
cleaned and weighed empty. From one end of the undisturbed soil sample about 30 mm shall
be cut off and rejected. The specimen shall be cut off either from the undisturbed tube
sample. The consolidation ring should be gradually inserted in the sample by pressing with
hands and carefully removing the material around the ring. The soil specimen so cut shall
project as far as 10 mm on either side of the ring. The specimen shall then be trimmed
smooth and flush with the top and bottom of the ring. Any voids in the specimen caused due
to removal of gravel or limestone pieces, shall be filled back by pressing lightly the loose soil
in the voids, care being taken to see that the specimen is not affected. The container ring shall
be wiped clear of any soil sticking to the outside and weighed again with the soil. The whole
process should be quick to ensure minimum loss of moisture. Three representative specimens
from the soil trimming shall be taken in moisture content cans and their moisture content
determined.

 In case where it is necessary to use disturbed soil samples the soil sample shall be compacted
to the desired (field) density and water content in standard compaction proctor mould.
Samples of suitable sizes are cut from it.
Procedure:
1) Assembly: The porous stones shall be saturated. All surfaces of the consolidometer
which are to be enclosed shall be moistened. The porous stones shall be saturated by
boiling in distilled water for at least 15 minutes.
2) The consolidometer shall be assembled with the soil specimen (in the ring) and porous
stones at top and bottom of the specimen, providing a filter paper rendered wet (
Whatman No. 1 or equivalent) between the soil specimen and the porous stone.
3) The loading block shall then be positioned centrally on the top porous stone.
4) This assembly shall then be mounted on the loading frame such that, the load when
applied is transmitted to the soil specimen through the loading cap.
5) The assembly shall be so centred so that the load applied is axial.
6) The holder with the dial gauge to record the progressive vertical heave of the specimen
under no load, shall then be screwed in place and adjusted in such a way that the dial
gauge is near the end of its release run, allowing small margin for the compression of the
soil, if any.
7) An initial setting load of 0.05 kgs per square centimeter (this includes the weight of the
porous stone and the loading pad) shall be placed on the loading hanger and the initial
reading of the dial gauge shall be noted.
8) The system shall be connected to a water reservoir with the level of water in the reservoir
being at about the same level as the soil specimen and water allowed to flow in the
sample. The soil shall then be allowed to swell.
9) The free swell readings shown by the dial gauge under the seating load of 0.05 kgs per
square centimeter shall be recorded at different time intervals as given in the proforma
and the total readings noted at total elapsed time since starting shown therein.
10) The dial gauge readings shall be taken till equilibrium is reached. This is ensured by
making a plot of swelling dial reading versus time in hours, which plot becomes
asymptotic with abscissa (time scale ).

11) The swollen sample shall then be subjected to consolidation under different pressures as
given in proforma.
12) The compression dial readings shall be recorded till the dial readings attain a steady state
for each load applied over the specimen.
13) The consolidation loads shall be applied till the specimen attains its original volume.
14) The observed swelling dial reading recorded shall be plotted with elapsed time as
abscissa and swelling dial reading as ordinates on natural scale.
15) A smooth curve shall be drawn joining these points.
16) If the curve so drawn becomes asymptotic with the abscissa, the swelling has reached its
maximum and hence the swelling phase shall be stopped, and the consolidation phase
shall be started.
17) The compression readings shall be tabulated and a plot of change in thickness of
expanded specimen as ordinates and consolidation pressure applied as abscissa in semi
logarithmic scale shall be made.
18) The swelling pressure exerted by the soil specimen under zero swelling condition shall be
obtained by interpolation and expressed in kgs per square centimeter.
Calculations and report:

The observations shall be recorded suitably in the form given in
Calculations: The difference between the final and initial dial readings of the proving ring gives
total load in terms of division which when multiplied by the calibration factor gives the total
load. This when divided by the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen gives the swell pressure
expressed in kN/m2 ( kgf/cm2 ).
Final dial reading -Swelling pressure in Calibration factor kN/m2 ( kgf/cm2 ) = Initial dial
reading Area of the specimen of proving ring
Observations:
1. Details of soils sample
i) Location
ii) Boring No.
iii) Depth

iv)Visual description of soil
v) Liquid limit
Plasticity index
vi) Percentage of soil fraction
below 0’002 mm
2. Details of soil specimen
i) Undisturbed or remolded
ii) Specific gravity of the soil
Natural Density Moisture Content
Description Test I Test II Description Test I Test II
Wt of Wt of
container container
+wet sample
Wt of Wt of
container +wet container
sample +dry sample
Diameter of Wt of
container container
Initial Weight of
thickness of water
sample
Wet density in Weight of dry
grams per CC soil
Dry density in Moisture
g/ml content in
percent
Date:
Time of starting
Elapsed time in hours Swell dial reading
0
0.50
1
2

Data sheet for swell - compression test

Pressure increment in Compression Change in thickness
kN per square meter of expanded specimen
0-5
5-10
10-25
25-50
50-100
100-200
200-400
400-800
800-1600
In case the test is to be conducted on an Undisturbed Soil Sample, undisturbed specimen shall be
trimmed in the form of a cylinder not larger than about 85 mm in diameter and having a height
equal to that of the mould. The specimen shall be placed centrally over the porous disc of the
drainage base fixed to the mould. The annular space between the mould and the specimen shall
be filled with an impervious material such as cement slurry or a mixture of 10 percent dry
powdered bentonite and 90 percent fine sand by weight to provide sealing between the soil
specimen and the mould against leakage from the sides. When using the cement slurry the mould
shall be kept on a flat surface other than the porous discs. The mixture shall be compacted using
a small tamping rod. The drainage cap shall then be fixed over the top of the mould.
Saturation-In the case of soils of medium to high permeability the specimen shall be subjected
to sufficient head, flow or immersion so as to obtain full saturation. Soils of low permeability
require flow under a high head for periods ranging from a day to a week depending upon the
permeability and the head. Alternatively, in the case of soils of low permeability the specimen
shall be subjected to a gradually increasing vacuum with bottom outlet closed so as to remove to
form the soil voids. The vacuum shall be increased to at least 70 cm of mercury which shall be
maintained for 15 minutes or more depending upon the soil type. The evacuation shall be

followed by a very slow saturation of the specimen with de-aired water from the bottom upwards
under full vacuum. When the specimen is saturated both the top and bottom outlets shall be
closed.
MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

RELATIVE DENSITY OF SOIL

Aim: To determine the relative density of given coarse grained material.
Theory:
Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference between the void ratios of a
cohesionless soil in its loosest state and existing natural state to the difference between its void
ratio in the loosest and densest states.
Where,
emax = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its loosest state.
emin = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its densest state.
e =void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its natural existing state in the field.
Porosity of a soil depends on the shape of grain, uniformity of grain size and condition of
sedimentation. Hence porosity itself does not indicate whether a soil is in loose or dense state.
This information can only be obtained by comparing the porosity or void ratio of the given soil
with that of the same soil in its loosest and densest possible state and hence the term, relative
density is introduced.
Relative density is an arbitrary character of sandy deposit. In real sense, relative density
expresses the ratio of actual decrease in volume of voids in a sandy soil to the maximum possible
decrease in the volume of voids i.e how far the sand under investigation can be capable to the

further densification beyond its natural state. Determination of relative density is helpful in
compaction of coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing capacity in case of sandy soils.
For very dense gravelly sand, it is possible to obtain relative density greater the one. This means
that such natural dense packing could not be obtained in the laboratory.
Apparatus:
1) Cushioned steel vibrating deck 75x75 cm size, R.P.M : 3600 ; under a 115 kg load, 440V,
3 phase supply.
2) Two cylindrical metallic moulds, 3000 cc and 15000 cc.
3) 10 mm thick surcharge base plate with handle separately for each mould.
4) Surcharge weights, one for each size having a weight equal to 140 gms / sq.cm.
5) Dial gauge holder, which can be slipped into the eyelets on the moulds sides.
6) Guide sleeves with clamps for each mould separately.
7) Calibration bar 75x300x3 mm.
PROCEDURE
Calibration of mould :
1. Measure inside diameter of mould at different depths using a bore gauge and take the average.
2. Keep the mould on a flat surface or flat plate. Measure the height at different positions and
take the average (accuracy = 0.025 mm).
3. Calculate the volume.
4. Fill the mould with distilled water till over flowing takes place.
5. Slid thick glass plate over the top surface of mould.
6. Weigh the water filling the mould.
7. Note the temperature of water.
8. Obtain density of water for the above temperature from physical tables.
9. Calculate the volume of the mould which is weight of water filling the mould /density of
water.

Preparation of the Sample:
1. Dry the soil sample in a thermostatically controlled electric oven.

2. Cool in the sample in a desicator.
3. Segregate soil lumps without breaking individual particles
4. Sieve it through the required sieve size.
Minimum Density:
The mould is weighed accurately (W). Pour the dry pulverized soil into the mould through a
funnel in a steady stream. The spout is adjusted so that the free fall of soil particle is always 25
mm. While pouring soil the spout must have a spiral motion from the rim to the centre. The
process is continued to fill up the mould with soil upto about 25mm above the top. It is then
leveled, with the soil and weight is recorded (W1).
Maximum Density:
Weigh the empty mould (W). Put the collar on top of the mould and clamp it. Fill the mould with
the oven dried soil sample till 1 / 2 or 2 / 3 of the collar is filled. Place the mould on the vibrating
deck and fix it with nuts and bolts. Then place the surcharge weight on it. The vibrator is allowed
to run for 8 minutes. Then mould is weighed with the soil and weight is recorded (W2).

Natural Density:
Weigh the mould with dry soil. Knowing the volume of the mould and weight of dry soil natural
density, gd, can be calculated.
Calculations:
Result:
Analysis of results:
MARKS AWARDED:
Total Marks
marks)

GTE LAB MANUAL Ver 4 - 1

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

M.V.G.R. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A)

Department of Civil Engineering i MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering ii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Mission of the Institution

Department of Civil Engineering iii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Program Outcomes (POs)

Department of Civil Engineering iv MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

Department of Civil Engineering v MVGR College of Engineering (A)

COURSE INFORMATION SHEET

1 Explain tests to determine index properties of the soils

After successful completion of this course, the student is expected to

Course Outcomes (CO) –Program Outcomes (PO) Mapping Table

A1CEL208 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LAB

Department of Civil Engineering vi MVGR College of Engineering (A)

1) Atterberg limits and indices

a. Liquid limit b. Plastic limit c. Shrinkage limit

2) Determination of field density

a. Core Cutter method

3) Grain size analysis

4) Determination of permeability of soil

a. Constant head test for coarse grained soils

5) Proctor compaction test:

a. IS Light weight compaction for coarse grained soils including determination of

Department of Civil Engineering vii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

5 3 Direct shear test

8 3 Unconfined compression (UCC) test

Department of Civil Engineering viii MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering ix MVGR College of Engineering (A)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Department of Civil Engineering 1 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Density bottle method

Mass of Density bottle + soil + water, W3 (g)

Mass of Density bottle + water, W4 (g)

Specific gravity of soil, GS = (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))

Mass Pycnometer W1 (g)

Mass of Pycnometer + dry soil, W2 (g)

Specific gravity of soil, GS = (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))

Department of Civil Engineering 2 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Specific gravity of soil grains by using density bottle method =

Specific gravity of soil grains by using Pycnometer method =

Observation Record Viva - Voce Total (20 M)

10 Marks 5 Marks 5 Marks

Department of Civil Engineering 3 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 4 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

IS sieve designation 450 mm diameter 300 mm diameter

Department of Civil Engineering 5 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 6 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 7 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

7. Observations and calculations:

From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

Department of Civil Engineering 8 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 9 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Observation Record Viva - Voce Total (20 M)

10 Marks 5 Marks 5 Marks

Department of Civil Engineering 10 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 11 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 12 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 13 MVGR College of Engineering (A)

Department of Civil Engineering 14 MVGR College of Engineering (A)