THE SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
FACTORS THAT RENDER
PROCESSES IRREVERSIBLE
 Heat Engine
Heat engine is a device by which a system is made to
undergo a cyclic process that results in conversion of
heat into work.

Main parts of Heat Engine

1. Source
Hot reservoir or source is a material kept at high temperature and
having infinite thermal capacity . Any amount of heat can be taken
from it without changing its temperature.

2. Sink
Cold reservoir or sink is a material kept at low temperature and having
infinite thermal capacity . Any amount of heat can be given to it without
changing its temperature.
3. Working substance
Working substance is a material which converts heat energy into work. It
is taken in a cylinder fitted with tight movable frictionless piston. The
lower side of the cylinder will be thermally conducting.

4. Insulating stand
It insulates the working substance from thermal contact with the
surroundings that is used for performing the adiabatic process.
 Carnot Engine
Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine whose efficiency is maximum. In
Carnot engine, ideal gas is the working substance and all the dissipative
forces are absent and Carnot cycle is used.

Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle represents the operation of an idealized engine in
which heat is transferred from a hot reservoir at temperature T1, i
s
partl
y conv e rted i
nto w ork,and partly di
scarde d to acoldrese rvo i
r
attem perat ur eT .
2
 The steps in the working of the engine in one complete cycle
1. Isothermal Expansion
At first, the working substance is kept in contact with the source. The piston of the
cylinder is moved outwards. The gas expands at constant temperature. The amount of
heat (Q1 )isa b
sorbed f
rom t
he s ou r
ce t o make the tem pera t
ure constan t.T he vo l
um e
incr ease s and pressu r
e decreas es .
2. Adiabatic Expansion
The lower conducting side of the cylinder is kept in contact with the insulating stand. The piston of the
cylinder is moved outwards. The gas expands such that no heat enters the system or leaves from it.
The volume increases and pressure decreases. The temperature is decreased from T1 to T2 .
This is called adiabatic expansion. It is represented by the curve BC in the indicator diagram.
3. Isothermal Expansion
The cylinder is kept in contact with the sink. The piston of the cylinder is moved
inwards. The gas is compressed at constant temperature. The excess heat
produced (Q3 ) wil
l f
low t
o thes i
n kto ma ke thetem perature consta nt.T he
vo l
u me de crea ses and pressure i
n cre a
s es.
This is called isothermal compression. It is represented by the curve CD in the
indicator diagram.
4. Adiabatic Compression
The cylinder is kept in contact with the insulating stand. The piston
of the cylinder is moved inwards. The gas is compressed such that
no heat enters the system or leaves from it. The volume
decreases and pressure increases. The temperature increases
from T2 to T .
1
Efficiency of Carnot Engine
ACarnot heat pump is a Carnot engine that is driven backwards by another engine.
It removes heat from the cold reservoir and exhausts heat into the hot reservoir.
The steps are numbered with a prime (‘) and are numbered in the order in which
they occur. Since we are considering the same Carnot engine run backwards,
q4’= -q1

q2
’
=-
q3
• The Carnot efficiency is always smaller
than unity.
W’c
y
c
l
e=-
Wc
y
c
l=
W
es
ur
r • The Carnot heat pump coefficient of
performance is always greater than unity.
For a heat pump, the output is the heat delivered to the
hot reservoir and the input is the work put into the heat
pump. The ratio of the output to the input is called
coefficient of performance of the heat pump and is
denoted by COPh p
 The Thermodynamic Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

If two objects, A and B, are at thermal equilibrium with each other and if B is at
thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A is also at thermal equilibrium
with C.
Example: Calculate the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine that
represents a steam engine with its boiler at 600.0K and its exhaust at
373.15 K.

Example: Calculate the coefficient of performance of a Carnot heat pump

operating between a high temperature of 70.0oF and a low temp of 40.0oF
Example: A Carnot engine contains 0.25 mol of a monatomic ideal gas as its
working fluid. Assume Cv to be constant and equal to 3/200/R. If Th= 473K,
Tc = 373 K, V1 = 0.
6L and ifthe com pression rati
o (
the ra
ti
o V 3/V )
1= 6 .
0 ,
fi
nd thee fficiency,V,
2V 4a nd w for eacho fthe step sin t
hecycle.