Lesson 2 (PRE- COLONIAL PHILIPPINES)

Prior to the time of European contact, most of the major islands in what is now known as the Philippines
had a rich political landscape consisting of
polities known as chiefdoms of different
economic scale and hierarchical complexity.
These societies are said to be integrated into
a regional network through local-based
trading and raiding activities. The chief, who
plays a central role in the political and
economic well-being of the polity, controlled
and mobilized the goods to create alliance
among and between polities.

Early polities in the Philippines put primacy

on alliance networking rather than territorial
conquest in expanding their political power. These networks derived their legitimacy in three ways:
circulation of prestige goods (such as porcelain, celadon, jewellery), marriage, and ritual feasting. First,
distribution of prestige goods was used to unify rulers to elite members of the society.  Second, chiefs
strategically contracted marriage with daughters and sisters of the political elite and influential
commoners. Third, chiefs sponsored feasts attended by allies and subordinates to negotiate social status
relations within their network.
Scholars agree that there existed a settlement called Manila dated prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in
1570. The toponym (place name) of Manila are explained by two contesting theories. First, it comes
from may nilad,  which means a place with mangrove shrubs / trees bearing white flowers (Ixora
manila). From this, we can infer that the general geographic condition of Manila was swampy and
coastal. Second, it comes from may nila  which referred to the dye extracted from the same plant.
Barangay state

In early Philippine history, the barangay was a complex sociopolitical unit which scholars have
historically considered the dominant organizational pattern among the various peoples of the Philippine
archipelago. The term, barangay, refers to both a house on land and a boat on water; containing
families, friends and dependents and is currently the basic political unit of the Philippines.
These sociopolitical units were sometimes also referred to as barangay states, but are more properly
referred to using the technical term "polity", rather than "state”, so they are usually simply called
"barangays", but evidence suggests a considerable degree of independence as a type of "city states"
ruled by datus, rajahs and lakans and sultans. Some barangays were well-organized independent
villages, consisting of thirty to a hundred households. Other barangays - most notably those
in Maynila, Tondo, Panay, Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu- were integrated into
large cosmopolitan polities.
Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano defines this period of the barangay states' dominance - approximately
the 14th to the 16th centuries - as the "Barangic Phase" of early Philippine history. The Barangic Phase
of Philippine history can be noted for its highly mobile nature, with barangays transforming from being
settlements and turning into fleets and vice versa, with the wood constantly re-purposed according to
the situation. Historical barangays should not be confused with present-day Philippine  barrios, which
were officially renamed barangays by the Philippine Local Government Code of 1991 as a reference to
historical barangays.

Origin of Barangay
Theories, as well as local oral traditions, say that the original "barangays" were coastal
settlements formed as a result of the migration of these Malayo-Polynesian people (who came to the
archipelago) by boat from other places in Southeast Asia. Most of the ancient barangays were coastal or
riverine in nature. This is because most of the people were relying on fishing for supply of protein and
for their livelihood. They also travelled mostly by water up and down rivers, and along the coasts. Trails
always followed river systems, which were also a major source of water for bathing, washing, and
drinking. Early chroniclers record that the name evolved from the term balangay, which refers to a plank
boat widely used by various cultures of the Philippine archipelago prior to the arrival of European
colonizers.

Description

Historically, the first barangays started as relatively small communities of around 30 to 100
families, with a population that varies from one hundred to five hundred persons. When the Spaniards
came, they found communities with only twenty to thirty people, as well as large and prestigious
principalities. The coastal villages were more accessible to trade with foreigners. These were ideal places
for economic activity to develop. Business with traders from other Countries also meant contact with
other cultures and civilizations, such as those of Japan, Han Chinese, Indian people, and Arab people. In
time, these coastal communities acquired more advanced cultures, with developed social structures
(sovereign principalities), ruled by established royalties and nobilities.

When barangays grew larger, as was the case in Maynila, Tondo, the Madja-as of Panay, Pangasinan,
Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu, among others, they took on a more complex social
organization. Several barangays, consisting of households loyal to a datu, Rajah or Sultan banded
together to form larger cosmopolitan polities as an apex city states. The Rulers of these barangays
would then select the most senior or most respected among them to serve as a paramount datu. These
polities sometimes had other names (such as bayan in the Tagalog regions but since the terminology
varies from case to case, scholars such as Jocano and Scott simply refer to them as "larger" barangays.
The etymology of bayan can be traced back to the word "bahayan", meaning a "community", or literally
"a place with many households. The majority of these early "bayan" were economically complex
communities situated river deltas where rivers exit out into the ocean, and featured a compact
community layout which distinguished them from inland communities, thus the name.
Titles of rulers

Because the peoples of the Philippine archipelago had different

languages, the highest ranking political authorities in the largest
historical barangay polities went by different titles. The titles of the
paramount datu also changed from case to case, including: Sultan in the
most Islamized areas of Mindanao; Lakan among the Tagalogs; Thimuay
Labi among the Subanen; Rajah in polities which traded extensively with
Indonesia and Malaysia; or simply Datu in some areas of Mindanao and
the Visayas.

In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in
Indonesia and Malaysia, the Paramount Ruler was called a Rajah. Among the Subanon people of
the Zamboanga Peninsula, a settlement's Datus answer to a Thimuay, and some Thimuays are
sometimes additionally referred to as "Thimuay Labi “ or as Sulotan in more Islamized Subanon
communities. In some other portions of the Visayas and Mindanao, there was no separate name for the
most senior ruler, so the Paramount ruler was simply called a Datu,although one Datu was identifiable
as the most senior

Social Hierarchy of Pre-colonial Polities

Class Title Description

Paramount Leader of the

confederacy of Barangay
states. In a confederacy
forged by alliances
Maginoo (Ruling Class) among polities, the datu
would convene to
choose a paramount
chief from among
themselves; their
Raja, Lakan communal decision
would be based on a
datu's prowess in battle,
leadership, and network
of allegiances.

Datus were maginoo

with personal followings
(dulohan or barangay).
His responsibilities
include: governing his
 people, leading them in
war, protecting them
from enemies and
settling disputes. He
received agricultural
Datu
produce and services
from his people, and
distributed irrigated land
among his barangay with
right of usufruct.

Maginoo comprised the

ruling class of Tagalogs,
Ginoo was both
honorific for both men
and women.

Panginoon were
maginoo with many
slaves and other
valuable property like
houses and boats.
Lineage was emphasized
over wealth; the
Maginoo nouveau riche were
derogatorily referred to
as maygintawo (fellow
with a lot of riches).

Members included:
those who could claim
noble lineage, members
of the datu's family.

Powerful governor of a
province within the
caliphate or dynasties of
Islamic regions. Their
Sultan position was inherited by
a direct descent in a
royal bloodline who
could claim the
allegiances of the datu.
Sultans took on foreign
relations with other
 states, and could declare
war or allow subordinate
datus to declare war if
need be. The sultan had
his court, a prime
minister (gugu), an heir
to the throne (Rajah
Muda or crown prince),
a third-ranking dignitary
(Rajah Laut, or sea lord)
and advisers (pandita).

Timawa and Maharlika (Middle Class and Freemen Non-slaves who can
attached themselves to
the Datu of their choice.
They could use and
bequeath a portion of
Timawa barangay land.

In Luzon, their main

responsibility to the datu
was agricultural labor,
but they could also work
in fisheries, accompany
expeditions, and
rowboats. They could
also perform irregular
services, like support
feasts or build houses.

In Visayas, they paid no

tribute and rendered no
agricultural labor. They
were seafaring warriors
who bound themselves
to a datu.

Member included:
illegitimate children of
Maginoo and slaves and
former alipin who paid
off their debts.
 Warrior class of the
barangay, rendered
military services to the
Datu and paid for their
own equipment and
weapons. They also
Maharlika received a share of the
spoils.

Slaves who lived in their

Alipin/Uripon (Slaves)
AlipinNamamahay measure of threshed rice
own houses apart from
their debtor. If the
alipin's debt came from
insolvency or legal
action, the alipin and his
debtor agreed on a
period of indenture and
an equivalent monetary
value in exchange for it.
The alipinnamamahay
was allowed to farm a
portion of barangay
land, but he was
required to provide a
or a jar of rice wine for
his master's feasts. He
came whenever his
master called to harvest
crops, build houses,
rowboats, or carry cargo.

Member included: those

who have inherited
debts from namamahay
parents, timawa who
went into debt, and
former alipinsaguiguilid
who married and were
allowed to live outside
of master's house.

AlipinSaguiguilid Slaves who lived in their

debtor's house and were
entirely dependent on
 him for food and shelter.
Male alipinsagigilid who
married were often
raised to namamahay
status, because it was
more economical for his
master (as opposed to
supporting him and his
new family under the
same roof). However,
female alipinsagigilid
were rarely permitted to
marry.

Member included:
children born in debtor's
house and children of
parents who were too
poor to raise them.

Lesson 3 (Philippines under Spanish Era)

Spain reigned over the Philippines for 333 years, from
1565 to 1898. Since Spain was far from the country,
the Spanish king ruled the Islands through the viceroy
of Mexico, which was then another Spanish colony.
When Mexico regained its freedom in 1821, the
Spanish king ruled the Philippines through a governor
general. A special government body that oversaw
matters, pertaining to the colonies assisted the king in
this respect. This body became known by many
names. Council of the Indies (1565-1837), Overseas
Council (1837-1863), and Ministry of the Colonies (1863–1898). It implemented the decrees and legal
codes Spain promulgated although many of its provisions could not apply to condition in the colonies. It
also exercised legislative and judicial powers.

The Political Structure

Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was composed of a

national government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns and
municipalities. With the cooperation of the local governments the national government maintained
peace and order, collected taxes and built schools and other public works

The Governor General

As the King's representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines, the governor
general saw to it that royal decrees and laws emanating from Spain were implemented in the
Philippines. He had the power to appoint and dismiss public officials, except those personally chosen by
the King. He also supervised all government offices and the collection of taxes.The governor general
exercised certain legislative powers, as well. He issued proclamations to facilitate the implementation of
laws.

The Residencia

This was a special judicial court that investigates the performance of a governor general who
was about to be replaced. The residencia, of which the incoming governor general was usually a
member, submitted a report of its findings to the King.

The Visita

The Council of the Indies in Spain sent a government official called the Vistador General to
observe conditions in the colony. The Visitador General reported his findings directly to the King.The
Royal Audiencia

Apart from its judicial functions, the Royal Audiencia served as an advisory body to the Governor
General and had the power to check and a report on his abuses. The Audiencia also audited
the expenditures of the colonial government and sent a yearly report to Spain. The Archbishop and
other government officials could also report the abuses of the colonial government to be Spanish king.
Despite all these checks, however, an abusive governor general often managed to escape stiff fines,
suspension, or dismissal by simply bribing the Visitador and other investigators.

The Provincial Government

The Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country’s administration. There
were two types of local government units – the alcadia and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the
alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully subjugated: the corregimiento, headed by
corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanish control. The alcalde mayors
represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their respective provinces. They managed the
day-to-day operations of the provincial government, implemented laws and supervised the collection of
taxes. Through they were paid a small salary, they enjoyed privileges such as the indulto de comercio, or
the right to participate in the galleon trade.
The Municipal Government

Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadorcillos, whose
main concerns were efficient governance and tax collection. Four lieutenants aided the
Governardorcillo: the Teniente Mayor (chief lieutenant), the Teniente de Policia (police lieutenant), the
Teniente de Sementeras (lieutenant of the fields) and the Teniente de Ganados (lieutenant of the
livestock).

The Encomienda System

Spain owed the colonization of the Philippines to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who valiantly and
loyally served the Spanish crown. To hasten the subjugation of the country, King Philip II instructed
Legazpi to divide the Philippines into large territories called encomiendas, to be left to the management
of designated encomenderos.

To show his gratitude to his conquistadors, the King made them the first encomenderos in the colony. As
the King’s representatives in their respective encomiendas, the encomenderos had the right to collect
taxes. However, the encomiendas were not there to own. The encomenderos were only territorial
overseers who had the duty to:

1) Protect the people in the  encomienda;

(2) Maintain peace and order;

(3) Promote education and health programs; and

(4) Help the missionaries propagate Christianity.  Continue to  The Galleon Trade.

Lesson 4 (Philippines under American Imperialism)

Military Government

General Wesley Merritt was the highest-ranking

American official in the Philippines after Spaniards
surrendered Manila on August 13, 1898.
He established a military government and became
the first American Military governor of the
Philippines. The objectives of the Military
government are:

1) To establish peace and order to the Philippines, and

2) To prepare Philippines for civil governance. The government in the Philippines can be  classified  into
opposition and collaboration. The Americans used propaganda and other means to win the Filipinos to
their-side.

The Schurman

The first commission was chaired by Dr. Jacob G. Schurman, president of Cornell University. Thus it
became known as the Schurman Commission. Their group arrived on the Philippines on February 4,
1899. The commission proposed the following:

1. Establish civil governments in areas were peace and order had been restored
2. Set up a bicameral legislature with members of the lower house to be all elective
3. Appoint American and Filipino member of the Upper house to head the cabinet
4.Preserve Philippine natural resources
5. Create a civil service system
6. Assign highly qualified Filipinos to important government positions

The US Congress adopted all the recommendation of the Schurman commission.

The Taft Commission

 
On March 16, 1900, United States President William McKinley appointed the then Judge William
Howard Taft to head the second Philippine Commission, which would also be known as the Taft
Commission. Taft would become Governor-General of the Philippines and later, the president of the U.S.
McKinley wanted to hasten the transition of the Philippine military government into a civil one. The
Taft Commissions was given executive and legislative powers it could use to achieve the
President’s objective.
The Commission arrives in the Philippines on June 3, 1900. It began legislative work on September 1,
the first law it passed set aside P2 million for the construction of treads and bridges. From September
1900 to August 1902, the Commission was able to enact 440 pieces of legislation for the Philippines.
Some of these laws included the Municipal and Provincial codes, which established municipal and
provincial governments all over the country, and laws organizing the Philippine Constabulary and the
countries judicial system. Aside from enacting laws the commissions also visited various provinces and
help it in the government peace efforts.

The Spooner Amendment

 
The modification sponsored by Senator John C. Spooner, allowed the US president to fully administer
the Philippines. Thus, the military government of the Philippines was replaced with a civil one albeit
temporary pending the legislation of permanent colonial government by the United States.
 

Civil Government under Taft

 

The Philippine civil government was inaugurated on July 4, 1901, with William Howard Taft as its first
governor, the powers and duties of a governor were passed on to Taft. The Taft Commission continuing
functioning as legislative body. Cayetano Arellano was the first Filipino to hold a high position of
government he was named Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on May 28, 1899. Gregorio Araneta was
appointed as Secretary of Justice and finance. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose
Luzuriaga were selected as members of the Philippine Commissions. Continue to  The Philippine
Commonwealth.

The Philippine Commonwealth Era

The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in Philippine history from 1935 to 1945
in preparation for independence from the United States as provided for under the Philippine
Independence Act or more popularly known as the Tydings-McDuffie Law. The Commonwealth era was
interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth
government, led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into exile in the U.S., Quezon died of
tuberculosis while in exile and Osmeña took over as president. At the same time, the Japanese forces
installed a puppet government in Manila headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. This government is
known as the Second Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944, the Allied forces led by Gen. Douglas
MacArthur landed on the island of Leyte to liberate the Philippines from the Japanese. Japan formally
surrendered in September 2, 1945.
After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored. Congress convened in its first regular
session on July 9, 1945. It was the first time the people’s representatives have assembled since their
election on November 11, 1941. Manuel Roxas was elected Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was
chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was speaker of the house, while Prospero Sanidad became
speaker pro Tempore. The first law of this congress, enacted as commonwealth act 672, organized the
central bank of the Philippines. The commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of collaboration. In
September 1945 the counter intelligence corps presented the people who were accused of having
collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included were prominent Filipinos who had
been active in the puppet government that the Japanese had been established. ”A Peoples Court" was
created-to-investigate-and-decide-on-the-issue.

Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth elections were held on April 23, 1946. Sergio
Osmeña and Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus becoming the last president of the
Philippine Commonwealth. The Commonwealth era formally ended when the United States granted
independence to the Philippines, as scheduled on July 4, 1946.
 
Important legislations and events during the American period that made the Philippines a
commonwealth of the United States.

The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act

 
United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored the Philippine Bill of 1902, also known as the
Cooper Act. The bill proposed the creation and administration of a civil government in the
Philippines. President Theodore Roosevelt signed it into law in July 2, 1902.
 
Here are some of the more important provisions of the Cooper Act:
 
▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine government by the president of the U.S., such as
the establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the civil governor and the Supreme court

▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos except the right of trial by jury

▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house and a still-
to-be-elected Philippine Assembly as the Lower House

▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who was also president of the Philippine
Commission

▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating authority for non-Christian tribes

▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and other lower courts

▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who would represent the Philippines in the
US Congress but would not enjoy voting rights
▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources
 
The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first before the Philippine Assembly could be
establishing these were the:
 
▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines
▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the census
The Philippine Assembly
 
The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the Manila Grand Opera House, with US
secretary of War William Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio Osmeña was elected Speaker while
Manuel Quezon was elected Majority Floor leader. The Recognition of the Philippine Assembly paved
the way for the establishment of the bicameral Philippine Legislature. The Assembly functioned as the
lower House, while the Philippine Commission served as the upper house.
 
Resident Commissioners
 
Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first commissioners. Other Filipinos who occupied this
position included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, TeodoroYangco, IsaroGabaldon, and Camilo Osias.
 

The Jones Law

 
To further train the Filipinos in the art of government, the U.S. Congress enacted the Jones Law
on August 29, 1916. It was the first official document that clearly promised the Philippine independence,
as stated in its preamble, as soon as a stable government was established. The Jones Law or the
Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of 1902 as the framework of the Philippine
government. It provides for the creation of the executive powers. The vice governor general, assisted by
his Cabinet, would exercise executive powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the Secretary
of Education.
 

Creation of the Council of State

 
Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Governor General
Francis Burton Harrison issued an executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first Council of
State in the Philippines. It was the Council’s duty to advise the governor general on matters such as
the creation of policies for administering government offices.
 
The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the governor general called for one. It was
composed of the governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of the Lower House, and
the Senate president. During Harrison’s term, the executive and legislative branches of government
worked harmoniously with each other.
 
The Os-Rox Mission
 
One delegation, however, that met with partial success was the Os-Rox Mission, so called
because it was headed by Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox group went to the United
States in 1931 and was able to influence the U.S. Congress to pass a pro-independence bill by
Representative Butter Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Law provided for a 10-year transition period before the United States would recognize Philippine
independence. U.S. President Herbert Hoover did not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified
it. When the Os-Rox Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law to the Philippine Legislature, it was
rejected by the American High Commissioner representing the US president in the country and the
Philippine Senate, specifically the provision that gave the U.S. president the right to maintain land and
other properties reserved for military use. Manuel Quezon was tasked to head another independence
mission to the United States.
 

The Tydings-McDuffie Law

In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to

the Philippines from the United States with a
slightly amended version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
bill authored by Senator Milliard Tydings and
representative McDuffie. President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, the new U.S. president, signed it into law
on March 24, 1934. The Tydings-McDuffie Act
(officially the Philippine Independence Act of the
United States Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more
popularly known as the TheTydings-McDuffie Law provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth
government for a period of ten years preparatory to the granting of Independence.

The Philippine Independence Act is a U.S. law that provided for Philippine independence. It is a
slightly revised version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill passed by the U.S. Congress in 1933 but was
vetoed by U.S. President Herbert Hoover. The U.S. Congress overrode the veto but was rejected by the
Philippine Senate upon urgings of Manuel L. Quezon. Quezon wanted an amended bill. The new bill
named, The Philippine Independence Act was authored by Senator Milliard Tydings (Democrat) and
Representative John McDuffie (Democrat). The new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, signed it into law
on March 24, 1934.
Salient provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie Law:

1. The organization of constitutional Convention that draw up the fundamental law of the land.
2.  The election of the leaders of Philippine Commonwealth.
3. The recognition of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946.
4. The right of United States to establish military bases in the country.
5. Granting the United States president the power to call on all military forces of the Philippines into
service.
6. Reclassifying all Filipinos as aliens and limiting immigration to the United Sates to 50 persons per year.

The Tydings-McDuffie law also specified that the Philippines would practice neutrality. Meaning, it could
not go to war without permission of the United States except when it had to protect itself.

The Philippine Legislature ratified the Tydings-McDuffie law on May 1, 1934. From then on, Filipinos
busied themselves with preparations for the establishment of the Commonwealth government.
Lesson 5 (Japanese Occupation of the Philippines)

On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the

Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first
attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was
attacked, then on December 22, The Japanese forces
landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to
Manila. General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila
an open city on the advice of commonwealth
President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction.
Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2,
1942. MacArthur retreated with his troops to Bataan
while the commonwealth government withdrew to
Corregidor island before proceeding to the United
States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in
Bataan finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then proceeded to
Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the infamous "Death March" to a
prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger
and exhaustion.

The Huks

In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of

Pampanga banded together and created local brigades for
their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino,
and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in
February 1942 in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they
agreed to fight the Japanese as a unified guerrilla army.
Another meeting was held the following month, where in
representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija
threshed out various details regarding their organization,
which they agreed to call "Hukbo ng Bayan Laban
samgaHapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc was chosen to be the
Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man.
The members were simply known as Huks!
The Philippine Executive Commission
 
In accordance with the instructions of President
Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the Filipino officials in
Manila were told to enter into agreements and
compromises with the Japanese to mitigate the
sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the
Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine
Executive Commission was established, with Vargas as
chairman. the following was appointed as department
heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas,
finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro M. Recto,
education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin
Paredes, public works and communication; Jose Yulo
was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.
 
The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory Commission for
Philippine Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution for a free Philippines.
Jose Laurel became its head. Against the will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on
July 10, 1943. Two months later it was ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political party
allowed to exist at that time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "KapisanansaPaglilingkodsaBagongPilipinas".

The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935
constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in effect only temporarily, while
the Philippines still in chaos. After the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new
Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

 
On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership
of its director general, Benigno Aquino Sr. held a party
convention to elect 54 members of the National Assembly.
The Assembly was actually made up of 108 members; but
half of this number was composed of incumbent governors
and city mayors. Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of
the second republic (the first republic was
Aguinaldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr.
& Ramon Avancena as a vice-presidents. The new republic
was inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the front steps of
the legislative building in Manila. The Philippine flag was
hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese started using propaganda to gain
the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They hung giant posters and
distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the Philippines belong to the Filipinos." they also
used newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was
one of the main objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.
Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns
 
From Australia, allied forces slowly advanced toward
the Philippines, bombing several Japanese strongholds until
they regained control of areas previously occupied by the
enemy. The bombings began on September 21 1944, and
barely a month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans
landed triumphantly in Leyte. Once ashore, General Douglas
MacArthur said; "I have Returned."
 
Sergio Osmeña was Part of MacArthur’s group. He had taken
over Manuel L. Quezon as president after the latter past way
at Saranac Lake, New York on August 1944. From October 23
to October 26, 1944 the Americans engaged Japanese forces
in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle
in World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the
entire Japanese fleet and rendered in incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte
Gulf is said to have signaled the beginning of Philippine liberation from the Japanese.
 
By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese, meanwhile, secured
other area where they thought other American units would land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces
successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt.
Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme commander of the Japanese troops in Manila, mobilize his
kamikazes (Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also
deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds.
 
On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders of Yamashita, who
is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront
stretching along the Sierra Madre Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

Philippine Independence from the Americans

Freedom is among the rights that Filipinos did not enjoy

during the Spanish rule. It was a struggle for the
Philippine revolutionary leaders to achieve independence
from foreign power. The Filipinos fought countless
battles, resulting to bloody revolutions since the 19th
century under the Spanish government. The Filipino
forces were persistent to achieve independence for the
country. In 1896, the Philippine Revolution started which
incriminated Jose Rizal resulting to his execution on
allegations of treason and rouse the Katipunan in Cavite
to organize in two groups creating conflict. At the break
of the Spanish-American war, the Filipino leaders saw the war between Spain and America as an
opportunity to free the Philippines from the claws of the Spanish colony; hence,supportedthe United
States with military forces including indispensable intelligence. America summoned Aguinaldo to return
to the Philippines from exile and with confidence towards the pleasant US relations, Aguinaldo
anticipated independence from Spain with the help of America. Returning to the Philippines and leading
the Filipino troops to hold the fort of Luzon with success except for Intramuros, Aguinaldo declared the
Philippine Independence from the Spanish colonial government on June 12, 1898 under the First
Philippine Republic. The Philippine National flag was held up, and swayed proudly before the joyous
cries of the Filipinos by 4:20 in the afternoon at General Aguinaldo’s balcony of his mansion in Kawit,
Cavite. Albeit, the fact that Spain lost the battle to the Filipino troops, Admiral George Dewey schemed
to convince the Spaniards to surrender to America. It was an act of betrayal by America that no sooner
short-lived the celebration of Philippine independence when America annexed the Spanish colonies to
include the Philippines. The Filipino forces were determined to continue their efforts against imperialist
power leading to a bloody fight against the American Army in February 1899 when America refused to
grant Philippines the long-sought Independence.

The Philippine-American War erupted in February 4, 1899 in the struggle of the Filipinos

for freedom conflicting with the interests of America to become a world power by establishing overseas
empire to include the Philippines under the US imperial rule. The Filipino forces applied conventional,
then guerrilla tactics in fighting against the US army as they become fully aware, under the leadership
of General Emilio Aguinaldo, of the strength of the US military heavily equipped with superior
firearms. Although, General Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, the insurgencies, particularly by the
Muslim Moros in the Southern part of the Philippines continued. Nonetheless, America was preparing
Philippines for independence that started with the creation of civil government. The US President
Woodrow Wilson promised Philippine Independence and started to entrust authority over Filipino
leaders with the establishment of the Philippine Senate by a democratic election. The Philippine
Commonwealth, with elected President Manuel L. Quezon, was instituted in 1935 under the Tydings-
McDuffie Act that granted Philippines its self-government, although the legislative power was not
absolute, which still required approval from the US President. At that time, it was a good start towards
the-eventual-Philippine-Independence.

When the events were gearing towards Philippine independence as promised by the United States of
America, the Japanese invasion and occupation bolstered in a surprise. Bataan was surrendered to the
Japanese but President Quezon along with Osmeña fled to America. World War II broke out that created
immense damage to Filipinos with roughly about one million casualties. After the war, Manuel
Roxas waselected President in April 1946 for the independent Second Republic of the Philippines. In a
formal declaration, the American flag was lowered in Luneta, Manila and raised the Filipino National flag
in tri-color of red, white, and blue looked up by proud Filipinos. Finally, independence was granted to
the Republic of the Philippines dated July 4, 1946. The National anthem of the Philippines was played
next to America’s. It was indeed a moment of liberating glory, for all Filipinos after pools of blood were
shed-in-many-revolution.

July 4, however, holds less inspiration for the Filipinos according to the elected President of the Republic
of the Philippines in 1961, DiosdadoMacapagal. Macapagal believes that the June 12, 1896 declaration
of the Philippine independence by General Emilio Aguinaldo brings to memory the heroes of the
revolution and therefore, Philippine independence is best commemorated in honor of the Filipino
revolutionary heroes. Hence, President Macapagal changed the date of celebration of the Philippine
independence from July 4 to June 12, which the Filipinos celebrate each year up to this time.