RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 1

Redesigning the Learning Environment of

Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the related literature and studies examined by the

researcher. This will also present the theoretical framework used to fully understand the

project to be done.

History of Education

Local Trends on Creating Positive Learning Environment.

The Philippine government has exerted efforts to deliver accessible, relevant,

and liberating basic education. The spending for the education sector has increased by

sixty (60%) percent (World Bank Group & Australian aid, 2016). As a part of this on-

going movement, the government has updated the school curriculum, increased the

hiring of teachers, and provided improved learning materials and additional classrooms.

The focus of changes in the school infrastructure was on improving building resiliency

to typhoons. Alongside these changes, DepEd has also produced new sets of guidelines

for implementing an “evidence-based” and “student-centered” planning approach for

public schools DepEd Educational Facilities Manual, 2010). In terms of community

involvement in the children’s education, the DepEd has introduced programs that

involve the parents in the formation of their students’ learning environment. This

program is in the form of “Brigada Eskwela” where parents, teachers, students, alumni,

etc., dedicate their time and efforts in school maintenance (DepEd Memorandum no.

36, s. 2019).
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 2
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Despite these improvements, it can be observed that most of the public

elementary schools, especially in the provinces and rural areas, are unmaintained, and

poorly designed (World Bank Group & Australian aid, 2016). The process focuses on

the classroom unit, rather than using the whole school environment as a tool to motivate

and help students in learning. There is a need for a paradigm shift in school architecture

and planning.

In comparison, private schools have already started applying new theories on

education and student learning environments. Two of these are the Montessori and

Waldorf schools. Although their curriculum is very different, there are still general

learning environment design theories that can be borrowed and applied in the context

of the public school design.

International Trends on Creating Positive Learning Environment.

The twentieth-century started the sudden expansion of the public school

population and an increase in public school numbers. This was an effect of political and

social change around the world (Global trends in education, n.d.). The twenty-first-

century education theme revolves around connectivity, technology, and the

development of life and career skills. These changes in the learning theory sparked the

transformation of school spaces. According to an analysis by Volkman and Stang

(2015) innovative learning spaces, especially in English-speaking countries, are already

developing at a fast pace. The trend right now is finding ways to keep up with the rapid

transformation of the learning environment through flexibility, connectivity, and spaces

for social and educational encounters. Most institutions are turning to more informal,

flexible, and high-tech learning spaces. It is well-known that the perfect learning
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 3
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

environment design should go beyond the introduction of new furniture and renovated

classrooms. (p.5-6).

Architecture for Education

School architecture should be responsive to the changes in the economical,

cultural, social, and ecological aspects of its area.

The building orientation should be considered to promote ease in providing

comfortable and energy efficient spaces. Different configurations should be applicable

to school space design. The space is flexible if it can accommodate

Conducive Environment for Learning.

A positive learning environment influences a student’s development, well-

being, and achievements. The proper use of school resource inputs can produce desired

student outputs. The connectivity between the school community can highly encourage

individual and group engagement in improved learning and performance (Organisation

for Economic Co-operation & Development, 2010). These ideas create a positive

learning environment framework that includes the concepts of learning, learning

environment, and physical environment (p. 17). This shows that in creating the best

learning environment, the curriculum, teachers, community, and school physical

environment must work hand in hand to nurture the students’ learning.

There are two existing variables in a school’s physical environment namely,

within the classrooms and the vast outdoor space between them. The classroom

environment, where formal learning occurs should encourage comfort and creativity.

The outdoor spaces in between open the opportunity for students to learn soft skills
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 4
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

through spaces that foster social interactions through activities and play, and

architecture that strengthens their community’s cultural identity.

Indoor Environment Design Considerations

Many combined factors influence the psychological and physiological

conditions of students and teachers, including the indoor environment quality, which

has a great effect on student performance. Cao et al. (2012) stated that the comfort of

students in their classrooms is affected by multiple elements present in the classroom.

According to Baker (2011), many types of research have derived different approaches

in assessing the school building environment but the most relevant idea is, the comfort

of the students and teachers as an indicator of good design.

Indoor Environment Quality. The Minimum Standards and Specifications for

DepEd School considered the indoor environment quality as good classroom

design parameters that contribute to improved student performance (Republic

of the Philippines Department of Education, 2017, p.1). An article in the U.S.

Green Building Council defined indoor environment quality as the conditions

existing inside a building that affects the occupants. These include air quality,

lighting, thermal conditions, and ergonomics (Green Building 101,2014).

Barret, P. et al (2015) further grouped the same criteria into three general

categories - Naturalness, Individualization, and Stimulation. Lighting,

acoustics, thermal comfort, and air quality compose Naturalness.

Individualization encompasses ownership and flexibility. Stimulation includes

the complexity of space and color. His research presented Naturalness - lighting

quality (21%), temperature (12%), and air quality (16%), as the most influential

factors to students amounting to half of the effect on the user’s classroom

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 5
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

experience. Ideally, the design strategies that promote good indoor environment

quality should also produce an efficient building design. The Royal Institute of

British Architects (RIBA) articulated that the school should be able to address

the unique local circumstances of its facilities (Plotka, 2016). The authors

further stated that good design is composed of

a comfortable and responsive environment that effectively and

efficiently supports educational activities while minimizing operational

burdens and risks (p. 18).

Thermal Comfort. According to Baker (2011), thermal comfort is a key

element in balancing building efficiency and comfort. Before the invention of

air conditioning systems, buildings were highly dependent on passive

ventilation design strategies to achieve optimal room temperature. With the

onset of technological advances and the development of HVAC systems,

passive design strategies became neglected. Buildings, including schools, opted

to install mechanical ventilation for thermal control (Baker, 2011). This

required buildings to use more energy to power their air conditioning systems.

Researchers have been extensively studying the optimal temperature range

associated with human comfort for decades. Schools were a particular interest

in the studies due to their easily controllable environment, and ventilation

problems, due to the limited budget provided for school construction (Mendell

& Heath, 2005). Research findings show that higher temperatures and humidity

cause more discomfort for students, which affects their performance in tasks.

Thus, a cooler temperature is better for student learning (Barret et al., 2015).
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 6
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

According to the DepEd Educational Facilities Manual, a ‘thermally

comfortable’ classroom needs to be cool, pleasant, and satisfying. The

Philippine Green Building Council recommended the use of natural ventilation,

as a primary means to attain thermal comfort while the utilization of mechanical

ventilation systems should be secondary (DepEd, 2010, p.33). The following

are several design solutions included in the manual to improve thermal comfort

in classrooms:

1. Proper orientation of the school building with the long side along the

north-south direction to minimize solar heat gain and avoid direct

sunlight.

2. Designing eaves with relation to the lowest sun angle on June 21,

and December 21.

3. Creating buildings with narrow dimension for better passive

ventilation

4. Providing adequate fenestration to allow the maximum amount of

wind flow.

5. Placing plants in an optimal distance which promotes air motion.

6. A temperature of 70 degrees and 60 percent humidity is considered

an acceptable Thermal Environment.

A design research study by Herber, K., et al. (2017, p. 20), stated that

the building envelope is a contributor to the classroom’s thermal comfort. The

temperature radiated by the surrounding surfaces of the classroom affects its

overall thermal quality. Materials that insulate heat should be considered in

creating the building envelope.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 7
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

A portion of Baker's (2011, p. 48-51) study on k-12 classroom indoor

environment, focuses on the use of operable windows as a thermal control

device. Results show that students who had access to operable windows were

generally ‘less satisfied’ with their thermal environment. A thorough analysis

shows that this is due to the deteriorating conditions, wrong configuration and

orientation, different school environments, and other personal biases of the

users in window design. Students without access to windows were found to

often point out their preference for operable windows. Overall, Baker (2011)

summarized that there is a need to address the best practices for operable

windows system design.

Lighting. According to Herber, K. et al. (2017, p. 19), it is crucial to consider

the quality and quantity of light in a room. Proper lighting is one of the

fundamental needs of a good classroom indoor environment. Aside from

promoting visual comfort, it enables students to do their tasks with ease. There

are two general school lighting category, Daylighting, and Artificial lighting.

Daylighting. According to Barrett (2015), good natural lighting can

enhance the mental and physical comfort of students. The Ministry of

Education (n.d., p. 7) stated that a study in the USA found that natural

lighting can improve student performance by twenty percent (20%). Its

subtle value and color are generally pleasing to the eyes compared to

artificial lights. Daylighting helps save electricity and money, for much

of the school’s energy needs are for lighting. However, natural light still
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 8
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

needs to be supplemented by artificial light once the sun fades into night.

According to Baker's (2011) study, students with access to windows,

that let in natural light, were predominantly more satisfied in their

classroom IEQ than those with no windows. The downside of

daylighting is the lack of control without the use of shading systems and

curtains. Schools that often use visual presentations and projectors in

class are disadvantaged.

Artificial Lighting. Teachers are shown to prefer controlled lighting for

different school activities (Ministry of Education, n.d., p.6). This is an

advantage of using artificial or electric lighting. There are two types of

artificial lighting in classrooms - task and ambient lighting. Task

lighting is used during tasks that require a high level of light. It also

supplements ambient lighting (p. 26). Ambient lighting is lighter and

more subtle than task lights and can be used during projection

presentations. Artificial lights are known to have several problems such

as glare and flickering, thus careful planning of the type of lighting

fixture and its location should be considered. Multiple light

configurations should also be planned to maximize the efficiency and

control of lighting for different activities.

Standards. DepEd (2010) has established several recommended

illuminations for various classroom activities. The adequate illuminance

for a standard classroom is ten (10) foot candles. For common tasks, the

recommended level is twenty (20) to forty (40) foot candles. Other

recommended illumination value for different tasks are as follows:

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 9
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

1. Reading printed materials 30 foot candles

2. Reading pencil writing 70 foot candles

3. Reading good duplicated materials 30 foot candles

4. Reading poor duplicated materials 100 foot candles

5. Lip reading, sewing 150 foot candles

According to the DepEd Educational Facilities Manual (2010,

p.33-34), using natural lighting should be considered over artificial

lighting. The following are several lighting design solutions included in

the manual:

1. Proper orientation of building and fenestrations

2. Use of bilateral fenestration, or provide windows on both

sides of the room

3. Wide, windows to ensure maximum daylighting

4. Proper shading

Acoustics. Barrett et al. (2015, p. 24) defined room acoustics as the control of

sound within a classroom environment. Its general aim is to

provide comfortable and clear auditory perception, free from background

noises, to promote clear communication between students and teachers. Barret’s

finding show that acoustics is only a secondary factor in good classroom design,

although it is one of the significant elements in classroom design. It is crucial,

especially during small group activities, lectures, and visual presentations,

where too much background noise can impede student performance. Other
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 10
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

studies reviewed by the author indicated that acoustics quality has an impact on

student psychosocial and academic achievement.

Importance of Classroom Acoustics. According to a publication by the

Acoustical Society of America (ASA) and the American Speech-

Language-Hearing Association, the speech intelligibility caused by

excessive noise and sound reverberation can reduce learning. Good

classroom acoustics is advantageous to both students with normal

hearing and those with hearing problems for it improves the clarity of

the conversations in the classroom (Classroom Acoustics, p.1). It is also

critical to younger children who have yet to develop their vocabulary

since better hearing enables them to learn new languages faster.

DepEd (2010, p.34), identified four common sources of sounds in the

classroom – The teacher’s voice, background noise, intrusive sounds

from neighboring class and external sounds. The teacher’s voice should

be the clearest sound inside the classroom to disseminate instructions

with ease. The methods in improving classroom acoustics suggested in

the manual pertains to planning and zoning strategies. With the existing

constraints in each site, an alternative to the suggested solutions can be

applied through acoustical treatment on classroom materials which can

help in providing students with comfortable classroom acoustics.

Reverberation Time. According to ASA, the acceptable range for the

RT in a classroom is from 0.4 to 0.6 seconds. The Sabine equation

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 11
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

should be used to estimate the RT value of a built classroom. The

equation variables include classroom volume, surface area, and

absorption coefficient of different materials. RT values are reduced

through the introduction of ‘soft materials’ that increase the sound

absorption of the classroom surfaces (Classroom Acoustics, p.2).

Echoes. The echo is one of the unpleasant sounds that interfere

with sound intelligibility. It is essential to consider the placement of

absorptive materials to reduce echoes. Another strategy to lessen the

echo is to place a diffusive element to disperse sound in different

directions (p.3).

Useful Sound Reflections. In some cases, such as in larger rooms, sound

needs to be reflected better for it to reach the students. The use of

reflective ceiling materials can enhance wide room acoustics. The need

for sound reflection varies depending on the activity done within the

room. Rooms dedicated to lectures usually make use of reflective

surfaces (p.3).

Interior and Exterior Noise Sources. Sounds heard through the walls

between classrooms, or from outside the room are particularly

distracting. They often interfere with the teacher or the students’ voice

during class discussions. Most of the ASA suggested strategies for

countering this problem are made for mechanically ventilated rooms,

such as closing windows, and properly sealing widow gaps to prevent

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 12
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

sound from entering the room. Naturally ventilated classrooms may

adjust door placement to alleviate the problem. They should be placed

in a way that the sound has a longer path to travel between doors,

reducing the loudness of sound that enters the room (p.5).

Theoretical Framework

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework

This theoretical framework will be the guiding principle of the study. Figure 1

shows the interrelationship between the several variables, generated based on the

studies discussed in the review of related literature. This framework revolves around

the idea that designing a comfortable indoor environment leads to ideal classroom

design. The identified assessable IEQ components that can be directly affected by the

architectural fabric of the classroom are thermal comfort, lighting, and acoustics. The

model further suggests that ideal classroom design can be achieved by considering these

IEQ components when designing classrooms.

Outdoor Landscape Design Considerations.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 13
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Basic Design Elements. To create a common vocabulary between the users of

the school and the designers, Stine (1997), listed different design elements that

should be considered to strengthen the interaction between the student and the

environment.

1. Accessible and Inaccessible. The spaces should be clearly defined

whether it is accessible or inaccessible to avoid confusion in

children. The teacher can limit a child’s activity and choices through

physical inaccessibility or create spaces that foster independent or

group learning. Creating accessible areas provide spaces where

children can explore. Inaccessible spaces, on the other hand, can be

viewed as a limitation in learning, or a safety provision. Considering

the characteristics of a child, the most accessible place for them is

the ground, as they are limited by the height that they could reach

and see. Making spaces that can be climbed, such as mounds and

decks, give the children the opportunity to view the world in a

different vantage point.

2. Active and Passive. Outdoor spaces are often viewed as an area

where children are physically active and loud. Being outdoors does

not mean that children should always engage in vigorous activities.

Similar to the adults, they can also be spaces that are “peaceful, calm,

relaxing, and meditative.”

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 14
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

3. Challenge, Risk and Repetition, and Security. Physical challenge is

equal to physical risk. However, by taking challenges and risks,

children learn their limitations. It is importance since children’s

abilities are also developed through challenges. Spaces should be

designed for the children to be able to face challenging activities

with a reduced amount of risks. They should also be able to repeat

activities as a way of practicing their growing skills. According to

Stine (1997), there is comfort and security in repetition (pp30).

4. Hard and Soft. The hardness or softness of the surface of the space

can define the activities that can be done on an area. Soft surfaces

such as grass, rugs, and sand are designed for soft play. Hard

surfaces cater to activities that require cleanliness and easy

maintenance. These include cooking, painting, and playing wheel

toys. The downside of hard surfaces is its impersonal quality due to

its resistance to human imprints. It is less receptive to children’s

needs.

5. Natural and People Built. Children should be given objects which

they could tinker with. This helps them learn how things are built

and how they work. The interaction between children and nature

should be strengthened as it enriches their sensory experience and

teaches them to value and protect the world they live in (pp. 31-33).
RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 15
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

6. Open and Closed. This refers to the activities that the students

engage in around the school. Open activities that encourage

exploration and creativity without the constraints of having specific

end goals are housed in open environments. These activities and

spaces provide the students multiple options on

School Space Configurations

Public Space Design Theory Types of School Spaces

According to the Public Space Theory paper published by Nair and

Gehling (2008) explores the idea of applying Jan Gehl’s public space theory to

today’s school spaces. Gehl’s theory, published in his book ‘Life Between

Buildings’, discusses how the modernist movement has neglected the

importance of multifunctional spaces, in favor of a car-centric development.

This is important as it acknowledges the social nature of people. The same can

be said with the factory model design of schools that were built for classes

instead of individuals. It also tends to create a lot of corridor spaces which only

function as thoroughfares, producing wasted space. These spaces in between

formal learning classrooms should be designed to function as informal learning

spaces. Gehling summarized good public space features into three categories;

‘Market place’, ‘Thoroughfare’, and ‘Meeting place’.

Marketplace. Generally concerned with areas that involve the

transaction of ideas or performance. In the school setting these may include

learning theaters, and libraries (p.27). These can also be spaces where the

artworks of students can be displayed (p.29).

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 16
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Thoroughfare. are public spaces that encourage people to move. These

should have destinations at both ends and along the way (p.27). In the school

setting, this should be used to access different spaces as well as functioning as

informal learning spaces (p. 29).

Meeting place. are spaces that encourage people to stay and chat (p. 27).

In the school setting these are places for gathering such as pavilions and seats

for personal or group meetings. These are spaces where students can learn from

each other in a peer setting (p.29).

Small Learning Communities. The Small Learning Communities

model of Nair and Fielding (2013) is a translation of the Public Space

Theory to school design which can be summarized as having small

schools within the school. It is currently being applied in American

public schools, which implements a curriculum close to our own. This

theory aims to bridge the gap between the ideal learning space design

principles and the actual case of having substandard school facilities.

The planning involves different configurations of spaces which offers

different opportunities and experiences in learning. The figure below

shows the overall arrangement of the school zones.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 17
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Figure 2: Small Learning Communities

Learning Space Models

The Small learning communities Classroom space models are further

grouped in different models namely, Crow School, Learning Suites, and

Primordial Learning Modalities.

Ford Model. This model is dominated by long corridors serving rows of

classrooms. This is the traditional school model which is designed for

industrial style education, where the teacher is in control of the learning

process and students are expected to sit and listen.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 18
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Figure 3: Ford Model

Crow School. The crow school model (by Eero Saarinen, Perkins,

Wheeler, and Will) is characterized by an L-shaped classroom with

multiple spaces as centers of activities.

Figure 4: Crow School

Learning Suites. Flexible learning studios that can be combined to

create a collaborative space for learning.

Figure 5: Learning Suites

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 19
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Primordial Learning Modalities, Campfire, Cave, Watering Hole.

Campfire are spaces dedicated for learning processes such as

storytelling, or other similar activities. Caves are designed for

meditation, reflection, and individual learning. Watering hole are paces

dedicated for socializing.

Figure 6: Primordial Learning Modalities

Other Theories Related to School Innovation

The Third Teacher

Throughout the years, numerous educators have recognized the school

environment as the third teacher. A book published by the collaboration of three

global design firms contains a comprehensive discussion on different design

strategies that can be considered to transform teaching and learning

environments. It can be summarized into the following eight (8) major ideas

(Cannon Design's, VS America's, & Bruce Mau Design's, 2010):

1. Basic needs. It is necessary to ensure the safety, health, and wellness

of the students when desiging and planning schools.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 20
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

2. Minds at work. It highlights the need to create an environment that

fosters learning. It is important to note that teaching and learning

should shape the building.

3. Bodies in Motion. Spaces for children should be flexible and

dynamic in order to engage different types of learners. It should also

promote healthy play and reinforce the connection between physical

activity and well-being in fitness facilities.

4. Community connections. The rich cultural tradition of the students

and teachers presents an opportunity for design. School spaces

should resonate with the local culture of the community.

5. Sustainable schools. The unique school site features should be

highlighted through design. With the onset of several environmental

problems promoting sustainable design and practices is already a

given consideration for all types of projects.

6. Realm of the senses. A school environment rich in sensory

experience helps in a child’s learning process as well as influences

their mood. Multiple dimensions should be able to trigger their sense

of sound, smell, sight, touch, taste, and movement. The overall

experience should be developmentally appropriate.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 21
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

7. Learning for all. School learning environments should be engaging,

vibrant, and inclusive, taking into account multiple developmental

perspectives.

8. Rewired Learning. School design should be focused on the children

and their ventures into learning and its practical applications. Spaces

that support their different activities, such as workshops, should be

provided. Most of all, classrooms should be able to give

opportunities in expanding learning beyond its four walls.

Innovation Framework

Figure 7: Innovation Framework

This framework summarizes the areas of school design where innovation is

needed. Garnier (1989) suggested a model of the connection between different elements

that influence a student’s learning environment. It is composed of three elements,

sociosfera, Ecosfera, and Tecnosfera.

RETHINKING PUBLIC SCHOOL SPACES: 22
Redesigning the Learning Environment of
Puerto Princesa Pilot Elementary School

Ecosfera is linked to the interaction between the students and the physical

environment. The study divides this into two categories; the indoor and outdoor

environment. The indoor environment is concerned with designing based on comfort

parameters. The outdoor environment is designed as an extension space for learning.

Sociosfera is associated with social interactions between individuals. This can

be achieved providing zoned spaces for social and academic encounters.

Tecnosfera is the application of technology in the learning environment.