Coordinates: 21°N 78°E

India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: Bhārat
Gaṇarājya),[23] is a country in South Asia. It is the second- Republic of India

most populous country, the seventh-largest country by land Bhārat Gaṇarājya

area, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded (see other local names)
by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the
southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares
land borders with Pakistan to the west;[f] China, Nepal, and
Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the
east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka
and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a
maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia. Flag
State emblem

Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)

Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[24]

Their long "Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter- Anthem: "Jana Gana Mana"[2][3]
gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to "Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All
Africa in human genetic diversity.[25] Settled life emerged on People"[4][2]

the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river 0:00 MENU
basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus
Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[26]
By National song

1200  BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European "Vande Mataram" (Sanskrit)

"I Bow to Thee, Mother"[a][1][2]

language, had diffused into India from the northwest,[27]
unfolding as the language of the Rigveda, and recording the
dawning of Hinduism in India.[28] The Dravidian languages of
India were supplanted in the northern and western
regions.[29]
By 400 BCE, stratification and exclusion by caste
had emerged within Hinduism,[30]
and Buddhism and
Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to
heredity.[31]
Early political consolidations gave rise to the
loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges
Basin.[32]
Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging
creativity,[33] but also marked by the declining status of
women,[34] and the incorporation of untouchability into an
organised system of belief.[g][35] In South India, the Middle
kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious
cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[36] Area controlled by India shown in dark
green; regions claimed but not controlled
In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and shown in light green
Zoroastrianism put down roots on India's southern and Capital New Delhi

western coasts.[37]
Muslim armies from Central Asia 28°36′50″N
77°12′30″E
intermittently overran India's northern plains,[38]
eventually
establishing the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India Largest city Mumbai (city
proper)
into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.[39]
In the
Delhi (metropolitan
15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting
area)
composite Hindu culture in south India.[40]
In the Punjab, Official languages Hindi · English[b][7]
Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[41]
The Recognised None[8][9][10]
Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative national languages
peace,[42]
leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.[h][43] Recognised State level and
regional languages Eighth Schedule[11]
Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company
followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also Assamese · Bengali
consolidating its sovereignty.[44] British Crown rule began in · Bodo · Dogri ·
Gujarati · Hindi ·
1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[45] Kannada · Kashmiri
but technological changes were introduced, and ideas of · Kokborok ·
education, modernity and the public life took root.[46]
A Konkani · Maithili ·
pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, Malayalam ·
which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the Manipuri · Marathi ·
Mizo · Nepali · Odia
major factor in ending British rule.[47] In 1947 the British · Punjabi · Sanskrit ·
Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent Santali · Sindhi ·
dominions, a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Tamil · Telugu · Urdu
Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss Native languages 447 languages[c]
of life and an unprecedented migration.[48][49]
Religion (2011) 79.8% Hinduism
India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed in a 14.2% Islam
democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, 2.3% Christianity
multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew 1.7% Sikhism
from 361 million in 1951 to 1.211 billion in 2011.[50]
During the 0.7% Buddhism
same time, its nominal per capita income increased from 0.4% Jainism
US$64 annually to US$1,498, and its literacy rate from 16.6% 0.23% Unaffiliated
to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in
0.65% Others[14]
1951,[51]
India has become a fast-growing major economy and
a hub for information technology services, with an expanding Demonym(s) Indian
middle class.[52] It has a space programme which includes Membership UN,
several planned or completed extraterrestrial missions. Indian Commonwealth of
movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role Nations,
in global culture.[53]
India has substantially reduced its rate of WTO, BRICS,
SAARC, SCO,
poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic
G4 nations,
inequality.[54]
India is a nuclear-weapon state, which ranks Group of Five,
high in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir G8+5, G20
with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the
Government Federal
mid-20th century.[55]
Among the socio-economic challenges parliamentary
India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,[56]
and constitutional
rising levels of air pollution.[57]
India's land is megadiverse, republic
with four biodiversity hotspots.[58] Its forest cover comprises • President Ram Nath Kovind
21.7% of its area.[59] India's wildlife, which has traditionally • Vice President Venkaiah Naidu
been viewed with tolerance in India's culture,[60] is supported • Prime Minister Narendra Modi
among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats. • Chief Justice N. V. Ramana
• Lok Sabha Om Birla
Speaker
Legislature Parliament
Contents • Upper house Rajya Sabha
• Lower house Lok Sabha
Etymology
History Independence from the United Kingdom
Ancient India • Dominion 15 August 1947
• Republic 26 January 1950
 Medieval India Area
Early modern India • Total 3,287,263[2] km2
(1,269,219 sq mi)[d]
Modern India (7th)
Geography • Water (%) 9.6

Biodiversity Population
• 2018 estimate
Politics and government 1,352,642,280[15][16]
Politics (2nd)
Government • 2011 census 1,210,854,977[17][18]
Administrative divisions (2nd)
• Density 411.7/km2
Foreign, economic and strategic relations (1,066.3/sq mi)
(19th)
Economy
Industries GDP (PPP) 2021 estimate
Energy • Total $10.207 trillion[19]
(3rd)
Socio-economic challenges
• Per capita $7,333[19]
Demographics, languages, and religion (122nd)

Culture GDP (nominal) 2021 estimate

Visual art • Total $3.050 trillion[19]
(6th)
Architecture and literature
• Per capita $2,191[19] (145th)
Performing arts and media
Society Gini (2011) 35.7[20]

medium · 98th
Education
Clothing HDI (2019)  0.645[21]

medium · 131st
Cuisine
Sports and recreation Currency Indian rupee (₹)
(INR)
See also
Time zone UTC+05:30 (IST)
Notes DST is not observed
References Date format dd-mm-yyyy[e]
Bibliography
Mains electricity 230 V–50 Hz
External links
Driving side left[22]
Calling code +91
Etymology ISO 3166 code IN
Internet TLD .in (others)
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (third edition
2009), the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin
India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east; and in turn derived successively
from: Hellenistic Greek India ( Ἰνδία); ancient Greek Indos ( Ἰνδός); Old Persian Hindush, an eastern
province of the Achaemenid empire; and ultimately its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or "river,"
specifically the Indus River and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.[61][62] The ancient
Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ἰνδοί (https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcode
s_name.php?code_ID=)), which translates as "The people of the Indus".[63]
The term Bharat (Bhārat; pronounced  [ˈbʱaːɾət] ( listen)), mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the
Constitution of India,[64][65] is used in its variations by many Indian languages. A modern rendering of
the historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied originally to northern India,[66][67] Bharat gained
increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.[64][68]

Hindustan ([ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] ( listen)) is a Middle Persian name for India, introduced during the Mughal
Empire and used widely since. Its meaning has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day
northern India and Pakistan or to India in its near entirety.[64][68][69]

History

Ancient India

By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo

A 19th-century manuscript of the Rigveda,
composed orally, 1500–1200 BCE;[70] the
manuscript uses a 14th-century script style.
sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from
Africa, where they had earlier evolved.[72][73][74] The
earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date
to about 30,000 years ago.[75] After 6500  BCE, evidence
for domestication of food crops and animals, construction
of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural
surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in what is
now Balochistan, Pakistan.[76] These gradually developed
into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[77][76] the first urban
culture in South Asia,[78] which flourished during 2500–
1900  BCE in what is now Pakistan and western India.[79]
Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa,
Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of
subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts
production and wide-ranging trade.[78]

During the period 2000–500  BCE, many regions of the

An illustration from an early-modern manuscript subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to
of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in the Iron Age ones.[80] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures
story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE – c. 300 CE.[71] associated with Hinduism,[81] were composed during this
period,[82] and historians have analysed these to posit a
Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic
Plain. [80] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan
migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[81] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of
priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their
occupations impure, arose during this period.[83] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from
this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[80] In South India, a
progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this
period,[84] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[84]

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain
and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were
known as the mahajanapadas.[85][86] The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious
movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life
of its exemplar, Mahavira.[87] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers
from all social classes excepting the middle class;
chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the
beginnings of recorded history in India.[88][89][90] In an
age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up
renunciation as an ideal,[91] and both established long-
lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century
BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced
other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[92] The
empire was once thought to have controlled most of the
subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are
now thought to have been separated by large autonomous
areas.[93][94] The Mauryan kings are known as much for A map of Ashoka's The map of India,
their empire-building and determined management of empire, c. 250 BCE c. 350 CE
public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and
far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[95][96]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that,

between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was
ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas,
dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire
and with West and South-East Asia.[97][98] In North India,
Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family,
leading to increased subordination of women.[99][92] By
the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a
Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves,
complex system of administration and taxation in the 5th century CE
greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later
Indian kingdoms.[100][101] Under the Guptas, a renewed
Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[102] This
renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban
elite.[101] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and
mathematics made significant advances.[101]

Medieval India

The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200  CE, is

defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[103]
When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-
Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647  CE, attempted to expand
southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the
Deccan.[104] When his successor attempted to expand
eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[104]
When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards,
they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who
in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from
still farther south.[104] No ruler of this period was able to
A map of India in Brihadeshwara temple, create an empire and consistently control lands much
1022 CE Thanjavur, completed beyond their core region.[103] During this time, pastoral
in 1010 CE peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the
growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional
ruling classes.[105] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[105]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[106] They
were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all
modern languages of the subcontinent.[106] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they
patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[107]
Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[107]
By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and
political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Java.[108] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes
armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many
sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[108]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic

clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies
united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South
Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the
establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[109]
The sultanate was to control much of North India and to
make many forays into South India. Although at first
disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its
vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and
customs.[110][111] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in
the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the
devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the
India in 1398 CE, The Qutub Minar,
scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned
during the Delhi 73 m (240 ft) tall,
men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that
Sultanate (labelled completed by the
region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic "Afghan empire") Sultan of Delhi,
Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[112][113] The sultanate's Iltutmish
raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South
India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara
Empire.[114] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the
sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[115] and was to influence South Indian
society for long afterwards.[114]

Early modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,[116] fell again to the superior
mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[117] The resulting Mughal Empire
did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new
administrative practices[118][119] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[120] leading to more systematic,
centralised, and uniform rule.[121] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar,
the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an
emperor who had near-divine status.[120] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues
from agriculture[122] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[123] caused
peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[121] The relative peace maintained by the empire during
much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[121] resulting in greater patronage
of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[124] Newly coherent social groups in northern and
western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing
 ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through
collaboration or adversity, gave them both
recognition and military experience.[125]
Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave
rise to new Indian commercial and political elites
along the coasts of southern and eastern
India.[125] As the empire disintegrated, many
among these elites were able to seek and control
their own affairs.[126]

By the early 18th century, with the lines between

commercial and political dominance being
increasingly blurred, a number of European
trading companies, including the English East
India in 1525 at the onset of India in 1605 during the rule
India Company, had established coastal
Mughal rule of Akbar
outposts.[127][128] The East India Company's
control of the seas, greater resources, and more
advanced military training and technology led it to
increasingly assert its military strength and
caused it to become attractive to a portion of the
Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing
the company to gain control over the Bengal
region by 1765 and sideline the other European
companies.[129][127][130][131] Its further access to
the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased
strength and size of its army enabled it to annexe
or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[132] India
was then no longer exporting manufactured goods
A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort as it long had, but was instead supplying the
British Empire with raw materials. Many
historians consider this to be the onset of India's
colonial period. [127] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament
and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the company began more consciously
to enter non-economic arenas like education, social reform, and culture.[133]

Modern India

Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The
appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for
changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty,
the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them,
railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in
Europe.[134][135][136][137] However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off
the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-
style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the
rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company
rule.[138][139] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India
Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state
and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and
landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[140][141] In the decades following, public life
gradually emerged all over India, leading
India under British East India Company rule
eventually to the founding of the Indian National
Congress in 1885.[142][143][144][145]

The rush of technology and the commercialisation

of agriculture in the second half of the 19th
century was marked by economic setbacks and
many small farmers became dependent on the
whims of far-away markets.[146] There was an
increase in the number of large-scale famines,[147]
and, despite the risks of infrastructure
development borne by Indian taxpayers, little
industrial employment was generated for
Indians.[148] There were also salutary effects:
commercial cropping, especially in the newly India in 1795 India in 1848
canalled Punjab, led to increased food production
for internal consumption.[149] The railway
network provided critical famine relief,[150]
notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[150] and
helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[149]

After World War I, in which approximately one

million Indians served,[151] a new period began. It
was marked by British reforms but also repressive
legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-
rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent A two mohur Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the
movement of non-co-operation, of which obverse inscribed "William IV, King"
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the
leader and enduring symbol.[152] During the
1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the
British; the Indian National Congress won
victories in the resulting elections.[153] The next
decade was beset with crises: Indian participation
in World War  II, the Congress's final push for
non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim
nationalism. All were capped by the advent of
independence in 1947, but tempered by the
partition of India into two states: India and
Pakistan.[154]

Vital to India's self-image as an independent

nation was its constitution, completed in 1950,
which put in place a secular and democratic
republic.[155] It has remained a democracy with
civil liberties, an active Supreme Court, and a 1909 map of the British Indian Empire
largely independent press.[156] Economic
liberalisation, which began in the 1990s, has
created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing
economies,[157] and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an
increasing role in global culture.[156] Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both
rural and urban;[156] by religious and caste-related violence;[158] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite
insurgencies;[159] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in
Northeast India.[160] It has unresolved territorial disputes with
China[161] and with Pakistan.[161] India's sustained democratic
freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in
spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its
disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[162]

Geography
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a light
the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate. [163] moment with Mohandas Karamchand
India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946
when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent
Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused
by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later,
south and south-east.[163] Simultaneously, the
vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began
to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.[163] These
dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's
mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused
the Indian continental crust eventually to under-
thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.[163]
Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas,
India's orographical features India's summer
plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly
monsoon
filled with river-borne sediment[164] and now
constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[165] Cut off
from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies
the Thar Desert.[166]

The original Indian Plate survives as peninsular

India, the oldest and geologically most stable part
of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and
Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel
chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat
in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau
in Jharkhand in the east.[167] To the south, the
remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Fishing boats lashed together before a monsoon storm in
a tidal creek in Anjarle village, Maharashtra.
Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal
ranges known as the Western and Eastern
Ghats;[168] the plateau contains the country's
oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the
north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude[i] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east
longitude.[169]

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700  mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres
(3,400  mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300  mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and
Lakshadweep island chains.[170] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland
coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46%
mudflats or marshy shores.[170]
 Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India
include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the
Bay of Bengal.[172] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the
Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by
long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course
changes.[173][174] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients
prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the
The Tungabhadra, with rocky Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay
outcrops, flows into the peninsular of Bengal;[175] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the
Krishna river.[171] Arabian Sea.[176] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch
of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India;
the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[177] India has two archipelagos:
the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a
volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[178]

The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the
economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[179] The Himalayas prevent cold
Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than
most locations at similar latitudes.[180][181] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the
moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the
majority of India's rainfall.[179] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet,
tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[182]

Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.[183] Climate change in India
is often thought to be the cause. The retreat of Himalayan glaciers has adversely affected the flow rate of
the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the Brahmaputra.[184] According to some current
projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the
present century.[185]

Biodiversity
India is a megadiverse country, a term employed
for 17 countries which display high biological
diversity and contain many species exclusively
indigenous, or endemic, to them.[186] India is a
habitat for 8.6% of all mammal species, 13.7% of
bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of
amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and
6.0% of all flowering plant species.[187][188] Fully a
third of Indian plant species are endemic.[189]
A 1909 map showing India's A 2010 map showing
India also contains four of the world's 34
forests, bush and small wood, India's forest cover
biodiversity hotspots,[58] or regions that display
cultivated lands, steppe, and averaged out for each
significant habitat loss in the presence of high desert. state.
endemism.[j][190]

India's forest cover is 99,278 km2 (38,331  sq  mi),

which is 21.67% of the country's total land area.[59] It can be subdivided further into broad categories of
canopy density, or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its tree canopy.[191] Very dense
forest, whose canopy density is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India's land area.[191][59] It
predominates in the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast
India.[192] Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of
India's land area.[191][59] It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist
deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern
India.[192] Open forest, whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India's land
area,[191][59] and predominates in the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan Plateau and
the western Gangetic plain.[192]

Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or
neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,[193] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or
peepul,[194] which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,[195] and under which the Buddha is
recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.[196]

Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana,

the southern supercontinent from which India separated more
than 100 million years ago.[198] India's subsequent collision
with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However,
volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of
many endemic Indian forms.[199] Still later, mammals entered
India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking
the Himalayas.[192] This had the effect of lowering endemism
among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting
with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[188]
India has the majority of the world's wild
Notable endemics are the vulnerable[200] hooded leaf
tigers, nearly 3,000 in 2019.[197]
monkey[201] and the threatened[202] Beddom's toad[202][203] of
the Western Ghats.

India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or

2.9% of endangered forms.[204] These include the endangered Bengal
tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species
include: the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the
Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by
having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.[205] The
pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent
decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the
system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, A Chital (Axis axis) stag attempts
was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife to browse in the Nagarhole
Protection Act[206] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; National Park in a region covered
the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments by a moderately dense[k]
added in 1988.[207] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife forest.[192]
sanctuaries and thirteen  biosphere reserves,[208] four of which are
part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five
wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[209]

Politics and government

Politics
India is the world's most populous democracy.[211] A parliamentary
republic with a multi-party system,[212] it has eight  recognised
national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.[213]
The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian political culture,[214]
and the BJP right-wing.[215][216][217] For most of the period between
1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the
Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it
has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[218] as well as Social movements have long been
with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of a part of democracy in India. The
picture shows a section of 25,000
multi-party coalition governments at the centre.[219]
landless people in the state of
Madhya Pradesh listening to
In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957,
Rajagopal P. V. before their
and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On
350 km (220 mi) march, Janadesh
Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime
2007, from Gwalior to New Delhi
minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966,
to publicise their demand for
by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress further land reform in India.[210]
to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with
the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted
out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed
the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over two years. Voted back into power in 1980,
the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was
succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The
Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata
Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived,
lasting just under two years.[220] Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority.
The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha
Rao.[221]

A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of

1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The
BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two
comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended
on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful
coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari
Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition
government to complete a five-year term.[222] Again in the 2004
At the Parliament of India in New Indian general elections, no party won an absolute majority, but the
Delhi, US president Barack Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another
Obama is shown here addressing successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the
the members of Parliament of support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The
both houses, the lower, Lok UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased
Sabha, and the upper, Rajya numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's
Sabha, in a joint session, 8
communist parties.[223] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first
November 2010.
prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-
elected to a consecutive five-year term.[224] In the 2014 general
election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a
majority and govern without the support of other parties.[225] The incumbent prime minister is Narendra
Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat. On 20 July 2017, Ram Nath Kovind was elected India's 14th
president and took the oath of office on 25 July 2017.[226][227][228]
Government

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the

Constitution of India—the country's supreme legal document. It is a
constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which
"majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law".
Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union
and the states. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26
January 1950,[230] originally stated India to be a "sovereign,
democratic republic;" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to "a Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official
sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic".[231] India's form of residence of the President of
government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong India, was designed by British
centre and weak states,[232] has grown increasingly federal since the architects Edwin Lutyens and
late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of
changes.[233][234] India, and constructed between
1911 and 1931 during the British
The Government of India comprises three branches:[235] Raj.[229]

Executive: The President of India is the ceremonial head of

state,[236] who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an National symbols[1]
electoral college comprising members of national and state
Flag Tiranga (Tricolour)
legislatures.[237][238] The Prime Minister of India is the head of
government and exercises most executive power.[239] Appointed Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
by the president,[240] the prime minister is by convention Anthem Jana Gana Mana
supported by the party or political alliance having a majority of
Song "Vande Mataram"
seats in the lower house of parliament.[239] The executive of the
Indian government consists of the president, the vice president, Language None[8][9][10]
and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its Currency ₹ (Indian rupee)
executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any
minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the Calendar Saka
houses of parliament. [236] In the Indian parliamentary system, the Animal Bengal tiger
executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and
their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the River dolphin
parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all Indian peafowl
decisions of the executive are implemented by them. [241]
Flower Lotus
Legislature: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament.
Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it Fruit Mango
comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of Tree Banyan
States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the
River Ganges
People).[242] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of
245 members who serve staggered six-year terms.[243] Most are
elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's
share of the national population.[240] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are elected directly
by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-year terms.[244] Two seats of
parliament, reserved for Anglo-Indian in the article 331, have been scrapped.[245][246]
Judiciary: India has a three-tier unitary independent judiciary[247] comprising the supreme court,
headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.[247] The
supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes
between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.[248] It has the
 power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution,[249] and invalidate
any government action it deems unconstitutional.[250]

Administrative divisions

India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories (listed below as 1–28 and A–H,
respectively).[251] All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the
National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster
system of governance. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government
through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised
on a linguistic basis.[252] There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town,
block, district and village levels.[253]

1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jharkhand
11. Karnataka
12. Kerala
13. Madhya Pradesh
14. Maharashtra
15. Manipur
16. Meghalaya
17. Mizoram
18. Nagaland
19. Odisha
20. Punjab
21. Rajasthan
22. Sikkim A clickable map of the 28 states and 8 union territories of India
23. Tamil Nadu
24. Telangana
25. Tripura
26. Uttar Pradesh
27. Uttarakhand
28. West Bengal
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and
Diu
D. Jammu and Kashmir
E. Ladakh
F. Lakshadweep
G. National Capital Territory of Delhi
H. Puducherry

Foreign, economic and strategic relations

During the 1950s and 60s, India
played a pivotal role in the Non-
Aligned Movement.[254] From left
to right: Gamal Abdel Nasser of
United Arab Republic (now
Egypt), Josip Broz Tito of
Yugoslavia and Jawaharlal Nehru
in Belgrade, September 1961.
In the 1950s, India strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and
Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[255]
After initially cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to
war with China in 1962, and was widely thought to have been
humiliated. India has had tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan;
the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and
1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of
Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's support
for the independence of Bangladesh.[256] In the late 1980s, the Indian
military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country:
a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and
an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'état attempt in the
Maldives. After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue
close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late
1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.[257]

Aside from ongoing its special relationship with Russia,[258] India has
wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has
provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four
continents. It participates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[259] India
has close economic ties with countries in South America,[260] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East"
policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that
revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional
security.[261][262]

China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965
war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[264] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in
1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions,
India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[265] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear
policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "Minimum Credible Deterrence"
doctrine.[266][267] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, a fifth-generation fighter
jet.[268][269] Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class
aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines.[270]

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with
the United States and the European Union.[271] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed
between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not
a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic
Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear
technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth
de facto nuclear weapons state.[272] India subsequently signed co-
operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with
Russia,[273] France,[274] the United Kingdom,[275] and Canada.[276]

The President of India is the

supreme commander of the
nation's armed forces; with The Indian Air Force contingent
1.45  million active troops, they marching at the 221st Bastille Day
compose the world's second-largest military parade in Paris, on 14 July
military. It comprises the Indian 2009. The parade at which India
Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian was the foreign guest was led by
Air Force, and the Indian Coast the India's oldest regiment, the
Prime Minister Narendra Modi of Guard. [277] The official Indian Maratha Light Infantry, founded in
India (left, background) in talks defence budget for 2011 was 1768.[263]
with President Enrique Peña Nieto US$36.03  billion, or 1.83% of
of Mexico during a visit to Mexico, GDP.[278] For the fiscal year
2016
spanning 2012–2013, US$40.44 billion was budgeted.[279] According
to a 2008 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)
report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing
power stood at US$72.7 billion. [280] In 2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,[281] although
this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government.[282] As of
2012, India is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds
spent on international arms purchases.[283] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence
against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[281] In May 2017, the
Indian Space Research Organisation launched the South Asia Satellite, a gift from India to its
neighbouring SAARC countries.[284] In October 2018, India signed a US$5.43 billion (over ₹400 billion)
agreement with Russia to procure four S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence systems, Russia's
most advanced long-range missile defence system.[285]

Economy
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2020 was nominally worth
$2.7  trillion; it is the sixth-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is around $8.9  trillion, the
third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[289] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8%
over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,[290] India is one of the world's fastest-
growing economies.[291] However, the country ranks 139th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and
118th in GDP per capita at PPP.[292] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies
that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled
the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to
liberalise its economy;[293] since then it has moved slowly towards a free-market system[294][295] by
emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[296] India has been a member of WTO
since 1 January 1995.[297]

The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as of 2017.[277] The service
sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's
foreign exchange remittances of US$70 billion in 2014, the largest in the world, were contributed to its
economy by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries.[298] Major agricultural products include:
rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[251] Major industries include: textiles,
telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport
equipment, cement, mining,
petroleum, machinery, and
software. [251] In 2006, the share of
external trade in India's GDP stood at
24%, up from 6% in 1985.[294] In
2008, India's share of world trade was
1.68%;[299] In 2011, India was the
world's tenth-largest importer and the
nineteenth-largest exporter.[300] Major
exports include: petroleum products,
textile goods, jewellery, software,
engineering goods, chemicals, and
manufactured leather goods.[251]
Major imports include: crude oil,
machinery, gems, fertiliser, and
chemicals.[251] Between 2001 and
A farmer in northwestern Karnataka ploughs his field with a tractor even
2011, the contribution of
as another in a field beyond does the same with a pair of oxen. In 2018,
petrochemical and engineering goods
44% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.[286]
to total exports grew from 14% to
42%.[301] India was the world's second
largest textile exporter after China in
the 2013 calendar year.[302]

Averaging an economic growth rate of

7.5% for several years prior to
2007,[294] India has more than
India is the world's largest Women tend to a recently planted rice
doubled its hourly wage rates during
producer of milk, with the field in Junagadh district in Gujarat.
the first decade of the 21st
largest population of cattle. In 57% of India's female workforce was
century.[303] Some 431 million Indians 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk employed in agriculture in 2018.[287]
have left poverty since 1985; India's was sourced from small farms
middle classes are projected to number with herd size between one and
around 580  million by 2030.[304] two, the milk harvested by hand
Though ranking 51st in global milking.[288]
competitiveness, as of 2010, India
ranks 17th in financial market
sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead
of several advanced economies.[305] With seven of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing
companies based in India, as of 2009, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing
destination after the United States.[306] India's consumer market, the world's eleventh-largest, is
expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.[304]

Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$329 in 1991, when
economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, to an estimated US$1,723 in 2016. It is expected to
grow to US$2,191 by 2021.[19] However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing
countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so
in the near future.

According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity
could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[308] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is
expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major
economy until 2050.[308] The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing
 working-age population;
growth in the manufacturing
sector because of rising
education and engineering
skill levels; and sustained
growth of the consumer
market driven by a rapidly
A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy.
growing middle-class.[308]
In the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in
India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the
The World Bank cautions that,
area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding
for India to achieve its
region.[307]
economic potential, it must
continue to focus on public
sector reform, transport
infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy
security, and public health and nutrition.[309]

According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the Economist Intelligence Unit
(EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and
services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: Bangalore (3rd), Mumbai (5th), Chennai (5th) and New
Delhi (8th).[310]

Industries

India's telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world

with over 1.2 billion subscribers. It contributes 6.5% to India's
GDP.[311] After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to
become the second largest smartphone market in the world after
China.[312]

The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing,

increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,[313] and exports A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the
by 36% during 2008–2009.[314] At the end of 2011, the Indian IT world's second largest-producer of
tea, is a nation of one billion tea
industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close
drinkers, who consume 70% of
to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26%
India's tea output.
of India's merchandise exports.[315]

The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant

emerging markets for the global pharmaceutical industry. The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected
to reach $48.5  billion by 2020. India's R & D spending constitutes 60% of the biopharmaceutical
industry.[316][317] India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.[318][319] The Indian biotech
industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from ₹204.4  billion (Indian rupees) to
₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).[320]

Energy

India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.[321]
The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable
energy is competing strongly.[322] India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates
to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.[323][324]
Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for
energy in India.[325]

Socio-economic challenges

Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to

Health workers about to begin
another day of immunisation
against infectious diseases in
2006. Eight years later, and three
years after India's last case of
polio, the World Health
Organization declared India to be
polio-free.[326]
face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the largest
number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty
line of US$1.25 per day.[327] The proportion decreased from 60% in
1981 to 42% in 2005.[328] Under the World Bank's later revised
poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.[l][330] 30.7% of India's children under
the age of five are underweight.[331] According to a Food and
Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is
undernourished.[332][333] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to
lower these rates.[334]
According to a 2016 Walk Free Foundation report there were an
estimated 18.3  million people in India, or 1.4% of the population,
living in the forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, child
labour, human trafficking, and forced begging, among
others.[335][336][337] According to the 2011 census, there were
10.1  million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6  million
from 12.6 million in 2001.[338]

Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state
domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[339] Corruption in India
is perceived to have decreased. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of
180 countries in 2018 with a score of 41 out of 100, an improvement from 85th in 2014.[340][341]

Demographics, languages, and religion

With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report,[342] India is the world's
second-most populous country. Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[343] compared to
21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[343] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011
census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[342] The median age was 28.7 as of 2020.[277] The first post-
colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million people.[344] Medical advances made in the last
50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have
caused India's population to grow rapidly.[345]

The average life expectancy in India is at 68 years—69.6 years for women, 67.3 years for men.[346] There
are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.[347] Migration from rural to urban areas has been an
important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2%
between 1991 and 2001.[348] Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.[349][350] The level of
urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The
slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in
rural areas since 1991.[351] According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations
in India; among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in
decreasing order by population.[352] The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and
82.14% among males.[353] The rural-
India by population density, religion, language
urban literacy gap, which was 21.2
percentage points in 2001, dropped to
16.1 percentage points in 2011. The
improvement in the rural literacy rate
is twice that of urban areas.[351] Kerala
is the most literate state with 93.91%
literacy; while Bihar the least with
63.82%.[353]

The population density of India by Population density of India by

natural divisions, based on the Indian each state, based on the
census of 1901 Indian census of 2011

The interior of San Thome

Basilica, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Christianity is believed to have
been introduced to India by the
late 2nd century by Syriac-
speaking Christians.

India is home to two major language The prevailing religions of South Asia The language families of
families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about based on district-wise majorities in the South Asia
74% of the population) and Dravidian 1901 census
(spoken by 24% of the population).
Other languages spoken in India come
from the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language families. India has no national language.[354] Hindi,
with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.[355][356] English is used
extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[5] it is
important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has
one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 "scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism
(79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%),
Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others[m] (0.9%).[14] India has the third-
largest Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.[357][358]

Culture
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[359] During the Vedic period (c. 1700  BCE  –
c. 500  BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and
many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were
established.[63] India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam,
Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[360] The predominant religion, Hinduism,
has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[361] the
Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[360] and by Buddhist philosophy.[362]
Visual art

South Asia has an ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged

influences with the parts of Eurasia. Seals from the third millennium
BCE Indus Valley Civilization of Pakistan and northern India have
been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human
figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in
1928–29, is the best known.[363][364] After this there is a long period
with virtually nothing surviving.[364][365] Almost all surviving ancient A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir
Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in Sahib, or Golden Temple, in
Amritsar, Punjab
durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in
wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial
movement.[366][367][368] In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art
spread with Indian religions to Central, East and South-East Asia,
the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[369] Over the following
centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure
developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than
ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly-flowing forms
expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[370][371] This is often
complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or
represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with
the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[372][373]

Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated

from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,[374] or
is rock-cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu
and Jain sites appear rather later.[375][376] In spite of this complex Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja
mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th
at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, or 11th century.
and sculptors probably usually served all communities. [377] Gupta
art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical
period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as
at the Elephanta Caves.[378][379] Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c. 800 CE,
though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[380] But in the South, under the Pallava
and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the
large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.[381][382]

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta
Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly
accomplishment in Gupta times.[383][384] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern
India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the
style of these was used in larger paintings.[385] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before
the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on
portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[386][387] The style spread to Hindu courts,
especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most
innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[388][389] As a market developed among
European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western
influence.[390][391] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on
paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art
colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.[392][393]


Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist Gupta terracotta relief,

reliefs from Mathura, 2nd Krishna Killing the Horse
century CE Demon Keshi, 5th
century

Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 Jahangir Receives

feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550 Prince Khurram at
Ajmer on His Return
from the Mewar
Campaign, Balchand,
c. 1635
 Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids,
Kangra painting, 1775-1785

Architecture and literature

Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of

Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local
traditions with imported styles.[394] Vernacular architecture is also
regional in its flavours. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction"
or "architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,[395] explores how the
laws of nature affect human dwellings;[396] it employs precise geometry
and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.[397] As
applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa
Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is
the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".[398]
The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of
Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the
UNESCO World Heritage List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and
one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".[399]
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late
A Jain woman washes the feet 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[400]
of Bahubali Gomateswara at
Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. The earliest literature in India, composed between 1500  BCE and
1200  CE, was in the Sanskrit language.[401] Major works of Sanskrit
literature include the Rigveda (c. 1500  BCE  – c. 1200  BCE), the epics:
Mahābhārata ( c. 400  BCE  – c. 400  CE) and the Ramayana ( c. 300  BCE and later);
Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā, and other dramas of Kālidāsa ( c. 5th century CE)
and Mahākāvya poetry.[402][403][404] In Tamil literature, the Sangam literature ( c. 600  BCE  –
c. 300  BCE) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.[405][406][407][408]
From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change
because of the emergence of devotional poets like Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was
characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval
Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[409] In the 19th century, Indian
writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century,
Indian literature was influenced by the works of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher Rabindranath
Tagore,[410] who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Performing arts and media

Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical
music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the
northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools.[411] Regionalised
popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the
bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features
diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances
are: the bhangra of Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the Jhumair and chhau
of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, garba and dandiya of Gujarat,
ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance
forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been
accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music,
Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil
Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala,
kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha,
and the sattriya of Assam.[412] India's National Academy of
Performance Arts has
Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written recognised eight Indian dance
dialogue.[413] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from styles to be classical. One
medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre such is Kuchipudi shown here.
includes: the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki
and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of
Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[414] India has a theatre
training institute the National School of Drama (NSD) that is situated at New Delhi It is an autonomous
organisation under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.[415]
The Indian film industry produces
the world's most-watched cinema.[416] Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese,
Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu
languages.[417] The Hindi language film industry (Bollywood) is the largest sector representing 43% of
box office revenue, followed by the South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36%
combined.[418]

Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded
slowly for more than two decades.[419][420] The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the
1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.[421]
Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there
are over 554 million TV consumers, 462  million with satellite or cable connections compared to other
forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[422]

Society

Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies
much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent.
Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or
"castes".[423] India declared untouchability to be illegal[424] in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-
discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.

Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families
have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[425] An
overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or
 other family elders.[426] Marriage is thought to be for life,[426] and the
divorce rate is extremely low,[427] with less than one in a thousand
marriages ending in divorce.[428] Child marriages are common,
especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which
is their legal marriageable age.[429] Female infanticide in India, and
lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number
of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63
million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the
Muslims offer namaz at a mosque population growth during the same period, and constituting 20
in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. percent of India's female electorate.[430] Accord to an Indian
government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do
not receive adequate care.[431] Despite a government ban on sex-
selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a
patriarchal society.[432] The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class
lines.[433] Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent
anti-dowry laws.[434]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include: Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai
Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.[435][436]

Education

In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This
compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27%
and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,[437][438] According to
Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically,
more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local
diversity limited its growth.[439]

Education system of India is the world's second largest higher education System.[440] India had over 900
universities, 40,000 colleges[441] and 1.5 million schools.[442] In India's higher education system, a
significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically
disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main
contributors to its economic development.[443][444]

Clothing

The most widely worn traditional dress in India, for both women and men, from ancient times until the
advent of modern times, was draped.[445] For women it eventually took the form of a sari, a single long
piece of cloth, famously six yards long, and of width spanning the lower body.[445] The sari is tied around
the waist and knotted at one end, wrapped around the lower body, and then over the shoulder.[445] In its
more modern form, it has been used to cover the head, and sometimes the face, as a veil.[445] It has been
combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure
fastening, It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-
body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to obscure the upper body's contours
and to cover the midriff.[445]
For men, a similar but shorter
length of cloth, the dhoti, has
served as a lower-body
garment.[446] It too is tied
around the waist and
wrapped. [446] In south India,
it is usually wrapped around
the lower body, the upper end
tucked in the waistband, the
lower left free. In addition, in
northern India, it is also
wrapped once around each leg
before being brought up
through the legs to be tucked
Women in sari at an adult literacy class in Tamil Nadu A man in dhoti, wearing a
in at the back. Other forms of
woollen shawl in Varanasi
traditional apparel that
involve no stitching or
tailoring are the chaddar (a
shawl worn by both sexes to cover the upper body during colder weather, or a large veil worn by women
for framing the head, or covering it) and the pagri (a turban or a scarf worn around the head as a part of a
tradition, or to keep off the sun or the cold).[446]

Until the beginning of the first millennium CE, the ordinary dress of people in India was entirely
unstitched.[447] The arrival of the Kushans from Central Asia, c. 48  CE, popularised cut and sewn
garments in the style of Central Asian favoured by the elite in northern India.[447] However, it was not
until Muslim rule was established, first with the Delhi sultanate and then the Mughal Empire, that the
range of stitched clothes in India grew and their use became significantly more widespread.[447] Among
the various garments gradually establishing themselves in northern India during medieval and early-
modern times and now commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas both forms of trousers, as well as
the tunics kurta and kameez.[447] In southern India, however, the traditional draped garments were to
see much longer continuous use.[447]

Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring
or elastic belt, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[448] The pants can be wide and
baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. The kameez is
a long shirt or tunic.[449] The side seams are left open below the waist-line,[450]), which gives the wearer
greater freedom of movement. The kameez is usually cut straight and flat; older kameez use traditional
cuts; modern kameez are more likely to have European-inspired set-in sleeves. The kameez may have a
European-style collar, a Mandarin-collar, or it may be collarless; in the latter case, its design as a
women's garment is similar to a kurta.[451] At first worn by Muslim women, the use of shalwar kameez
gradually spread, making them a regional style,[452][453] especially in the Punjab region.[454]
[455]

A kurta, which traces its roots to Central Asian nomadic tunics, has evolved stylistically in India as a
garment for everyday wear as well as for formal occasions.[447] It is traditionally made of cotton or silk; it
is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and it can be loose or tight in the torso,
typically falling either just above or somewhere below the wearer's knees.[456] The sleeves of a traditional
kurta fall to the wrist without narrowing, the ends hemmed but not cuffed; the kurta can be worn by both
men and women; it is traditionally collarless, though standing collars are increasingly popular; and it can
be worn over ordinary pyjamas, loose shalwars, churidars, or less traditionally over jeans.[456]
 In the last 50 years, fashions have
changed a great deal in India.
Increasingly, in urban settings in
northern India, the sari is no longer
the apparel of everyday wear,
transformed instead into one for
formal occasions.[457] The traditional
shalwar kameez is rarely worn by
younger women, who favour churidars
or jeans.[457] The kurtas worn by
Women (from left to Girls in the Kashmir region in embroidered
young men usually fall to the shins and
right) in churidars and hijab are seldom plain. In white-collar office
kameez (with back to settings, ubiquitous air conditioning
the camera), jeans and allows men to wear sports jackets year-
sweater, and pink round.[457] For weddings and formal
Shalwar kameez; occasions, men in the middle- and
upper classes often wear bandgala, or
short Nehru jackets, with pants, with
the groom and his groomsmen
sporting sherwanis and churidars.[457]
The dhoti, the once universal garment
of Hindu India, the wearing of which
in the homespun and handwoven form
of khadi allowed Gandhi to bring
Indian nationalism to the millions,[458]
is seldom seen in the cities,[457]
reduced now, with brocaded border, to
the liturgical vestments of Hindu
priests.

Cuisine
A tailor in pagri and kameez working outside a fabric shop
Indian cuisine consists of a wide
variety of regional and traditional
cuisines. Given the range of diversity in soil type, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these
cuisines vary substantially from each other, using locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruit.
Indian foodways have been influenced by religion, in particular Hindu cultural choices and
traditions.[459] They have been also shaped by Islamic rule, particularly that of the Mughals, by the
arrival of the Portuguese on India's southwestern shores, and by British rule. These three influences are
reflected, respectively, in the dishes of pilaf and biryani; the vindaloo; and the tiffin and the Railway
mutton curry.[460] Earlier, the Columbian exchange had brought the potato, the tomato, maize, peanuts,
cashew nuts, pineapples, guavas, and most notably, chilli peppers, to India. Each became staples of
use.[461] In turn, the spice trade between India and Europe was a catalyst for Europe's Age of
Discovery.[462]

The cereals grown in India, their choice, times, and regions of planting, correspond strongly to the timing
of India's monsoons, and the variation across regions in their associated rainfall.[463] In general, the
broad division of cereal zones in India, as determined by their dependence on rain, was firmly in place
before the arrival of artificial irrigation.[463] Rice, which requires a lot of water, has been grown
traditionally in regions of high rainfall in the northeast and the western coast, wheat in regions of
moderate rainfall, like India's northern
plains, and millet in regions of low
rainfall, such as on the Deccan Plateau
and in Rajasthan.[464][463]

The foundation of a typical Indian

meal is a cereal cooked in plain
fashion, and complemented with
flavourful savoury dishes.[465] The South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter An Assamese thali
latter includes lentils, pulses and
vegetables spiced commonly with
ginger and garlic, but also more
discerningly with a combination of
spices that may include coriander,
cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon
and others as informed by culinary
conventions.[465] In an actual meal,
this mental representation takes the
Chicken biryani from Hyderabad Pork vindaloo from Goa
form of a platter, or thali, with a
central place for the cooked cereal,
peripheral ones, often in small bowls,
for the flavourful accompaniments,
and the simultaneous, rather than
piecemeal, ingestion of the two in each
act of eating, whether by actual mixing
—for example of rice and lentils—or in
the folding of one—such as bread—
around the other, such as cooked
Home-cooked lunch delivered to Railway mutton curry from Odisha
vegetables.[465] the office by the tiffin wallah

A notable feature of Indian food is the

existence of a number of distinctive
vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[467] The
appearance of ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early
in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have been a
notable factor in the prevalence of vegetarianism among a segment of India's Hindu population,
especially in southern India, Gujarat, and the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as
among Jains.[467] Among these groups, strong discomfort is felt at thoughts of eating meat,[468] and
contributes to the low proportional consumption of meat to overall diet in India.[468] Unlike China,
which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic
growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the
preferred form of animal protein consumption accompanying higher economic growth.[469]

In the last millennium, the most significant import of cooking techniques into India occurred during the
Mughal Empire. The cultivation of rice had spread much earlier from India to Central and West Asia;
however, it was during Mughal rule that dishes, such as the pilaf,[464] developed in the interim during
the Abbasid caliphate,[470] and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into
northern India from regions to its northwest.[471] To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic,
almonds, and spices began to be added in India.[471] Rice grown to the southwest of the Mughal capital,
Agra, which had become famous in the Islamic world for its fine grain, was partially cooked and layered
alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian
 cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian
biryani,[471] a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[472]
In
food served in restaurants in urban north India, and internationally,
the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the
dominance of Punjabi cuisine. This was caused in large part by an
entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab region who
had been displaced by the 1947 partition of India, and had arrived in
India as refugees.[467] The identification of Indian cuisine with the
tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally
been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region,
especially among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—
dates to this period.[467]

Sports and recreation

Cricket is the most popular sport in India.[473] Major domestic

competitions include the Indian Premier League, which is the most-
watched cricket league in the world and ranks sixth among all sports
leagues.[474]
A tandoor chef in the Turkman
Gate, Old Delhi, makes Khameeri Several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as
roti (a Muslim-influenced style of kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest
leavened bread).[466] forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, musti yuddha,
silambam, and marma adi, originated in India. Chess, commonly held
to have originated in India as
chaturaṅga, is regaining widespread
popularity with the rise in the
number of Indian
grandmasters. [475][476] Pachisi, from
which parcheesi derives, was played
on a giant marble court by Akbar.[477]
Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar about to score a record 14,000 runs in
The improved results garnered by the
test cricket while playing against Australia in Bangalore, 2010.
Indian Davis Cup team and other
Indian tennis players in the early
2010s have made tennis increasingly
popular in the country. [478] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won
several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth
Games.[479][480] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton[481]
(Saina Nehwal and P V Sindhu are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world),
boxing,[482] and wrestling.[483] Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the
north-eastern states.[484]

India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the
1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC
Champions Trophy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; the 2010 Commonwealth Games; and the 2017 FIFA
U-17 World Cup. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open,
the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The first Formula 1 Indian
Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.[486]
India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian
Games. An example of this dominance is the basketball competition
where the Indian team won three out of four tournaments to date.[487]

See also
Outline of India
Girls play hopscotch in Jaora,
Notes Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has
been commonly played by girls in
a. "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to rural India.[485]
such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as
occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played
a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured
equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."
(Constituent Assembly of India 1950).
b. According to Part XVII of the Constitution of India, Hindi in the
Devanagari script is the official language of the Union, along with
English as an additional official language.[5][1][6] States and union
territories can have a different official language of their own other
than Hindi or English.
c. Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on
how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped.
Ethnologue, produced by the Christian evangelist organisation SIL
International, lists 461 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide),
447 of which are living, while 14 are extinct.[12][13]
d. "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some
borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as
3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total land area as
3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations lists the total
area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as
2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960 sq mi)."(Library of Congress 2004).
e. See Date and time notation in India.
f. The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering
country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India. However,
this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is
administered by Pakistan. Source: "Ministry of Home Affairs
(Department of Border Management)" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20150317182910/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/B
MIntro-1011.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://mha.nic.i
n/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf) (PDF) on 17
March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.
g. "A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as
he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment
meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very
similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would
contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system
emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."[35]
h. "Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800 km (500 mi) to Agra for
burial in the Rauza-i Munauwara ("Illuminated Tomb") – a personal
tribute and a stone manifestation of his imperial power. This tomb
has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal."[43]
i. The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed
Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the
Government of India regards the entire region of the former
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-Baltistan
administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns
the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.
j. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region which has more
than 1,500 vascular plant species, but less than 30% of its primary
habitat.[190]
k. A forest cover is moderately dense if between 40% and 70% of its
area is covered by its tree canopy.
l. In 2015, the World Bank raised its international poverty line to
$1.90 per day.[329]
m. Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011
Census were "Other religions and persuasions" (0.65%) and
"Religion not stated" (0.23%).

References
1. National Informatics Centre 2005.
2. "National Symbols | National Portal of India" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170204121208/https://in
dia.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols). India.gov.in. Archived from the original (https://india.gov.in/i
ndia-glance/national-symbols) on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017. "The National Anthem
of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in
its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950."
3. "National anthem of India: a brief on 'Jana Gana Mana' " (https://web.archive.org/web/201904171945
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23. –The Essential Desk Reference (https://books.google.com/books?id=yjcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA76),
Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 "Official name: Republic of India.";

–John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government (https://books.google.com/books?id=M0Yf

DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421), London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 "Official name:
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–Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address
Formats and Data in 194 Countries (https://books.google.com/books?id=iGdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30
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–Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs (https://books.google.com/
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English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya";

–Penguin Compact Atlas of the World (https://books.google.com/books?id=pLw-ReHIgvQC&pg=PA1

40), Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 "Official name: Republic of India";

–Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg

=PA515) (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 "Officially,
Republic of India";

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com/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726), CQ Press, 10 May 2013, p. 726, ISBN 978-1-4522-
9937-2 "India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)"
24. (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1), Oxford University Press, p. 1,
ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8, "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then,
intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter
the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast.
... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even
though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the
present. (page 1)"

(b) Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (22 May 2007). The Evolution and History of Human
Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology,
Linguistics and Genetics (https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10). Springer
Science & Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1. "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data
support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates
for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."

(c)Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-
First Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23), Cambridge
University Press, p. 23, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, "Scholars estimate that the first successful
expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred
from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been
prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in
each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was
along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean.
Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago. (page 23)"
25. Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day
(https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28), Oxford University Press, p. 28,
ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
26. (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4), Oxford University Press,
pp. 4–5, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India:
From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQB
AJ&pg=PA23), Cambridge University Press, p. 33, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
27. (a) Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival
verb forms (https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). Oxford University
Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. "(The Rigveda) consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly
crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and
communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns
were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the
Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into
north India.",

Witzel, Michael (2008). "Vedas and Upanisads" (https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8

C&pg=PA68). In Gavin Flood (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons.
pp. 68–70. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7. "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were
orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern
areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the
Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq
(1450–1350 BCE); ... The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of
script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This
ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in
fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the
long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the
present. (pp. 68–69) ... The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron,
that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE. (p. 70)"
(c) Doniger, Wendy (3 February 2014), On Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=fUnaAgAA
QBAJ&pg=PR18), Oxford University Press, pp. xviii, 10, ISBN 978-0-19-936009-3, "A Chronology of
Hinduism: ca. 1500-1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200-900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva
Veda (p. xviii); Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest
India around 1500 BCE (p. 10)"

(d) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=
EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19), Oneworld Publications, p. 19, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6, "In Punjab, a
dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western
Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were
preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates
that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite
called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups
organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit.
Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan
apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not
precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg,
Sama, Yajur, and Artharva)."

(e) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14), Oxford University Press,
pp. 14–15, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is
no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the
same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began
to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a
predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into
the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then
spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family.
... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the
predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a
tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and
culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people
with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly
two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features
—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it
 would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the
Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor
guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the
history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.";

(f) Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=

PA46), Macmillan, pp. 46–, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2, "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed
to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it
implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete
break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-
speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."
28. (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda (https://books.google.com/books?id=1LT
RDwAAQBAJ), Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, "The RgVeda is one of
the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for
what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what
is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name
Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both
lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra
remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).";

(b) Flood, Gavin (20 August 2020), "Introduction" (https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQB

AJ&pg=PA4), in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice,
OUP Oxford, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, "I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a
range and history of practice characterized by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic
textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in
practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level
cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many
gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).";

(c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism:
Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra (https://books.google.com/books?id=QAJCDwAAQBAJ&
pg=PA86). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. "Almost all
traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death
ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are
drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class,
and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the
Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)"

(d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhK

nYmF0C&pg=PA35). Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. "It is this Sansrit,
vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the
most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the
foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism."
29. (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25), Oxford University Press,
p. 25, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First
Modern People to the Present Day (https://books.google.com/books?
id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16), Oxford University Press, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
30. Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day
(https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16), Oxford University Press, p. 16,
ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
31. Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First
Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59), Cambridge University
Press, p. 59, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
32. (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16), Oxford University Press,
pp. 16–17, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of
India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDw
AAQBAJ&pg=PA67), Cambridge University Press, p. 67, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2; (c) Robb, Peter
(2011), A History of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA56),
Macmillan, pp. 56–57, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2; (d) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A
Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29), Oneworld
Publications, pp. 29–30, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6
33. (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=
EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28), Oneworld Publications, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b)
Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic" (https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg
=PA46), in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and
Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1
34. (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present
Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20), Oxford University Press,
p. 20, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Stein 2010, p. 90; (c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in
South Asia" (https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27), in Barbara N.
Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers (ed.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University
Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7
35. Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
36. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA17), Cambridge University Press, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
37. (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=
EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54), Oneworld Publications, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b) Asher,
Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaG
uaJIJgoC&pg=PA78), Cambridge University Press, pp. 78–79, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7; (c) Fisher,
Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First
Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76), Cambridge University
Press, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
38. (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History (https://books.google.com/books?id=
EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68), Oneworld Publications, pp. 68–70, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b)
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19), Cambridge University Press, pp. 19, 24, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
39. (a) Dyson, Tim (20 September 2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to
the Present Day (https://books.google.com/books?id=0UVvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48), Oxford
University Press, p. 48, ISBN 978-0-19-256430-6; (b) Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006),
India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA53), Cambridge
University Press, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
40. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA74), Cambridge University Press, p. 74, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7"
41. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA267), Cambridge University Press, p. 267, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
42. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id
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Biodiversity

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Economy

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External links
Government

Official website of Government of India (https://www.india.gov.in/)

Government of India Web Directory (http://goidirectory.nic.in/index.php)

General information

India (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/). The World Factbook. Central

Intelligence Agency.
India (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/India) at Curlie
India (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=India) web resources
provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
India (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12557384) from the BBC News
Indian State district block village website (http://www.wikivillage.in/)
Wikimedia Atlas of India
Geographic data related to India (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/304716) at
OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for India (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=IN)
from International Futures

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