jose e. elfa, jr. c.

e
instructor
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Earthquake engineering is the application of engineering
to the earthquake problem. It is a sub-category of
civil engineering, which includes the kinds of engineering
needed to design and construct the physical features
that we live and work in everyday: buildings, bridges,
airports, highways, water supply systems, and so on. This
exhibit provides some examples that explain the work of
earthquake engineers and points out a few earthquake
problems and solutions.

Consortium of Universities for Research

in Earthquake Engineering
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural engineering is a primary part of earthquake
engineering. Structural engineers design the construction
that holds up a building or other structure to resist gravity
and—in an earthquake-prone region—must deal with
the more challenging problem of earthquakes.
Consortium of Universities for Research
in Earthquake Engineering

In the Philippines, Structural Engineers must be a licensed

Civil Engineer as regulated by the PRC and recognized as
specialist in the field of structural engineering. All civil
engineers may involved in structural design and analysis,
but in cases of large structures and those with special
conditions, a civil engineer recognized by PICE, ASEP,
ISSEP and SEAD .
SEISMOLOGY
Seismology is the other primary discipline earthquake
engineers rely on in their design work. Seismology deals
with the causes of earthquakes—the breakage of rock
along faults—and the way ground motion travels through
the ground to shake a particular site. Students who would
like to become seismologists should take a full load of
math and science in high school, and then major in what is
called a Department of Geology or Department of
Earth Sciences in college. Graduate school leading to a
master’s or PhD degree is also usually recommended.
Consortium of Universities for Research
in Earthquake Engineering
EARTHQUAKE
 An earthquake is an intense shaking of Earth’s surface.
The shaking is caused by movements in Earth’s outermost
layer. https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/earthquake
s/en/

 Earthquake, any sudden shaking of the ground caused by

the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks. Seismic
waves are produced when some form of energy stored in
Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of
rock straining against one another suddenly fracture and
“slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults,
narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one
another. The major fault lines of the world are located at
the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s
crust. https://www.britannica.com/science/ea
rthquake-geology
WHY DO EARTHQUAKE’S HAPPEN?

 Although the Earth looks like a pretty solid place from the
surface, it’s actually extremely active just below the
surface. The Earth is made of four basic layers: a solid
crust, a hot, nearly solid mantle, a liquid outer core and a
solid inner core.
WHY DO EARTHQUAKE’S HAPPEN?
 The solid crust and top, stiff layer of the mantle make up a
region called the lithosphere. The lithosphere isn’t a
continuous piece that wraps around the whole Earth like an
eggshell. It’s actually made up of giant puzzle pieces
called tectonic plates. Tectonic plates are constantly shifting as
they drift around on the viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle layer
below.
WHY DO EARTHQUAKE’S HAPPEN?

 Little was understood about earthquakes until the

emergence of seismology at the beginning of the 20th
century. Seismology, which involves the scientific study of all
aspects of earthquakes, has yielded answers to such long-
standing questions as why and how earthquakes occur.
WHY DO EARTHQUAKE’S HAPPEN?
 This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the
stresses get too large, it leads to cracks called faults. When tectonic
plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. An earthquake is
the sudden movement of Earth’s crust at a fault line.
 The location where an
earthquake begins is
called the epicenter.
An earthquake’s most
intense shaking is often
felt near the epicenter.
However, the vibrations
from an earthquake can
still be felt and
detected hundreds, or
even thousands of
miles away from the
This photograph shows the San Andreas Fault, epicenter.
a 750-mile-long fault in California. Credit:
Public Domain
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
138 AD: Earthquake Detected!
In 138 AD, the sound of the bronze ball
dropping caused a stir among all the imperial
officials in the palace. No one believed that the
invention actually worked. According to the
direction in which the dragon that dropped the
ball was oriented, it was determined that the
quake had occurred to the west of Luoyang, the
capital city. Since no one had sensed anything
in Luoyang proper, people were
sceptical. However, a few days later, a
messenger from the western Long region
(today, southwest Gansu province), which was
west of Luoyang, reported that there had been
an earthquake there. As it happened exactly the
same time that the seismometer was triggered,
people were greatly impressed by Zhang Heng’s
instrument.
CAN WE PREDICT EARTHQUAKE?
No. Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have
ever predicted a major earthquake. We do not know
how, and we do not expect to know how any time in
the foreseeable future.

USGS scientists can only calculate the probability that a significant

earthquake will occur in a specific area within a certain number of
years.
An earthquake prediction must define 3 elements: 1) the date
and time, 2) the location, and 3) the magnitude.
Yes, some people say they can predict earthquakes, but here are the
reasons why their statements are false:
They are not based on scientific evidence, and earthquakes are part
of a scientific process. For example, earthquakes have nothing to do
with clouds, bodily aches and pains, or slugs.
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Their predictions are so general that there will always be an
earthquake that fits; such as, (a) There will be a M4 earthquake
somewhere in the U.S. in the next 30 days. (b) There will be a M2
earthquake on the west coast of the U.S. today.
If an earthquake happens to occur that remotely fits their prediction,
they claim success even though one or more of their predicted
elements is wildly different from what actually occurred, so it is
therefore a failed prediction.
Predictions (by non-scientists) usually start swirling around social
media when something happens that is thought to be a precursor to
an earthquake in the near future. The so-called precursor is often a
swarm of small earthquakes, increasing amounts of radon in local
water, unusual behavior of animals, increasing size of magnitudes in
moderate size events, or a moderate-magnitude event rare enough to
suggest that it might be a foreshock.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
 Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of
tectonic plates. This has long been apparent from early catalogs of felt earthquakes
and is even more readily discernible in modern seismicity maps, which show
instrumentally determined epicenters. The most important earthquake belt is
the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated coastal regions around
the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan,
the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America. It is
estimated that 80 percent of the energy presently released in earthquakes comes from
those whose epicenters are in this belt.
The seismic activity is
by no means uniform
throughout the belt,
and there are a
number of branches at
various points.
Because at many
places the Circum-
Pacific Belt is
associated
with volcanic activity,
it has been popularly
dubbed the
“Pacific Ring of Fire.”
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
 A second belt, known as the Alpide Belt, passes through the
Mediterranean region eastward through Asia and joins the Circum-Pacific Belt
in the East Indies. The energy released in earthquakes from this belt is about
15 percent of the world total. There also are striking connected belts of seismic
activity, mainly along oceanic ridges—including those in the Arctic Ocean,
the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—and along the rift
valleys of East Africa. This global seismicity distribution is best understood in
terms of its plate tectonic setting.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
 TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE

 VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE

 ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
 Tectonic earthquakes are explained by the so-called elastic rebound
theory, formulated by the American geologist Harry Fielding Reid after
the San Andreas Fault ruptured in 1906, generating the great San
Francisco earthquake. According to the theory, a tectonic earthquake
occurs when strains in rock masses have accumulated to a point where
the resulting stresses exceed the strength of the rocks, and sudden
fracturing results. The fractures propagate rapidly through the rock,
usually tending in the same direction and sometimes extending
many kilometers along a local zone of weakness. In 1906, for instance,
the San Andreas Fault slipped along a plane 430 km (270 miles) long.
Along this line the ground was displaced horizontally as much as 6
meters (20 feet).
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
 As a fault rupture progresses along or up the fault, rock masses are
flung in opposite directions and thus spring back to a position where
there is less strain. At any one point this movement may take place not
at once but rather in irregular steps; these sudden slowings and
restartings give rise to the vibrations that propagate as seismic waves.
Such irregular properties of fault rupture are now included in the
modeling of earthquake sources, both physically and mathematically.
Roughnesses along the fault are referred to as asperities, and places
where the rupture slows or stops are said to be fault barriers. Fault
rupture starts at the earthquake focus, a spot that in many cases is
close to 5–15 km under the surface. The rupture propagates in one or
both directions over the fault plane until stopped or slowed at a
barrier. Sometimes, instead of being stopped at the barrier, the fault
rupture recommences on the far side; at other times the stresses in the
rocks break the barrier, and the rupture continues.
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
 A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of
rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other. This
movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may
occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in length from a
few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults produce
repeated displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the
rock on one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the
other. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary
angle in between.
 Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the surface
and the direction of slip along the fault to classify faults. Faults
which move along the direction of the dip plane are dip-slip faults and
described as either normal or reverse (thrust), depending on their
motion. Faults which move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults
and are classified as either right-lateral or left-lateral. Faults which
show both dip-slip and strike-slip motion are known as oblique-slip
faults.
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE
 A separate type of earthquake is associated with volcanic activity and
is called a volcanic earthquake. Yet it is likely that even in such cases
the disturbance is the result of a sudden slip of rock masses adjacent to
the volcano and the consequent release of elastic strain energy.
The stored energy, however, may in part be of hydrodynamic origin
due to heat provided by magma moving in reservoirs beneath the
volcano or to the release of gas under pressure.
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
 Earthquakes are sometimes caused by human activities, including the
injection of fluids into deep wells, the detonation of large underground
nuclear explosions, the excavation of mines, and the filling of large
reservoirs. In the case of deep mining, the removal of rock produces
changes in the strain around the tunnels. Slip on adjacent, preexisting
faults or outward shattering of rock into the new cavities may occur. In
fluid injection, the slip is thought to be induced by premature release
of elastic strain, as in the case of tectonic earthquakes,
after fault surfaces are lubricated by the liquid. Large underground
nuclear explosions have been known to produce slip on already
strained faults in the vicinity of the test devices.
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
RESERVOIR INDUCTION
 Of the various earthquake-causing activities cited above, the filling of large
reservoirs is among the most important. More than 20 significant cases have
been documented in which local seismicity has increased following the
impounding of water behind high dams. Often, causality cannot
be substantiated, because no data exists to allow comparison of earthquake
occurrence before and after the reservoir was filled. Reservoir-induction effects
are most marked for reservoirs exceeding 100 meters (330 feet) in depth and 1
cubic km (0.24 cubic mile) in volume.
Three sites where such
connections have very
probably occurred are
the Hoover Dam in the United
States, the Aswan High
Dam in Egypt, and the Kariba
Dam on the border
between Zimbabwe and Zamb
ia.
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
 The most generally accepted explanation for earthquake occurrence in
such cases assumes that rocks near the reservoir are already strained
from regional tectonic forces to a point where nearby faults are almost
ready to slip. Water in the reservoir adds a pressure perturbation that
triggers the fault rupture. The pressure effect is perhaps enhanced by
the fact that the rocks along the fault have lower strength because of
increased water-pore pressure. These factors notwithstanding, the
filling of most large reservoirs has not produced earthquakes large
enough to be a hazard.

The Three Gorges Dam is a

gravity dam that spans the
Yangtze River by the town
of Sandouping, in Yiling
District, Yichang, Hubei
province, central China
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
SEISMOLOGY AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
 In 1958 representatives from several countries, including the United
States and the Soviet Union, met to discuss the technical basis for
a nuclear test-ban treaty. Among the matters considered was the
feasibility of developing effective means with which to detect
underground nuclear explosions and to distinguish them seismically
from earthquakes. After that conference, much special research was
directed to seismology, leading to major advances in seismic signal
detection and analysis.
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
 Recent seismological work on treaty verification has involved using
high-resolution seismographs in a worldwide network, estimating the
yield of explosions, studying wave attenuation in the Earth,
determining wave amplitude and frequency spectra discriminants, and
applying seismic arrays. The findings of such research have shown that
underground nuclear explosions, compared with natural earthquakes,
usually generate seismic waves through the body of the Earth that are
of much larger amplitude than the surface waves. This telltale
difference along with other types of seismic evidence suggest that an
international monitoring network of 270 seismographic stations could
detect and locate all seismic events over the globe of magnitude 4 and
above (corresponding to an explosive yield of about 100 tons of TNT).