ABU BAKAR

ROLL # 02

BIOCHEMISTRY
Assignment: week 1, Block 2
1. Define and classify Carbohydrates.
Ans.
DEFINITION:
Carbohydtrates are defined as the polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones which has at least three
carbon atoms, with potentially active carbonyl group attached, which on hydrolysis yield
polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketonic sub- units.

CLASSIFICATION:
Carbohydrates are often referred to as saccharides; Greek word meaning ‘’sakcharon-sugar”. They
are broadly classified into three major groups monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides. This categorization is based on the number of sugar units. Mono- and
oligosaccharides are sweet to taste, crystalline in character and soluble in water, hence they are
commonly known as sugars.

 Monosaccharides are the simplest group of carbohydrates and are often referred to as
simplest sugars. They have the general formula Cn(H20)n, and they cannot be further
hydrolysed. The monosaccharides are divided into different categories, based on the functional
group and the number of carbon atoms.
 Aldoses : When the functional group in monosaccharides is an aldehyde , they are known as
aldoses.
e.g. glyceraldehyde, glucose.
 Ketoses : When the functional group is a ketone, they are referred to as ketoses
e.g. dihydroxyacetone, fructose.
On the basis of carbon atoms, monosaccharides are regarded as trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses
(5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C).. For instance, glucose is an aldohexose and fructose is a
ketohexose.
 Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
 Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
 Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
A single sugar molecule is a monosaccharide.

 Oligosaccharides contain 2-1O monosaccharides which on hydrolysis produced 2-10

monosaccharides. Based on the number of monosaccharide units present, the oligosaccharides
are further subdivided into disaccharides and trisaccharides etc.
 Disaccharide:Two molecules of a simple sugar that are linked to each other form
a disaccharide or double sugar Before the energy in disaccharides can be utilized by living
things, the molecules must be broken down into their respective monosaccharides.
e.g. . The disaccharide sucrose, or table sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose. Milk
sugar, or lactose, and maltose , product of starch hydrolysis germinating seeds are also
disaccharides.
 Trisaccharides:
 Those carbohydrates(oligosaccharides) that on hydrolysis give three molecules
of monosaccharides, whether same or different. An example is Raffinose.
 Tetrasaccharides:
A tetrasaccharide is a carbohydrate which gives upon hydrolysis four
molecules of the same or different monosaccharides. For example, stachyose upon hydrolysis
gives one molecule each of glucose and fructose and two molecules of galactose.

 Polysaccharides:
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharide units with high molecular weight They are
usually tasteless (non-sugars) and form colloids with water. The polysaccharides are of two
types homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. It represents most of the structural
and energy-reserve carbohydrates found in nature. Large molecules that may consist of as
many as 10,000 monosaccharide units linked together, polysaccharides vary considerably in
size, in structural complexity, and in sugar content.
e.g. Cellulose the principal structural component of plants it is the most common
polysaccharide. The starch found in plants and the glycogen found in animals also are
complex glucose polysaccharides.In addition to these all Insuline,dextrines also are
Homopolysaccharides.
While tge other which is Mucopolysaccharides are Heteropolysaccharides.
 -------------------------------------------------

2. Classify Monosaccharides.
Ans. Monosaccharides are classified according to different characteristics:

a. According to aldehyde or keto group :

The placement of its carbonyl group, If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is
an aldose. If the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose.
Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons,
are asymmetric, making them stereo centers with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of
this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula.
For example, the aldohexose D-glucose has the formula (C·H 2O)6, of which four of its six carbons atoms
are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 2 4=16 possible stereoisomers. In the case of glyceraldehydes,
an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers. 1, 3-
dihydroxyacetone, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule
with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric
carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the
right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be
confused with "d-" or "l-" which indicate the direction that the sugar rotates plane polarized light. This
usage of "d-" and "l-" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry.

b. According to number of carbon atom:

 Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses(3C), those with four are
called tetroses(4C), five are called pentoses(5C), six are hexoses(6C), and so on… These two
systems of classification are often combined.
For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-
carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone).
Stereoisomerism is an important character of monosaccharides. Stereoisomers are the
compounds that have the same structural formulae but differ in their spatial configuration. They
are due to asymmetric carbon atom (glyceraldehyde with one asymmetric carbon atom exists as
2 stereoisomers)D&L
A carbon is said to be asymmetric when it is attached to four different atoms or groups. The
number of asymmetric carbon atoms (n) determines the possible isomers of a given
compound which is equal to 2n. Glucose contains 4 asymmetric carbons, and thus has 2 4= 16
isomers.

Classification Of Monosaccharides
No.of Type of Sugar Aldoses Ketoses
Carbon
atoms
3 TRIOSES Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
4 TETROSES Erythrose Erythulose
5 PENTOSES Ribose Ribulose
6 HEXOSES Glucose Fructose
7 HEPTOSES Glucoheptose Sedoheptulose

-------------------------------------------------
 3. Explain following terms:
Ans.
(a) Asymetric carbon:
An asymmetric carbon atom is defined as a carbon within an organic compound that contains four
different atoms or groups of atoms (substituents) bonded to it. s. Their mirror images do not
superimpose with each other. As an example, consider a carbon atom that's bonded to an -OH group, a
hydrogen. The number of asymmetric carbon atoms (n) determines the possible isomers of a given
compound.
i.e; Glucose contains 4 asymmetric carbons, and thus has 16 isomers.

(b) Structural isomerism:

Structural isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formula i.e;
their atoms have different arrangements or bonds.
For example : Butane and isobutane have the same number of carbon (C) atoms and hydrogen (H)
atoms, so their molecular formulas are the same.

(c) D and L isomerism:

D and L  enantiomers refer to the configurational  stereochemistry  of the
molecule. The main difference between L and D isomers is in the position of OH
group in the penultimate carbon atom. In D isomer, the OH group of the penultimate
carbon is positioned on the right side whereas, in L isomer, the OH- group of the
penultimate carbon is positioned on the left side.
(d) Optical isomerism:
Optical isomers are two compounds which contain the same number and kinds of
atoms, and bonds (i.e., the connectivity between atoms is the same), and different
spatial arrangements of the atoms, but which have non-superimposable mirror
images. Each non-superimposable mirror image structure is called optical isomer or
enantiomer.
An example is the amino acid alanine
(e) Epimerism:
Those stereoisomers which are differing in their configuration at only one
specific carbon (not the carbonyl carbon),other than the Carbon-1 atom are called as
Epimers. In enantiomers(mirror images) the member of the sugar pair are designated
as D- and L- isomeres
For example, glucose and galactose are epimers of each other, as they differ in only in
the position of hydroxyl group at C4 (chiral carbon atom).
 (f) Alpha & beta anomerism:

ALPHA ANOMERISM BETA ANOMERISM

Alpha anomer is the Alpha anomer is the
configuration of a configuration of a
carbohydrate in wchich the carbohydrate in which the
DEFINITION hydroxyl group is cis to the hydroxyl group is trans to the
exocyclic oxygen at the exocyclic oxygen at the
anomeric centre anomeric centre
HYDROXYL In the downward direction In the upward direction
GROUP

EXAMPLE

(g) Anomers:
 An anomer is a type of geometric variation found at certain atoms
in carbohydrate molecules. The anomeric carbon is the carbon derived from the
carbonyl carbon (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form of
the carbohydrate molecule.
Anomere is only occure whenever glucose is going to have a ring structure of the
npyranose form.They are only seen in the pyranose or ring structure of the
glucose.The phenomenon of anomerism is seen on when the spatial orientation of H
and OH ions above(-α) and below(-β) only about the carbon-1.
Anomers are cyclic monosaccharides or glycosides that are epimers, differing from
each other in the configuration of C-1 if they are aldoses or in the configuration at C-2
if they are ketoses.
Example 1: α-D-Glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose are anomers.

(h) Mutarotation:
Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of the change in the
equilibrium between two  anomers, when the
corresponding stereocenters interconvert. Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and
β anomeric forms interconvert.
Mutarotation has a significant impact on the viscosity of the sample and, in
consequence, on the glass transition temperature. Those sugars which do not show
mutarotation, are called No-reducing sugars. Freshly quenched sugar has an about 10
K lower glass transition temperature than the equilibrated form.

(i) Glycaemic index:

The body breaks down most carbohydrates from the foods we eat and converts
them to a type of sugar called glucose. The glycemic index measures how fast and how
much a food raises blood glucose levels. Foods with higher index values raise blood
sugar more rapidly than foods with lower glycemic index values do.  Some studies
suggest that lower-glycemic-index diets may offer important health benefits for men—
like a reduced risk of heart disease and diabetes.

(j) Factors modifying glycaemic index value:

These include the types of sugar and starches in the food, the way it is prepared,
and it's fat and fibre content. How rapidly the food product is digested and absorbed
is very important in determining the GI.

 Particle size - Intact grains such as whole wheat, barley, whole corn and whole rye
have much lower GI values than flours (tiny particles) made from the same grains.
 Processing
 The chemical composition of the starch
  Fibre: type and content.
 Sugar
 Protein and fat
 Anti-nutrients
 Acidity
 Cooking
 Resistance starch
 Speed of eating

(k) Glycaemic load

Glycemic load is a ranking system for carbohydrate-rich food that measures the
amount of carbohydrates in a serving of food. Glycemic load is a better indicator of
how a carbohydrate food will affect blood sugar than that of glycemic index.
For one serving of a food, a GL greater than 20 is considered high, a GL of 11–19 is
considered medium, and a GL of 10 or less is considered low.

-------------------------------------------------

4. Describe following derivatives of Monosaccharides.

Ans.
a. Sugar acids:
A Sugar acid or acidic sugar is a monosaccharide with a carboxyl group at one end or
both ends of its chain. They are formed by the oxidation of terminal –CHO or –CH2OH
group to produce carboxyl groups –COOH.

Examples of sugar acids include:

 Aldonic acids. Glyceric acid (3C) Xylonic acid (5C) ...

 Ulosonic acids. Neuraminic acid (5-amino-3,5-dideoxy-D-glycero-D-galacto-non-2-
ulosonic acid) Ketodeoxyoctulosonic acid (KDO or 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid)
 Uronic acids. Glucuronic acid (6C) ...
 Aldaric acids. Tartaric acid (4C)

b. b. Sugar alcohols:
 Sugar alcohols are  organic compounds typically  derived from sugars,
containing one hydroxyl group (–OH) attached to each carbon atom. They are white,
water-soluble solids that can occur naturally or be produced industrially
by hydrogenation of sugars. Since they contain multiple –OH groups, they are classified
as polyols.
 They look and taste like sugar, but have fewer calories and fewer negative
health effects. Unlike artificial and low-calorie sweeteners, sugar alcohols do contain
calories, just fewer than plain sugar. 
e.g; Sorbitol and Mannitol are produced respectively by Glucose and Mannose

Alditol:
Any of a class of acyclic polyols formally derived from an aldose by reduction of
the carbonyl functional group.It is a polyhydroxy alcohol as mannitol formed by
reducing an aldose as mannose

c. Amino sugars
In organic chemistry, an amino sugar (or more technically a 2-amino-2-deoxysugar)
is a sugar molecule in which a hydroxyl group has been replaced with an amine group. It
is formed by the displacement of hydroxyl group from second carbon atom by amino
group.
e.g; Glucosamine and Glactosamine

e. Deoxy sugars:
Deoxy sugars are sugars  that have had a hydroxyl group replaced with
a hydrogen atom. In deoxy sugars, one or more hydroxyl groups(OH) of
the pyranose or furanose ring is substituted by hydrogen(H).
 Examples include:
 Deoxyribose, or 2-deoxy-D-ribose, a constituent of DNA
 Rhamnose, or 6-deoxy-L-mannose, present in plant glycosides

f. Neuraminic acid:
Neuraminic acid is an acidic amino sugar with a backbone formed by nine carbon atoms.
Although 9-carbon sugars do not occur naturally, neuraminic acid may be regarded as a
theoretical 9-carbon ketose in which the first link of the chain is oxidised into a carboxyl group (–
COOH), the hydroxyl group at position 3 is deoxidised i.e; oxygen is removed from it and the
hydroxyl group at position 5 is substituted with an amino group (–NH2)
Sialic acids  are derivatives of a nine-carbon-containing monosaccharide,
ketonanose, known as neuraminic acid. They are synthesized by the condensation of D-
mannosamine with pyruvic acid.
g. L-Ascorbic acid:
L-ascorbic acid is a white to very pale yellow crystalline powder with a pleasant
sharp acidic taste or of almost odorless. L-Ascorbic Acid comes from natural sources such as
 oranges. Pure Vitamin C is known as L-Ascorbic Acid. The “L” in front of Ascorbic is a reference
to how the molecule itself rotates to light and refers to its source. L-Ascorbic Acid products
penetrate the skin tissue and are more active in collagen production.

-------------------------------------------------

5. Explain the Main components of structure, functions, glycosidic bonds and importance
of following Homopolysaccharides.
Ans.
a. Starch:
Starch is formed from alpha glucose. The basic chemical formula of starch  (C6H10O5)n. is
similar to glucose, where 'n' is the number of glucose molecules present.
There are two forms of starch:

Amylose
These are the branchless
Amylose can contain over 250 glucoses units
per one molecule of amylose.
Amylose can form a 3-D helical structure,
much like a slinky. Imagine a completely
unwound slink. The 'slinky' structure of
amylose allows cells to store energy in a
compact form, but also makes it easily
accessible.
Depending on the plant, starch generally
contains 20 to 25% amylose.
Amylopectin
They show branched form
and can contain over 1,000 glucose units.
In case of amylopectin about every 20 to
25 glucose molecules, a branch point
occurs where one molecule of glucose
decides to go off in a different direction.
Depending on the plant, starch generally
contains 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight.
 Function:
The main function of starch is as way to store energy for plants.
Carbohydrates are important in cells as energy sources (glucose, glycogen, amylose), as
markers of cellular identity (oligosaccharides on the surface of cells of multicellular
organisms), as structural components (cellulose in plants), and as constituents of
nucleotides (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA).
Starch can be straight or branched and is used as energy storage for plants because it
can form compact structures and is easily broken down.
The only function of starch in the human diet is to convert into glucose for energy.
Starch begins breaking down in your mouth, where saliva surrounds complex starch
molecules.

 Starch is long chains of sugar molecules linked together like a chain. Many sugar
molecules linked together is a polysaccharide. Starch, therefore, is a polysaccharide.
b. Dextrin:
Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by
the hydrolysis of starch. made from various starches such as potato, corn, rice, wheat.
Wheat starch is a byproduct from extracting gluten from wheat. The wheat starch is
sprayed with acid while being agitated and then suspended in water by the acids or
enzymes.
It is found in the liver and muscle, and it functions to help maintain normal glucose
homeostasis in the body. Dextrins are polysaccharide compounds that are formed as
intermediate products in the breakdown of starch.
Dextrins can be produced from starch using enzymes like amylases, as during digestion in
the human body and during malting and mashing or by applying dry heat under acidic
conditions. The other process is used in industries and also occurs on the surface
of bread during the baking process, contributing to flavor, color and crispness. Dextrins
produced by heat are also known as pyrodextrins. The starch hydrolyses during roasting
 under acidic conditions, and short-chained starch parts partially rebranch with α-(1,6) bonds
to the degraded starch molecule.
Dextrins are the mixtures of polymers of D-glucose units linked by α-(1→4) or α-
(1→6) glycosidic bonds.


Uses:

 Wheat dextrin is widely used in the food industry as

a food thickener in packaged soups, sauces, sweets,
baby food and as a replacement for fats in reduced
calorie foods.
 Wheat dextrin is also a good source of dietary fiber.
 Wheat dextrin is one of various dextrins used in the
textile industry for printing cotton fabrics.
 It is also used as an adhesive for porous substances,
in the paste on envelopes, labeling adhesives,
postage stamps, gummed tape and a variety of other adhesive uses.

c. Inulin:
Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types
of plants industrially most often extracted from chicory. Chemical
formula: C6nH10n+2O5n+1. The inulins belong to a class of dietary fibers known
as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a means of storing energy and is typically
found in roots or rhizomes. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store
other forms of carbohydrate such as starch. Using inulin to measure kidney function is
the "gold standard" for comparison with other means of estimating glomerular filtration
rate.Inulin is a functional food ingredient that can replace sugar and fat while improving
taste and mouthfeel. It also promotes digestive health by enriching the fiber content of
food. Moreover, it has a prebiotic effect, stimulating the production of beneficial
bacteria in the colon.

Medical

Inulins are used to help measure kidney function by determining the glomerular

filtration rate (GFR), which is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal
(kidney) glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time.
 Inulin enhances the growth and activities of bacteria or inhibits growth or activities of
certain pathogenic bacteria.[28]
A 2017  systematic review of clinical trial results showed that dietary
supplementation with inulin reduced biomarkers of metabolic syndrome.

Biochemistry
Inulins are polymers composed mainly of fructose units (fructans), and typically have a
terminal glucose. The fructose units in inulins are joined by a β(2→1) glycosidic bond. In
general, plant inulins contain between 20 and several thousand fructose units. Smaller
compounds are called fructo-oligosaccharides, the simplest being 1-kestose, which has
two fructose units and one glucose unit.
Inulins are named in the following manner, where n is the number of fructose residues
and py is the abbreviation for pyranosyl:

 Inulins with a terminal glucose are known as alpha-D-glucopyranosyl-[beta-D-

fructofuranosyl](n-1)-D-fructofuranosides, abbreviated as GpyFn.

 Inulins without glucose are beta-D-fructopyranosyl-[D-fructofuranosyl](n-1)-D-
fructofuranosides, abbreviated as FpyFn.

 Hydrolysis of inulins may yield fructo-oligosaccharides, which are oligomers with

a degree of polymerization (DP) of 10 or less.


d. Dextran:
Dextrans defined as "Branched poly-α-d-glucosides of microbial origin having glycosidic
bonds predominantly C-1 → C-6". Dextran chains are of varying lengths.Dextran is a
complex branched glucan
 The polymer main chain consists of α-1,6 glycosidic linkages between glucose
monomers, with branches from α-1,3 linkages. This characteristic branching
distinguishes a dextran from a dextrin, which is a straight chain glucose polymer
tethered by α-1,4 or α-1,6 linkages.
High-molecular weight dextran is a plasma volume expander made from natural sources
of sugar(glucose).Dextran is used to treat hypovolemia (decreased volume of circulating
blood plasma), that can result from surgery, trauma or injury, severe burns, or other
causes of bleeding.

Dextran

Dextran is an exopolysaccharide produced by lactic acid bacteria, Leuconostoc mesenteroides.

Structurally it is α-d-glucan, mainly composed of α-1,6-glycosidic linkage and small amount of α-1,2; α-
1,3; and α-1,4 branched linkages. Dextran is commercially produced from sucrose containing-medium
such as molasses and the process parameters affect yield and molecular weight of dextran. A unique
high-molecular weight dextran of 2 million Dalton was reported to be produced from the medium
containing 15% sucrose under optimized conditions.

 In cosmetic preparation, dextran acts as a binding agent that improves dispersion of the
components in cosmetic formulations.
 Another important function is thickening by controlling the viscosity of cosmetic preparations
that helps in maintaining appropriate consistency.
 Dextran also acts as bulking agent to increase the bulk of formulation because of its water
binding capacity.
  Addition of dextran in cosmetic composition improves the antiaging activity and reduces the
allergic reaction of active ingredients such as carboxylic acids.
 Various kinds of dextran and its derivatives have been used in cosmetics depending on the
specific requirement.
 High-molecular weight dextrans like dextran-40 (MW: 40,000 Da), dextran-70 (>60,000 Da), and
dextran derivatives such as dextran sulfate and cationic dextran are the most commonly used in
cosmetic industry.
 Dextran derivatives form a thin film by adsorbing to skin or hair and moisturize. Dextran sulfate
is manufactured by sulfonation of dextran while cationic dextran is salt of dextran with anionic
or amphoteric surfactants.
 Dextran can be used to formulate the novel cosmetic delivery agent in modern cosmetic
formulations.
 Dextran-70 has been reported to be used in formulation of bioadhesive patches for wrinkle
reduction and facial augmentation.
 Dextran sulfate was used in preparation of biocompatible polymer layer for self-standing
cosmetic sheet, which is a novel delivery method for active ingredients to skin. Benefit of
cosmetic sheet is overall skin improvement, as it can absorb sebum, control perspiration and
odor of skin.

Other medical uses

 It is used in some eye drops as a lubricant and in certain intravenous fluids to solubilize other factors,
such as iron (in a solution known as Iron Dextran).
 Intravenous solutions with dextran function both as volume expanders and means of parenteral
nutrition. Such a solution provides an osmotically neutral fluid that once in the body is digested by cells
into glucose and free water. It is occasionally used to replace lost blood in emergency situations, when
replacement blood is not available,[4][10] but must be used with caution as it does not provide necessary
electrolytes and can cause hyponatremia or other electrolyte disturbances.
 It also increases blood sugar levels.

e. Glycogen:
Glycogen is a large, branched polysaccharide that is the main storage form of glucose in
animals and humans. Glycogen is as an important energy reservoir; when energy is
required by the body, glycogen in broken down to glucose, which then enters the
glycolytic or pentose phosphate pathway or is released into the bloodstream.

Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose. Glucose residues are linked linearly by α-1,4
glycosidic bonds, and approximately every ten residues a chain of glucose residues
branches off via α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The α-glycosidic bonds give rise to a helical
polymer structure. Glycogen is hydrated with three to four parts water and forms
granules in the cytoplasm that are 10-40nm in diameter. The protein glycogenin, which
is involved in glycogen synthesis, is located at the core of each glycogen granule.
 Glycogen is an analogue of starch, which is the main form of glucose storage in most
plants, but starch has fewer branches and is less compact than glycogen.

This figures shows the structure of glycogen. Green circles represent α-1,6 linkages at branch points,

and red circles represent the non-reducing ends of the chain.

 Glycogen functions as one of two forms of energy reserves, glycogen being for short-term and
the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) for long-term storage.
 In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle.
 In the liver, glycogen can make up 5–6% of the organ's fresh weight, and the liver of an adult
weighing 1.5 kg can store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen. 
 In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass) and the
skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen.[4] The amount
of glycogen stored in the body—particularly within the muscles and liver—mostly depends on
physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Small amounts of glycogen are also
found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, RBCs, WBCs and glial cells in the brain.
The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
f. Cellulose:
In plants, cellulose is the compound that gives rigidity to the cells. Plant cell walls are
made of off cellulose. The rigid structure of cellulose is what allows plants to stand
upright. The bonds between each cellulose molecule are very strong, which makes
cellulose very hard to break down.
Cellulose is a very important polysaccharide because it is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth. Cellulose is a major component of tough cell walls that surround
plant cells, and it's what makes plant stems, leaves, and branches so strong. Next time
you eat a salad, think about how much you have to chew it in order to be able to
swallow all that plant material. It certainly takes a lot of work, and this is due in part to
the structure of cellulose.
Imagine a bunch of long, thick ropes stuck together. This is very much what cellulose is
like, but on a microscopic scale. Cellulose molecules are arranged parallel to each other
and are joined together with hydrogen bonds. This forms long, cable-like structures,
which combine with other cellulose molecules and is what produces such a strong
support structure.
g. Chitin:
Chitin is a large, structural polysaccharide made from chains of modified glucose. Chitin
is found in the exoskeletons of insects, the cell walls of fungi, and certain hard
structures in invertebrates and fish. In terms of abundance, chitin is second to only
cellulose.

Function of Chitin:
Chitin, like cellulose and keratin, is a structural polymer and made from smaller
monomers, or monosaccharides, structural polymers form strong fibers. When secreted
inside or outside of cells in an organized way, the fibers form weak bonds between each
other. This adds strength to the entire structure. Chitin and cellulose are both made
from glucose monomers, while keratin is a fibrous protein. The various structural
polymers arose early in the evolution of life, because they are seen only in certain
groups. Cellulose is exclusive to plants,and chitin to the arthropods, mollusks and fungi.
Chitin and cellulose both evolved early-on in the history of life.
 Structure of Chitin:

Chitin is made up of modified glucose monosaccharides. Glucose exists as a ring of carbon and oxygen
molecules. The covalent bond between two monosaccharides are known as glycosidic bonds. The
oxygens that typically form hydroxyl groups bonded to the carbon ring can also form a bond with
another carbon instead of a hydrogen. In this way, monosaccharides can be linked together in long
chains. Chitin is formed by a series of glycosidic bonds between substituted glucose molecules.

Chitin is different from cellulose because of the substitution that occurs on the glucose molecule.
Instead of a hydroxyl group (OH), the glucose molecules in chitin have an amyl group attached that
consists of carbon and nitrogen. Nitrogen is an electrically positive molecule, while the oxygen double
bonded to the group is electrically negative. This produces a dipole in the molecule, which increases the
hydrogen bonds that can formed between these molecules and the molecules around them. When
combined in a matrix with various compounds and other chitin molecules, the resulting structure can be
very hard because of all the weak interactions between nearby molecules.

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