PURWANCHAL UNIVERSITY

Manual On

Farm Power and Machinery

For B.Sc. in Agricultural Science

Prepared By
Er. Khimananda Subedi

Aug,07-2017

1
 Chapter-I
1. Sources of Farm Power.
A Farm power is one of the most expensive and critical inputs when growing crops. Humans, animals
and machines are all used as sources of power in agriculture production. When undertaking different
operations on a farm, a certain amount of work is required to complete the task.
When this work is undertaken over time, it is then called power. Power or the rate of doing work can
be expressed as horsepower or Kilowatt. One horsepower is equivalent to 0.75 Kilowatt. In the past
much of the power used on farm came from human inputs but with much of the rural labor force now
moved to cities, farmers are becoming more dependent on machines to complete tillage, planting and
harvesting operations.
Various types of agricultural operations performed on a farm can be broadly classified as:
1. Tractive work – such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation.
2. Stationary work- such as silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing and
lifting of irrigation water.
These operations are done by different sources of power, namely human, animal, mechanical
power (oil engines and tractors), electrical power and renewable energy (solar energy, biogas,
biomass and wind energy).
1.1 Human power.
Human beings are the main sources of power for operating small tools and implements at the farm.
They are also employed for doing stationary work like threshing, winnowing, chaff cutting and lifting
irrigation water. Of the total rural population in India, only 30% is available for doing farm work. The
indications are that the decline in number of laborers employed for agriculture. On an average, a
man develops nearly 0.1 horse power (hp).
According to Campbell (1990) the power of useful work done by human being is given by
HP = 0.35 – 0.092 log t
Where, t is time in minute
Many countries are now suffering from rural labor shortages and have had to develop and use
machines to complete tasks on time. One man is capable of shifting between 2-3 m3 soils per day. In
tillage terms that is equivalent to ploughing or tilling about 60 m2 per day or it would take
approximately 160 person-days to till 1 ha.
Advantages: Easily available and used for all types of work.
Don‟t cause pollution
More efficient in small operation.
Disadvantages : Costliest power compared to all other farms of power, very low efficiency, requires
full maintenance when not in use and affected by weather condition and seasons.
1.2 Animal power
The most important source of power on the farm all over the world and particularly in India is
animal. It is estimated that, nearly 80% of the total draft power used in agriculture throughout
the World is still provided by animals. Mainly, bullocks and buffaloes happen to be the principle
2
sources of animal power. However, camels, horses, donkeys and elephants are also used for the farm
work. The average force a bullock can exert is nearly equal to one tenth of its body weight. Power
developed by an average pair of bullocks is about 1 hp for usual farm work.
Advantages:
1. Easily available.
2. Used for all types of work.
3. Low initial investment.
4. Supplies manure to the field and fuels to farmers.
5. Live on farm produce.
Disadvantages:
1. not very efficient.
2. Seasons and weather affect the efficiency.
3. Cannot work at a stretch.
4. Require full maintenance when there is no farm work.
5. Creates unhealthy and dirty atmosphere near the residence.
6. Very slow in doing work.
1.3 Mechanical power
It is available through tractors, power tillers and oil engines. The oil engine is a highly efficient device
for converting fuel into useful work. The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 and 38%,
whereas that of the carburetor engine (Petrol engine) is in the range of 25 and 32%. In recent years,
diesel engines, tractors and power tillers have gained considerable popularity in agricultural
operations Normally, stationery diesel engines are used for pumping water, flour mills, oil grains,
cotton gins, chaff cutter, sugarcane crusher, threshers and winnowers etc.,
Advantages: Efficiency is high; not affected by weather; cannot run at a stretch; requires less
space and cheaper form of power.
Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; fuel is costly and repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.
1.4 Electrical power.
Now-a- day s electricity has become a very important source of power on farms in various states
of the country. Electrical power is used mostly for running electrical motors for pumping water,
dairy industry, cold storage, farm product processing, and cattle feed grinding. It is clean source of
power and smooth running. The operating cost remains almost constant throughout its life. Its
maintenance and operation need less attention and care.
Advantages: Very cheap form of power; high efficiency; can work at a stretch; maintenance
and operating cost is very low and not affected by weather conditions.
Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; require good amount of technical knowledge and it
causes great danger, if handled without care,
1.5 Renewable energy.
It is the energy mainly obtained from biomass; biogas, solar and wind are mainly used in
agriculture for power generation and various agricultural processing operations. It can be used for
3
lighting, power generation, water heating, drying, greenhouse heating, water distillation, refrigeration
and diesel engine operation. This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature. The availability of wind
energy for farm work is quite limited. Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr, wind mills can
be used for lifting water. Main limitation for this source is uncertainty. Average capacity of a wind
mill would be about 0.5 hp.

2. Farm mechanization.
Farm mechanization is the application of engineering and technology in agricultural operations to do a
job in better way to improve productivity. This includes development, application and management of
all mechanical aids for field production, water control, material handling, storing and processing.
Mechanical aids includes hand tools, animal drawn equipments, power tillers, tractors, oil engines,
electric motors, processing and hauling equipments.
2.1 Benefits of farm mechanization.
a. Timeliness operation
b. Precision of operation
c. Improvement of working environment
d. Enhancement of safety
e. Reduction of drudgery of labour
f. Reduction of loss of crops and food products
g. Increased productivity of land
h. Increased economic return to farmer
i. Improved dignity of farmer
j. Progress and prosperity in rural areas
2.2 Limiting Factors in Farm Mechanization.
The following are the limiting factors in farm mechanization in Nepal.
a. Small land holdings
b. Less investing capacity of farmers
c. Agricultural labour is easily available
d. Adequate draft animals are available in the country
e. Lack of suitable farm machine for different operation
f. Lack of repair and servicing facilities for machines
g. Lack of trained man power
h. Lack of coordination between research organization and manufacturer
i. High cost of machines
j. Inadequate quality control of machine.
2.3 Suggestion for Farm Mechanization.
i. To develop a national policy on farm mechanization.
ii. To establish an apex body to implement the national policy on farm mechanization. This may
provide basis for industries to plan their capacities, sale and servicing of equipment.

4
 iii. To open adequate training centers for imparting training engineers, mechanics, technicians,
operators, and users on the farm power and machinery regarding proper selection, operation,
maintenance and repair of machines.
iv. To start testing and evaluating centers for farm power a11 machinery on regional basis.
v. To establish adequate centers for repairs and spare parts of machines.
vi. To reinforce tractor testing station on the lines of international testing stations.
vii. To improve the industrial policy for maintaining better quality of implements and machines.
viii. Agricultural Engineering Extension Education is required to be established on sound footing to
keep the farmers upto-date on various aspects of application of engineering to agriculture.
ix. The landless workers need financial assistance to own hand tools to improve their earnings.
x. Post harvest technology deserves special attention.
xi. Custom hiring system is required to be encouraged in rural areas.

3. Status or Assessment of Energy Demand and Supply in Nepalese Agriculture.

Animate power is the main source of power, in Nepalese agriculture. Human power and animal power
occupies 36.3 and 40.5 percent of the total farm power available in the country respectively. The
available mechanical power in the country is only 23 percent. Most of the mechanical power is
concentrated in Terai, the share of available mechanical power in Terai is 92.28% that of total
available mechanical power of Nepal. (FBC, 2006)
The traditional wooden tools and implements have continued to remain in use in the hills and
mountains. There has been some improvement in their design and performance capabilities over time.
Due to the lack of physical facilities (viz. road networks and electricity) and cultivation in narrow
terraces in hilly areas; hill agriculture is mainly depended upon human and animal power. Indigenous
wooden plough, local hoes, sickle are the major implements/ tools used for agricultural operation. In
hills only 2.7 percent of holdings own iron animal drawn plough for tillage. In the valleys near the road
heads it is observed that farmers have started using power tiller for tillage operation and it is spreading
along with the extension of rural road. Due to increasing cultivation of vegetables near uraban and peri
urban areas about 3 percent of the holdings in the hills own hand sprayer.The paddy sheller and
polisher and mechanical grinding mills are found to be adopted in majority of villages of terai and
hills. However in the mountains, still the milling is found to be performed in local devices such .s
mortar & pestle, quern and traditional water mills. Attempts have made to improve more than 2000
local water mills by changing the wooden runner in to metallic one to increase the grinding capacity
and to derive power for multiple processing operations (viz. hulling, oil expelling etc.).
In Terai, agricultural mechanization related tools used are manual tools, animal drawn implements and
mechanical power operated machinery. Traditional farm tools and equipment are still found to be
widely used in Terai. Spade, hoe, sickle etc. are major hand tools used. Animal drawn traditional
powers as well as improved implements are found to be used in agricultural operations in Terai.
Traditional wooden plough, iron mold board plough, disc harrow, wooden plank etc, are major animal
drawn implements. More than 51 percent of holding in terai own and use animal drawn iron plough
due to increased field efficiency than traditional plough and easy availability in border towns.
Animal power is also widely used for threshing through tramping action. Similarly bullock carts with
traditional type (wooden wheel) as well as improved type (rubber tyre wheel) are also common in
5
Terai, as 12 percent of the holdings own bullock cart in Terai. The zero tillage and minimum tillage
technologies has been tested and validated by NARC and it is found to be preferred by the farmers in
Terai and the valleys. Major constraint is found to be te availability of machinery and governments
support in promoting these beneficial implements. Diesel pump sets are also found to be commonly
use d for pumping water in Terai. 4-wheel tractor as well 2-wheel power tiller is increasingly used for
tillage and transportation. Use of thresher is also increasingly used for threshing operation. It is
reported that labour is getting scarce during peak agricultural periods (transplanting and at harvesting
rice) and their wage is increasing. From time to time, farmers are complaining on increased cost of
production and reduction/unexpected fluctuation of price of certain commodities like rice, wheat,
maize etc. So, some innovative farmers have imported few (20 nos) combine harvesters for custom
hiring.
Number of tractors being registered with the Department of Transport Management is increasing every
year. Total number of four & two wheel tractors registered had reached 64164. 4- Wheel tractors in the
Terai and 2 wheel tractors in the valleys have brought revolution in the tillage operation and there is
increasing trend on the adoption of tractors in Nepal.

Agricultural Engineering Division under Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Agricultural

Engineering Directorate under Department of Agriculture and Purbanchal Campus, Institute of
Engineering under Tribhuvan University are major research, extension and education institutions
related to agricultural mechanization in Nepal respectively. Blacksmiths are the primary suppliers of
agricultural traditional hand tools in the country. It is estimated that more than 85% of tools/implement
used by the farmers especially in hilly areas are made/repaired by the blacksmiths/rural artisans
(Manandhar, 1998). Major problem of the blacksmiths are lack of capital, good quality raw material,
coal and knowledge on improved technology.
There are also several small metalworking industries in Nepal mainly involved in the production of
small tools & implements and the tractor attachments, milling equipments etc. hand hoe, plough,
threshers, feed mill, feed mixture, tractor/ power tiller trailer, case wheel, oil expeller, Sheller mill,
treadle pump etc. are found to be fabricated by these small metalworking industries on demand basis.
Even though there is demand of agricultural tools and implements in the country, they are not in the
position to supply due to the lack of favorable policy, technical capability and financial constraints.
Tractor dealers dealing with different brands of tractor are promoting their tractor and attachments
among farmers through their marketing network in Nepal. Only few dealers have their own service
workshop for after sales service. Majority of the tractor dealers are found to be focusing on tractor sale
only they have least interest on the sale of tractor attachments. High interest rate on agricultural
machinery, lack of awareness on the benefit of agricultural machinery, insurgency situation in Terai
are major problems faced by agricultural machinery dealers and retailers. The importers have also
raised problem regarding the high custom duty and value added tax (VAT) during import of
agricultural equipments. Five-year time bar for the transfer of ownership of tractors and power tiller is
also realized as one of the constraints for the availability of credit from other commercial banks other
than ADBN.

6
4. Non- Conventional Energy Resources and its utilization.
Energy is one of the most essential needs of man. Major problem that confronts mankind today is
inadequate availability of energy as its conventional sources are fast exhausting. Energy largely
produced from conventional sources such as petroleum oil and gasses however, they are exhaustible
sources. Energy problem is increasing day by day due to population explosion, environmental
degradation and fast depleting reserves of fossil fuels. With ever increasing shortage of fossil fuels and
it has adverse impact on nation‟s economy. Hence, it has become a compelling need to explore
renewable sources of energy for agricultural and domestic purpose. The energy drawn from virtually
unlimited and continuously replenishing source such as the radiation from the sun, without severely
damaging the environment is known as renewable energy (RE) or non-conventional energy. It is well
known fact that all other sources of energy available in the earth for humanly use, be it renewable or
non-renewable, are the derivatives of the energy from the sun. In other words, the sun is the ultimate
source of all other forms of energy.

According to above definition of RE, the following sources of energy are called renewable energy and
the technology associated with the use of these energies is referred to as renewable energy technology
(RET):
The total energy consumption in Nepal was estimated to be 8576 million tones (tones oil equivalent) in
2003. The per capita consumption of energy is 15 Giga Joule (GJ). The energy supply is being
provided mostly by traditional and semi- traditional energy sources and some by commercial and
modem energy sources.
Regarding energy consumption pattern by fuel type, about 85% energy consumption is traditional fuel
wood, agricultural residues and animal waste in the country. The share of commercial energy like coal
and petroleum is 12.8%, whereas the share of electricity is only 1.5%. Similarly, the share of
renewable is less than 1%. The energy consumption sectors are households (89.05%), industrial
(5.25%), commercial (1.33%) transport (3.44%) and agriculture (0.79%) respectively. Thus, household
sector is the major energy-consuming sector in the country.
About 90% rural households still depend upon traditional energy sources like fuel wood, agricultural
residue and animal waste for cooking food and kerosene for lighting in Nepal. The consumption of this
energy has a negative effect on the quality of lives of the people, since it takes much time to collect
wood and causes adverse effects on health. Besides, these traditional energy sources are neither
sustainable nor desirable from environmental considerations. Therefore, there is a need to replace or
supplement those energy supply systems by modern forms of renewable energy. The available sources
for renewable energy development in Nepal are water, sun, wind, biomass, hot spring and so on. These
renewable energy sources are un-interruptible and infinitely available due to their widespread
complementary technologies, which can accommodate the country's need to diversify supply. Besides,
these energy sources are environmentally friendly as they have very little or no negative impact on
Green House Gases (GHG), landscape, climate, and physical and topographical environment-
By exploiting the available energy resources the possible renewable energy technologies, which can
generate power, are: pico-hydro and micro-hydro power, biomass related biogas, briquettes, gasifire,
liquid bio-fuel, improved cooking stove, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal and wind powered plants. Of
these technologies, micro-hydro, biogas, improved cooking stove, solar photovoltaic (PV) home
7
systems and solar water heaters are becoming popular and are at varying stages of commercialization.
However, the technologies such as; solar cooker, solar dryer, liquid bio-fuel, briquettes, wind and
geothermal are only in research and demonstration stage, which still needs commercialization.
4.1 Solar Energy and its utility
The energy from the sun can be exploited directly in the form of heat or first converted into electrical
energy and then utilized. Accordingly the solar energy is classified into solar thermal and solar
photovoltaic (PV). Solar thermal class of RE has found numerous applications like water heating,
Space heating, drying vegetables and agricultural products, cooking etc. In Nepal the solar water
heaters are being extensively used in urban areas. The applications of solar dryers and cookers have
found moderate use simply because of the low level of dissemination of these technologies.
The solar PV, on the other hand, is extensively used not only in the developing countries but also in
highly developed countries for power generation and lighting. The application of solar PV is virtually
unlimited. Countries like Germany, Japan and United States of America have initiated highly
subsidized rooftop programs for solar PV. Photovoltaic (PV) Technology is a process of generating
electrical energy from the energy of solar radiation. The principle of conversion of solar energy into
electrical energy is based on the effect called photovoltaic effect. The smallest part of the device that
converts solar energy into electrical energy is called solar cell. Solar cells are in fact large area
semiconductor diodes, which are made by combining silicon material with different impurities. The
sand, a base material for semiconductor, is the most abundantly available raw material in the world.
The ordinary sand (SiO2) is the raw form of silicone.
4.2 Wind Energy
Wind energy has been utilized since ancient times as windmills for milling and water lifting.
Developed countries like Denmark, Norway, US and developing country like India are utilizing wind
energy in very large scale to generate electricity. In Nepal wind energy has found very limited
applications, simply because of non-availability of reliable wind data (wind map).
4.3 Bio-Fuel Energy
The liquid based fuel derived from trees, vegetable and agricultural products are categorized as bio-
fuel. The examples of bio-fuel are seed oil, vegetable oil, ethanol, methanol etc. In some of the
countries of the world, the traditional fossil fuel has been replaced by bio-fuel to run the vehicles.
Some research has been undertaken in Nepal to exploit seed oil, but mass production and useful
applications are yet to be undertaken.
4.4 Biomass and its utility.
Plant matter created by process of photosynthesis is called biomass. It includes all plant life, trees,
agricultural plants, bush, grasses, algae, and livestock wastes. The gas produced by biomass through
the fermentation in digestion chamber is called bio-gas. Whereas the gas produced by the combustion
of biomasses in gasifier is called producer gasses. Being agriculture based country; Nepal has a
plentiful supply of agricultural residue and animal waste. Similarly, the country is rich in forest
resources. Therefore, the country has a potential for biomass energy.

8
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Internal combustion engine is the engine designed to derive its power from fuel, burn within cylinder.
Fuel is mixed with the air and burned in gas turbine plant as shown in figure. The hot gasses are passed
through the turbine to generate the power and then the gasses are exhausted. In this case, the same
working fluid (air) cannot be used again in the cycle. During the next cycle, again, the fresh air is taken
and mixed with the fuel for heating. It uses the expansive force of gasses produced by burning the fuel
within the cylinder. The motion of the piston rotates a crankshaft with the help of a connecting rod.
The heat that supplies the energy for working substance is generated within cylinder. Hence, the name
is given as Internal Combustion Engine where suction, compression, combustion and expansion are
carried out in different components.
1. Engine component and their function
The arrangements of different engine parts for 4-stroke spark ignition engine (petrol engine) and 4-
stroke compression ignition engine (Diesel engine) are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The purpose of each
part is described in short as follows:
a. Cylinder.
The cylinder of an I.C. engine is considered as the main body of the engine in which piston
reciprocates to develop power. It is a part of the engine which confines the expanding gases and forms
the combustion space. It provides space in which piston operates to suck the air or air-fuel mixture.
The piston compresses the charge and the gas is allowed to expand in the cylinder, transmitting power
for useful work. It has to withstand very high pressures (about 70 bars) and temperatures (about 2200 °
C) because there is direct combustion inside the cylinder. Therefore, its material should be such that it
can retain strength at high temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should resist to rapid
wear and tear due to reciprocating parts. Generally ordinary cast iron is used, but in case of heavy duty
engines, alloy steels are used.
b.Cylinder head.
The cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It houses the inlet and exhaust valves through which
the charge is taken inside the cylinder and burned gases are exhausted to the atmosphere from the
cylinder. Cylinder head is usually cast as one piece and bolted to the top of the cylinder, A cupper
asbestos gaskets are provided between the cylinder and cylinder-head to obtain a gas-tight joint. The
material used for the cylinder-head is also cast iron.
c.Piston and Piston Rings.
It is a cylindrical part closed at one end which maintains a close sliding fit in the engine cylinder. It is
connected to the connecting rod by a piston pin. The functions of the piston are to compress the charge
during compression stroke and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then to the crank
during power stroke. The force of the expanding gases against the closed end of the piston, forces the
piston down in the cylinder. This causes the connecting rod to rotate the crankshaft. The pistons of I.C.
engines are usually made of cast iron, cast steel and aluminum alloy. Piston is the heart of the engine.
The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston.
It gives gastight fitting between the piston and the cylinder and prevents the leakage of high pressure
gases. These are made of special grade cast iron or pressed steel alloy. This material retains its elastic

9
property at very high temperature. The upper piston rings are called the compression rings and the
lower piston rings are called the oiling or oil control rings. The functions of the ring are as follows:
 It forms a gas tight combustion chamber for all positions of piston.
 It reduces contact area between cylinder wall and piston wall for preventing friction losses and
excessive wear.
 It controls the cylinder lubrication and transmits heat away from the piston to cylinder walls.

b. Connecting Rod.
It is special type of rod, one end of which is attached to the piston and the other end to the crankshaft.
It transmits the power of combustion to the crankshaft and makes it rotate continuously. It is usually a
steel forging of circular, rectangular, I, T, or H section and is highly polished for increased endurance
strength. Its small end forms a hinge and pin joint with the piston and its big end is connected to the
crank by crank pin. It has a passage for the transfer of lubricating oil from the big end bearing to small
end bearing (gudgeon pin).
c. Crank and Crankshaft.
Crankshaft is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion of flywheel. Both are steel forged and machined to a smooth finish. The two are held
together by means of a key. Crankshaft is supported in main bearings and has a heavy wheel as counter
weights throughout its length to have counter balance of the unit, called flywheel, to even out the
fluctuations of torque. The power required for any useful purpose is taken from crankshaft only. The
crankshaft is the back bone of the engine. Crankshaft is subjected to bending as well as twisting from
the connecting rod end.
d. Piston Pin or Wrist Pin: It is also called Gudgeon pin. The piston pin provides the bearing for the
oscillating small end of the connecting rod. Piston pin is used to join the connecting rod to the
piston. It provides a flexible or hinge like connection between the piston and the connecting rod. It
is usually made of case hardened alloy steel.
e. Cam-shaft:
It is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper time. Camshaft is driven by
crankshaft by means of gears, chains or sprockets. The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed
of the crankshaft in four stroke engine. The function of the cam shaft is to operate the intake and
exhaust valves through the cams, cam followers, push rods and rocker arms. The cam shaft is driven
positively from the crankshaft at half the speed of the crankshaft.
f. Cam and Cam-follower: It is made of a required profile to give desired motion to the valve
through the follower.
g. Timing gear:
Timing gear is a combination of gears, one gear of which is mounted at one end of the camshaft and
the other gear on the end of the crankshaft. Camshaft gear is bigger in size than that of the crankshaft
gear and it has twice as many teeth as that of the crankshaft gear. For this reason, this gear is
commonly called Half time gear. Timing gear controls the timing of ignition, timing of opening and
closing of valves as well as fuel injection timing.

10
h. Push-rod and Rocker Arm: The motion of the cam is transmitted to the valve through the push
rod and rocker arm. These links together are also known as valve gear.

Figure 1: components and assembly of 4-stroke petrol engine

Figure 2: Component involve in valve operation and timing of gear

11
i. Crank case: The crankcase is that part of the engine which supports and encloses the crankshaft
and camshaft. It provides a reservoir or the sump for the lubricating oil of the engine. It also serves
as a mounting unit for such accessories as the oil pump, oil filter, generator, starting motor and
ignition components. The upper portion of the crankcase is usually integral with cylinder block.
The lower part of the crankcase is commonly called oil pan and is usually made of cast iron or cast
aluminum.
j. Water Jacket: The jackets are provided as shown in Fig. and are used for cooling the engine. In
dry linear cooling water is not in contact with metal whereas in wet liners, metal come in contact
with the cooling water.

Figure 3: Position of water jacket in engine cylinder.

k. Bed Plate: The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed-plate. The bed plates are held by
the bed bolts to concrete foundations.
l. Flywheel:
It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft which stores excess energy during the power stroke and returns
that energy during the other strokes and maintains a fairly constant output torque on the crankshaft
(reduces cyclic variation of speed). Fly wheel is made of cast iron. It‟s main functions are as follows:
i. It stores energy during power stroke and returns back the same energy during the idle strokes,
providing a uniform rotary motion by virtue of its inertia.
ii. It also carries ring gear that meshes with the pinion of starting motor.
iii. The rear surface of the flywheel serves as one of the pressure surfaces for the clutch, plate.
iv. Engine timing marks are usually stamped on the flywheel, which helps in adjusting the timing
of the engine.
v. Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for transmitting power
m. Governor: It is run by a drive from the crankshaft. The function of the governs regulate the charge
in case of petrol engine and amount of fuel in case of Diesel engine to ma the speed of the engine
constant, when the load requirement varies. The components described above are commonly used
for all types of internal combustion engines. The few components which are used in some types of
engines only are described below.
12
n. Carburetor: The function of the carburetor is to supply the uniform air-fuel cylinder of a petrol
engine through the intake manifold. The mass of the mixture enter cylinder is controlled by a
throttle valve.
o. Spark Plug: The function of the spark plug is to initiate the mixture after completing the
compression in the petrol engine. It is generally mounted in the cylinder head. This is only used in
petrol engine.
p. Fuel Pump: It forces the fuel oil at high pressure through fuel nozzle into the cylinder at the end of
compression stroke in diesel engine.
q. Fuel Nozzle: The function of fuel nozzle is to break up the oil into a fine spray as it enters the
cylinder of diesel engine.
r. Inlet Valve: This valve controls the admission of the charge into the petrol engine or air into diesel
engine during suction stroke of the engine. It is fitted by the side of the cylinder head.
s. Exhaust Valve: The removal of exhaust gases after doing work on the piston, is controlled by this
valve. It is capable of with-standing high temperature of burnt gases.

Figure 4: Position of Inlet and Exhaust manifold

2. Basic Engine Nomenclature

In addition to the above parts, certain standard terminology commonly used for I.C. engines is given
below:
a. Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore.
b. Stroke: The maximum distance travelled by the piston in the cylinder in one direction is known as
stroke and it is equal to twice the radius of the crank.
c. Top Dead Centre (TDC): The extreme position of the piston at the top of the cylinder (head end
side) is called “top dead centre” (TDC) position. In the case of horizontal engines this is known as
“inner dead centre” (IDC) position.

13
d. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): The extreme position of the piston at the bottom of the cylinder is
called “bottom dead centre” (BDC) position. In case of horizontal engine this is known as “outer
dead centre” (ODC) position. The distance between these two extreme positions is known as
“stroke length”.
e. Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston when the
piston is at TDC, is called the clearance volume and is denoted by vc
f. Piston Displacement or Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving
between TDC and BDC is defined as the piston displacement or swept volume and it is denoted by
vs. Therefore cylinder volume = (vs + vc). Swept volume = Area of Piston × Stroke Length.
g. Compression Ratio: The ratio of the volume when the piston is at BDC to the volume when the
piston is at TDC is called the compression ratio and it is denoted by Rc= V1÷ V2 = (VS + Vc) ÷ Vc

Figure 5: Terminology used in Engine Cylinder

3. Working Principle of I.C engine.

3.1 Principle.
A mixture of fuel of correct amount of air is explored in an engine cylinder which is closed at one end.
As a result of explosion, heat is released and this causes the pressure of the burning gases to increase.
This pressure increase, forces a close fitting piston to move down the cylinder. This movement of
piston is transmitted to a crankshaft by a connecting rod so that the crankshaft turns a flywheel. To
obtain continuous rotation of crankshaft this explosion has to repeat. Before this can happen, the used
gasses have to expelled from cylinder, the fresh charges of fuel and air most be admitted and the piston
must be moved back to its starting position. This sequence of events is known as working cycle.
3.2 Working.
I.C engine converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crank shaft by means of
connecting rod. This piston which reciprocates in the cylinder is very close fit in the cylinder. Rings
14
are inserted in the circumferential grooves of the piston to prevent leakage of gases from sides of the
piston. Usually a cylinder is bored in a cylinder block and a gasket, made of copper sheet or asbestos is
inserted between the cylinder and the cylinder head. The combustion space is provided at the top of the
cylinder head where combustion takes place. There is a rod called connecting rod for connecting the
piston and the crankshaft. A pin called gudgeon pin or wrist pin is provided for connecting the piston
and the connecting rod of the engine. The end of the connecting rod which fits over the gudgeon pin is
called small end of the connecting rod. The other end of the connecting rod fits over the crank pin is
called big end of the connecting rod. The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted in the
crankcase. A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque
produced by engine. There is oil sump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for
lubricating different parts of the engine. Mechanical cycle of internal combustion engine can be
completed in two ways:
a. When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle
engines.
b. When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called two stroke cycle
engines.

Figure 6: Working Components of I.C Engine

4. Four Stroke Cycle Petrol or Spark Ignition Engine

4.1 Working Principle.
In four stroke cycle engine, all the events taking place inside the engine cylinder; and working cycle is
completed in four strokes of the piston or in 2 revolutions of crank and petrol is used as fuel. This
engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of exhaust gasses. The opening and
closing of the valve is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft. The camshaft is driven by crankshaft
with the help of suitable gears or chains. The camshaft runs at half the speed of the crankshaft. The
complete working cycles of its covers all events in systematic manner.

15
a) Suction Stroke: The piston is at the top most position (TDC) and is ready to a move down
drawing the mixture of fuel (petrol) and air. The inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed. As the
piston moves downwards, a fresh charge of fuel-air mixture enters the cylinder through the inlet valve
due to the suction created as shown in figure. This continues until piston reaches BDC. At this
position, the inlet valve closes. This downward movement of the piston is known as suction stroke and
the crank rotates by 180° during this period.
Compression Stroke: During this stroke, both valves (inlet and exhaust) are closed and the piston
moves upward and compresses the charge enclosed in the cylinder. The pressure and temperature of
the mixture increases continuously during this process. As the piston reaches the top dead centre
position, the mixture is ignited by an electric spark. The burning of the mixture is more or less
instantaneous and the pressure and temperature of the gases increase while the volume remains
constant.
b) Power Stroke or Expansion Stroke: The increased pressure of the mixture exerts a large force
and pushes the piston down. During the expansion stroke, both valves remain closed. The high
pressure and high temperature gases push the piston downwards and the gas pressure gradually
decreases. During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. This stroke is known as power
stroke, as work is done during this stroke. The exhaust valve opens as the piston reaches BDC position
and pressure falls suddenly to atmospheric pressure at constant volume.
Exhaust Stroke: During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve is open and inlet valve is
closed. The piston moves up in cylinder pushing out the burnt gases through the exhaust valve. As the
piston reaches the TDC, again the inlet valve opens and fresh charge is taken in during next downward
movement of the piston and the cycle is repeated

Figure 7: Working of 4-stroke petrol engine.

16
5. Four Stroke Cycle Diesel or Compression Ignition Engine
5.1 Working Principle:
The working cycle of the engine is completed in four strokes and diesel oil is used as fuel, therefore, it
is known as four stroke diesel engines. The working of the engine is described as follows.
a) Suction Stroke: The suction is similar to that in petrol engine except that only air is taken into
the cylinder.
b) Compression Stroke: Compression is also similar, but near the end of compression, pressure and
temperature of the air is about 60 bar and 600°C respectively.
c) Expansion Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and fuel valve opens
just before the beginning of the third stroke. The supply of fuel is continued during a small part of the
expansion stroke. The temperature of the air at the end of compression stroke is sufficient to ignite the
fuel. The combustion of fuel is continued at constant pressure as long as the fuel valve is open. The
high pressure and high temperature gases push the piston down even after the fuel valve is closed. The
exhaust valve opens when the piston reaches BDC.
d) Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet and fuel valves remain closed and exhaust valve
remains open. The piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burned gases. The piston reaches
the TDC and completes the exhaust stroke and becomes ready for the next cycle.

Figure 8: Working of 4-stroke diesel engine

6. Two Stroke Petrol Engine.

In this engine, the working cycle is completed in two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the
crankshaft instead of 4-strokes or two revolutions of crankshaft as in case of 4-stroke engine. In case of
two strokes engine, the values are replaced by the ports. Two rows of the ports at different levels are
cut in the cylinder walls as shown in Fig. These are known as Exhaust ports and transfer ports. In the
case of single cylinder engines, a third row of ports is provided below the first two and these are
17
known as inlet ports. A specific shape is given to the piston crown as shown in Fig which helps to
prevent the loss of incoming fresh charge being short-circuited through the transfer ports and helps for
exhausting only the burnt gases. The charging of the cylinder with air-fuel mixture incases of petrol
engine or with air in case of diesel engine, compression of mixture of air, expansion of gases and
exhausting of burnt gases from the cylinder are carried out in two strokes. This can be done by using
the following two methods.
a) By using the closed crank-case compression. In this method, the crank case works as an air-pump
as the piston moves up and down. The charge or air to be admitted in the cylinder is compressed in
the crank-case by the pumping action of the underside of the piston as shown in Fig. This system is
known as three channel system and commonly used for single cylinder small power engines as
scooter and motorcycle engines.
b) A separate pump outside the cylinder is provided to compress the charge or air before forcing it
into the cylinder. The pump is an integral part of the engine and it is driven by the engine itself.
This method of charging is used for large capacity multi cylinder engines.
6.1 Working Principle.
It will be easier to describe the cycle beginning at the point when the piston has reached to TDC
completing the compression stroke. The position of the piston at the end of compression is shown in
Fig 13 (a). The spark is produced by the spark plug as the piston reaches the TDC. The pressure and
Temperature of the gases increase and the gases push the piston downward producing the power
stroke. When the piston uncovers (opens) the exhaust port as shown in Fig. 13 (b) during the
downward stroke, the expanded burnt gases leave the cylinder through the exhaust port. A little later,
the piston uncovers (opens) the transfer ports also as shown in Fig.13 (c). In this position, the crank
case is directly connected to the cylinder through transfer port. During the downward stroke of the
piston, the charge in the crank-case is compressed by the underside of the piston to a pressure of 1.4
bars. At this position, as shown in Fig. 13 (c), the compressed charge (fuel + air) is transferred through
the transfer port to the upper part of the cylinder. The exhaust gases are swept out wife the help of
fresh charge. The piston crown shape helps in this sweeping action as well as it prevents the loss of
fresh charge carried with the exhaust gases. This is continued until the piston reaches BDC position.
This action of sweeping out the exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known as “Scavenging”.
The scavenging helps to remove the burnt gases from the cylinder. During this stroke of the piston
(downward stroke) the following processes are completed.

Figure 9: Two stroke petrol engine

18
a) Power is developed by the downward movement of the piston caused by the high pressure gases.
b) The exhaust gases are removed completely from the cylinder by scavenging.
c) The charge is compressed in the crank-case with the help of underside of the piston
As the piston moves upward, it covers the transfer ports stopping the flow of fresh-charge into the
cylinder, A little later, the piston covers the exhaust ports and actual compression of the charge begins.
This position of the piston is shown in Fig. 13 d. The upward motion of the piston during this stroke
lower the pressure in the crank case below atmosphere, therefore, a fresh charge is induced in the crank
case through the inlet ports as they are uncovered by the piston.
The compression of the charge is continued until the piston reaches to its original position (TDC) and
the cycle is completed as shown in Fig. 13 (a).

Figure 10: Working of 2-stroke petrol engine.

a. Partly scavenging takes place as the piston moves from BDC to the position shown in Fig. 13 (c).
b. The fresh charge is sucked in the crankcase through the carburetor.
c. Compression of the charge is completed as the piston moves from the position shown in Fig. 13 (c)
to TDC as shown in Fig.13 (a).
The cycle of the engine is completed within two strokes of the piston.

7. Comparison of S.I. and C.I. Engines.

Following points are important for the comparison of petrol engines and diesel engines.
Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
1. A petrol engine draws a mixture of petrol and 1. A diesel engine draws only air during suction
air during suction stroke stroke.
2. The injector is employed to inject the fuel at the
1. The carburetor is employed to mix air and
petrol in the required proportion and to supply end of compression stroke.
it to the engine during suction stroke
19
 3. Pressure at the end of compression is about 501
2. Pressure at the end of compression is about 10
to 75 bar
to 15 bar
3. The charge (i.e. petrol and air mixture) is 4. The fuel is injected in the form of fine spray.
ignited with the help of spark plug. The temperature of the compressed air (about
600°C at a pressure of about 50 bar) is sufficiently
high to ignite the fuel.
5. Combustion of fuel takes place approximately
4. Combustion of fuel takes place approximately
at constant pressure. In other words, it works on
at constant volume. In other words, it works
Diesel cycle.
on Otto cycle.
6. A diesel engine has compression ratio
5. A petrol engine has compression ratio
approximately from 14 to 22.
approximately from 6 to 10.
7. The starting is little difficult due to high
6. The starting is easy due to low compression
compression ratio.
ratio.
8. As the compression ratio is high, the diesel
7. As the compression ratio is low, the petrol
engines are heavier and costlier.
engines are lighter and cheaper.
9. The running cost of diesel engine is low
8. The running cost of a petrol engine is high
because of the lower cost of diesel.
because of the higher cost of petrol.
10. The maintenance cost is high.
9. The maintenance cost is less.
11. The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%.
10. The thermal efficiency is up to about 30%.
12. Overheating trouble is less due to high
11. Overheating trouble is more due to low
thermal efficiency.
thermal efficiency.
12. These are relatively low speed engines. (2000
12. These are high speed engines. (5000 RPM)
RPM).
14. The diesel engines are generally employed in
13. The petrol engines are generally employed in
heavy duty vehicles like buses, trucks, and earth
light duty vehicles such as scooters, motor-
moving machines and small capacity power plants
cycle, cars
(2 to 5 MW).

8. Air Cleaners.
Engines use a large quantity of air for fuel combustion. As the tractor engine has to work most of the
time under dusty conditions, it is very desirable that air supplied to the engine is kept free from
abrasive materials. To remove dirt and abrasive materials, it is necessary to filter the air before
admitting it to the engine. The development of efficient air cleaner has been of great importance in
extending the useful life of farm tractors and improving their operating efficiency. The dirt collected
on the air cleaner increases the resistance to air flow. The dirtier the air cleaner becomes, the lesser the
air flow to the engine and thus the performance of the engine is affected. A partially clogged air
cleaner is a common cause of a diesel engine smoking. Abnormal wear on the top piston rings and on

20
the intake valve indicates ineffective air cleaning. The air cleaner, assembly, the pipe connecting the
engine and the cleaner constitute the air intake system. (Fig.14 (a)).

Figure 11 a). Oil bath type air cleaner b). Oil soaked type cleaner cum crankcase breather

The early models of tractors were fitted with dry type air cleaners which proved to be in effective
under dusty conditions in the field. The research findings indicated that the maximum dusty conditions
exist between the ground and the tractor body. Hence, the air intake pipe must be extended above the
hood and dry type cleaners are ineffective. There are two common types of air cleaners used on farm
engines: (i) oil soaked element type, and (ii) oil bath type.
The oil soaked element type cleaner consists of a container filled with wire screens saturated with
lubricating oil used in the crankcase. The dust particles are held by the oil film when the air stream
comes in contact with it. This type of air cleaner is the one often used in its smaller size on crankcase
ventilation systems. It is also used on stationary engines which are not expected to work under very
dusty conditions. The filtering element is periodically cleaned by blowing off the accumulated dirt
with compressed air. If too much dirt has accumulated, it should be washed in kerosene and
subsequently cleaned by pressurized air to remove all traces of the kerosene. It should then be
thoroughly soaked in new oil before being installed.
The oil bath cleaner is the most common type of air cleaner used on farm tractors (Fig.14.a). Dusty air
is allowed to pass through an oil bath. A mixture of oil spray and air are carried upward. The oil is
entrapped by the filtering element and drops back while the clean air goes to the engine or carburetor.
All the fine dust particles which are carried by the air will be washed from the filtering element as the
oil drains back to the cup. Due to constant use, the oil in the cup becomes thicker and thicker and must
be replaced by fresh oil after 10 hours of work under normal dusty condition. On jobs where there is
little or no dust, the oil should only be changed whenever dirt has collected to a depth of about 3 to 6
mm in the bottom of the cup. At least once a year (more often in dusty conditions) the entire air cleaner
system should be thoroughly washed. Whilst refilling the oil cup, care should be taken that the proper
oil level is maintained in the cup.

21
Pre-cleaners: The pre-cleaner plays a very important part in air cleaning. Under severe dusty
conditions, in the absence of a pre-cleaner, air cleaner parts become loaded with too much of dust.
Most of the pre-cleaners function on the centrifugal principle, the bigger dust particles being separated
out before the air is passed on to the oil cup [Fig. 15. (a)]. Generally pre-cleaners are placed about 45
cm (18 in.) above the hood where the intensity of dust is not severe.
9. Cooling System of IC Engine.
9.2 Introduction.
Fuel is burnt inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine to produce power. The temperature
produced on the power stroke of an engine can be as high as 1600°C and this is greater than melting
point of engine parts.
The cylinder and cylinder head are usually made of cast iron and piston in most cases is made of
aluminum alloy. It is estimated that about 40% of total heat produced is passed to the atmosphere via
the exhaust, 30% is removed by cooling system and only about 30% is used to produce useful power.
9.3 Bad effect of high temperature in the engine.
a. Cylinder and piston may expand to such an extent that the piston would seize in the cylinder and
stop the engine.
b. Lubricating quality of the oil inside the cylinder would be destroyed due to high temperature and
there may not be sucking of air in the cylinder.
c. Pre-ignition of fuel mixture would take place and would cause engine knocking as well as loss of
power.
For satisfactory performance of the engine, neither overheating nor over-cooling is desirable.
Experiments have shown that best operating temperature of I.C. engine lies between 140°F to 200°F,
depends upon types of engines and load conditions

22
 Figure 12: Pre-cleaner along with oil bath

9.4 Purpose of Cooling.

a. To maintain optimum temperature of engine for efficient operation under all conditions.
b. To dissipate surplus heat for protection of engine components like cylinder, cylinder head, piston,
piston rings and valves.
c. To maintain the lubricating property of the oil inside the engine cylinder for normal functioning of
the engine.
9.5 Method of Cooling.
There are two different methods of cooling:
23
a. Air Cooling and
b. Water Cooling
9.5.1 Air Cooling.
Air cooled engines are those engines, in which heat is conducted from the working components of the
engine to the atmosphere directly. In such engines, cylinders are generally not grouped in a block.
a. Principle of air cooling.
The cylinder of an air cooled engine has fins to increase the area of contact of air for speedy cooling.
The cylinder is normally enclosed in a sheet metal casing called Cowling. The flywheel has blades
projecting from its face, so that it acts like a fan drawing air through a hole in the cowling and
directing it around the finned cylinder. For maintenance of air cooling system, passage of air is kept
clean by removing grasses etc. This is done by removing the cowling and cleaning out the dirt etc by a
stiff brush or compressed air. When separate fan is provided, the belt tension is to be checked and
adjusted if necessary.
Advantages of air cooled engine.
a. It is more simple in design and construction.
b. Water jackets, radiators, water pump, thermostat, pipes, hoses etc. are not needed.
c. It is more compact.
d. It is comparatively lighter in weight
Disadvantages of air cooled engine.
a. There is uneven cooling of the engine parts.
b. Engine temperature is generally high during working period.
9.5.2 Water Cooling.
Engines, using water as cooling medium is called “water cooled engines”. The liquid is circulated
round the cylinders to absorb heat from the cylinder walls. In general, water is used as cooling liquid.
The heated water is conducted through a radiator which helps in cooling the water.
There are three common methods of water cooling:
a. Open jacket or hopper method.
b. Thermo-siphon method.
c. Forced circulation method.
a. Open jacket or hopper method
There is a hopper or a jacket containing water, which surrounds the engine cylinder as shown in figure.
So long as the hopper contains water, the engine continues to operate satisfactorily. As soon as the
water starts boiling, it is replaced by cold water. The hopper is large enough to run for several hours
without refilling. A drain plug is provided in a low accessible position for draining water as and when
required. This system is not common in present days.
b. Thermo-siphon Method.
It consists of radiator, water jacket, fan, temperature gauge and hose connections. The system is based
on the principle that heated water which surrounds the cylinder becomes lighter in weight and it rises
24
upwards in liquid column. Hot water goes to the radiator, where it passes through tubes surrounded by
air. Circulation of water takes place due to the reason that water jacket and the radiator are connected
at both sides i.e. at the top and the bottom. A fan is driven with the help of a V-belt to suck air through
tubes of the radiator unit, cooling radiator water. The disadvantage of the system is that circulation of
water is greatly reduced by accumulation of scale or foreign matter in the passage and consequently it
causes overheating of the engine.

Figure 13: Open jacket or hopper system

c. Forced Circulation Method.

In this method, a Water pump is used to force water from the radiator to the water jacket of the engine.
After circulating the entire run of water jacket, water comes back to the radiator where it loses its heat
by the process of radiation. To maintain the correct engine temperature, a thermostat valve is placed at
the outer end of cylinder head as shown in figure. Cooling liquid is by-passed through the water jacket
of the engine until the engine attains the desire temperature. Then thermostat valve opens and the by-
pass is closed, allowing the water to go to the radiator. The system consists of :
1. Water pump 2. Radiator 3. Fan 4. Fan-belt 5. Water jacket 6. Thermostat valve
7. Temperature gauge 8. Hose pipe.

Figure 14: Forced circulation system

25
 I. Water pump: It is a centrifugal type pump. It has a casing and an impeller, mounted on a shaft.
The casing is usually made of cast iron. Pump shaft is made of some non-corrosive material. At
the end of the shaft, a small pulley is fitted which is driven by a V-belt. Water pump is mounted
at the front end of the cylinder block between the block and the radiator. When the impeller
rotates, the water between the impeller blades is thrown outward by centrifugal force and thus
water goes to the cylinder under pressure. The pump outlet is connected by a hose pipe to the
bottom of the radiator. The impeller shaft is supported on one or more bearings. There is a seal
which prevents leakage of water.
II. Radiator: Radiator is a device for cooling the circulating water in the engine. It holds a large
volume of water in close contact with a large volume of air, so that heat is transferred from the
water to the air easily. Hot water flows into the radiator at the top and cold water flows out from
the bottom. Tubes or passages carry the water from the top of the radiator to the bottom, passing
it over a large metal surface. Air flows between the tubes or through the cells at right angles to
the downward flowing water. This helps in transferring the heat from the water to the
atmosphere.
III. Thermostat valve:
It is a control valve, used in the cooling system to control the flow of water when activated by a
temperature signal. It is a special type of valve, which closes the inlet passage of the water connected
to the radiator. The thermostat is placed in the water passage between the cylinder head and the top of
radiator. Its purpose is to close this passage when the engine is cold, so that water circulation is
restricted, causing the engine to reach operating temperature more quickly. Thermostats are designed
to start opening at 70°C to 75°C and then fully open at 82°C for petrol engine and 88-90°C for diesel
engine. The thermostat valves are of two types:
IV. Water jackets:
Water jackets are cored out around the engine cylinder so that water can circulate freely around the
cylinder as well as around the valve opening.
V. Fan:
The fan is usually mounted on the water pump shaft. It is driven by the same belt that drives the pump
and the dynamo. The Purpose of the fan is to provide strong draft of air through the radiator improve
engine cooling.

10. Lubrication System.

10.1 Introduction.
I.C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two metallic surfaces over
each other, there is wearing of moving parts, generation of heat and loss of power in the engine.
Lubrication of moving parts is essential to prevent all these harmful effects.
10.2. Purpose of Lubrication
Lubrication produces the following effects:
a. Reducing frictional effect:

26
The primary purpose of the lubrication is to reduce friction and wear between two rubbing surfaces.
Two rubbing surfaces always produce friction. The continuous friction produces heat which causes
wearing of parts and loss of power. In order to avoid friction, the contact of two sliding surfaces must
be reduced as far as possible. This can be done by proper lubrication only. Lubrication forms an oil
film between two moving surfaces. Lubrication also reduces noise, produced by the movement of two
metal surfaces over each other.
b. Cooling effect:
The oil which comes in contact between two surfaces also carries the heat and cool then. This cooling
action takes place simultaneously with lubrication. The heat, generated by piston, cylinder, and
bearings is removed by lubrication to a great extent. Lubrication creates cooling effect on the engine
parts. During cooling process, the oil carries the heat which may promote oxidation. Therefore, oil
used must possess good oxidation stability.
c. Sealing effect and
The lubricant enters into the gap between the cylinder liner, piston and piston rings. Thus, it prevents
leakage of gases from the engine cylinder.
b. Cleaning effect: The piston rings and bearing of gudgeon pin are exposed to the burned gases
and they are contaminated by the carbon deposits. When lubrication keeps then the engine clean by
removing dirt or carbon from inside of the engine along with the oil.
10.3 Types of Lubricant.
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals. Lubricants made of animal fat, does
not stand much heat. It becomes waxy and gummy which is not very suitable for machines.
Vegetable lubricants are obtained from seeds, fruits and plants. Cotton seed oil, olive oil, linseed oil
and castor oil are used as lubricant in small simple machines.
Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from crude petroleum
found in nature. Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and suitable for internal combustion engines.
A good lubricant should have the following qualities:
i. It should have sufficient viscosity to keep the rubbing surfaces apart.
ii. It should remain stable under changing temperatures.
iii. It should keep lubricated parts clean.
iv. It should not corrode metallic surfaces.

11. Fuel Supply System.

11.1 Properties of Fuel.
Fuel is a substance consumed by the engine to produce energy. The common fuel for Internal
combustion engines are:
a. Petrol
b. Power kerosene
c. High speed diesel oil
d. Light diesel oil
The important properties of these fuels are given in the following table.
27
S.No. Name of fuel A.P.I. degree Specific gravity Calorific value
(Kcal/kg)
1 Light diesel oil (L.D.O.) 22 0.920 10300
2 High speed diesel oil (H.S.D) 31 0.820 10550
3 Power kerosene 40 0.827 10850
4 Petrol 63 0.730 11100
11.2 Fuel Supply System in Spark Ignition Engine
The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine consists of:
1. Fuel tank 2. Sediment bowl
3. Fuel lift pumps 4. Carburetor and
5. Fuel pipes.
In some spark ignition engine, the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburetor (Fig. 22). The
fuel flows from the fuel tank to the carburetor under the action of gravity. There are one or two filters
between the fuel tank and the carburetor. A transparent sediment bowl is also provided to hold the dust
and dirt of the fuel. If the tank is below the level of the carburetor, a lift pump is provided in between
the tank and the carburetor for forcing fuel from the tank to the carburetor of the engine. The fuel
comes from the fuel tank to the sediment bowl and then to the lift pump. From there the fuel goes to
the carburetor through suitable pipe. From the carburetor, the fuel goes to the engine cylinder through
the inlet manifold of the engine.

Figure 15: General Arrangement of Petrol Supply System

11.5.1 Carburetor.
The process of preparing an air-fuel mixture away from the cylinders of an engine is called
carburetion and the device in which this process takes place is called carburetor.

28
A. Principle of carburetor.
The basic principle of all carburetor design is that when air flows over the end of a narrow tube or
jet containing liquid, some liquid is drawn into the air stream. The quantity of liquid drawn into the
air stream increases as the speed of air flow over the jet rises and also the quantity is greater if the
jet is made larger.
In practice, the fuel level in the jet is maintained by a float chamber. The fuel level in the jet and in
the float chamber is always the same. As the fuel is consumed, the level in the float chamber goes
down. The float in the float chamber also goes down and the needle valve comes off its seat
allowing more fuel into the chamber from the fuel tank. When the fuel level rises to its correct
level, the float presses the needle valve back to its seat and cuts off the fuel flow. The velocity of
the air flowing over the jet is increased by a constriction in the induction pipe known as Venturi.
Figure 16: Simple Carburetor

It is used to control the flow of air-fuel mixture to the engine. As the butterfly valve is turned into
the accelerate position, the air flow over the jet increases and more fuel is drawn out into the air
stream, keeping the mixture strength constant.
A second butterfly valve called Choke is used to provide a richer mixture for the engine to start in
cold condition. The choke controls the volume of air entering into the venturi. A second jet is fitted
near the throttle butterfly which is used when the engine is idling.
Fuel is delivered to the float chamber through fuel pipe either by gravity or by a pump. The float
chamber is connected with the mixing chamber (venturi) via fuel nozzle equipped with fuel jet.
Float and needle valve maintain a constant fuel level in the float chamber. As the float chamber is
filled with fuel, the float rises by virtue of its buoyancy. This actuates the needle valve to close the
inlet passage when the desired level of fuel is reached. When the fuel level goes down, the float also
goes down; allowing more fuel to enter the float chamber and same sequence is maintained.
B. Function of Carburetor
The main functions of the carburetor are:
1. To mix the air and fuel thoroughly
2. To atomize the fuel
3. To regulate the air-fuel ratio at different speeds and loads and
4. To supply correct amount of mixture at different speeds and loads.
29
11.6 Fuel Supply System for Compression Ignition Engine.
Fuel system of diesel engine consists of the following components (Fig. 24):
a. Fuel tank
b. Fuel lift pump or feed pump
c. Fuel filter
d. Fuel injection pump
e. High pressure pipe
f. Over flow valve
g. Fuel Injector (Injection nozzles)

A Fuel is drawn from the fuel tank by the Feed pump [Fig. 24] and forced to the Injection pump
through Fuel filter. The Injection pump supplies high pressure fuel to injection nozzles through
delivery valves and high pressure pipes. Fuel is injected into the Combustion chamber through
Injection nozzles. The fuel that leaks out from the injection nozzles passes out through leakage pipe
and returns to the fuel tank through the over flow pipe.
Overflow valve installed at the top of the filter, keeps the feed pressure under specified limit. If the
feed pressure exceeds the specified limit, the overflow valve opens and then the excessive fuel
returns to fuel tank through overflow pipe.

Figure 17: General layout of fuel supply in diesel engine

1. Fuel Tank
It is a storage tank of suitable size and shape, usually made of mild steel sheet. Atmospheric
pressure is maintained in the tank with the help of a pin hole on the cap. Usually a wire gauge
30
strainer is provided under the cap to prevent foreign particles. Usually a drain plug is provided at
the bottom for flow of fuel.
2. Fuel Lift Pump (Feed pump or Transfer pump)
Fuel lift pump may be a) Plunger type, b) Diaphragm type
a. Plunger Type.
It may be single acting or double acting pump usually mounted on the side of the Injection pump
housing. It is driven by Injection pump camshaft. It transfers fuel from the fuel tank to the inlet
gallery of the Injection pump through fuel filter. The fuel pressure at them feed pump must be in
the range of 1.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2. It delivers adequate amount of fuel to the injection pump. The pump
consists of: (i) body, (ii) piston, (iii) inlet valve, (iv) pressure valve
The valves are tightly pressed against their seats by springs. The piston is free to slide in the bore.
The fuel contained in the space below the piston is forced to flow through filter to the injection
Pump. At the same time, downward movement of the piston creates a depression in the space
above the piston, which causes the fuel to be drawn in the transfer pump from the fuel tank through
inlet valve and filter. When starting the engine and venting any possible air, the priming pump
provides manual pump operation also.
b. Diaphragm type Feed Pump
It consists of:
 Main body
 Spring
 Inlet and outlet valve
 Diaphragm
 Rocker arm
 Sediment
Suction is created in the main chamber of the pump by pulling down the diaphragm. The fuel is
sucked through the inlet valve. During this period, outlet check valve remains closed. When there
is no pressure of the cam on the rocker arm of the pump, it returns its original position due to the
tension of the return spring.
Upper movement of the diaphragm creates a pushing effect on the fuel, which has entered the
chamber during its downward movement. Under the pressure of the fuel, outlet valve opens and the
fuel is pumped through outlet chamber. Thus the fuel flows from the tank to Fuel Injection pump.

31
 Tractor and Power tiller
1. Classification of Tractors
Generally tractors are classified on the basis of construction, type of drive and purpose for which it is
used.
A. Classification on the basis of construction:
They are classified as follows:
(a) Riding type: Tractor in which driver can sit & drive.
(b) Walking type: Tractor with which the operator walks along e.g. power tiller:
B. On the basis of type of drive:
They are classified as follows:
a. Track type
(i) Full track type
(ii) Half track type
b. Wheel type
(i) Two wheels
(ii) Three wheels
(iii) Four Wheels
(i) Full Track Type Tractor: In this type of tractors instead of wheels one track is provided on either
side as shown in Fig. This track gets drive from the spike run by rear axle shaft. Steer the tractor no
steering gears are provided. The tractor is steered by applying brakes to one side of the track with the
other track moving.
(ii) Half Track Type: In this type of tractor a small track chain is provided at the rear end only while
at front axle types are mounted, types are fitted. Track types of tractors are mostly used for reclaiming
baron bands and are seldom used for general agricultural purpose. As these are provided the tracks
which have more contact area to the ground as such the traction power of the tractor increases
considerably. Track type of tractors play any important role on dams for earth moving work. At one
time crawls tractors were larger than wheel tractors, and thus they were used on some large farm.
b. Wheel Type of Tractors:
Wheel types of tractors are most commonly used for agricultural purposes. As they can run fast and
tire fitted in it can absorb a certain amount of fields‟ shocks also.
i. Two wheel types of tractors are used for small farms, hilly area and for gardening purposes.
ii. Three Wheel or Trickle Type: Three wheels tractors were very popular 45 years back but now it
has been replaced by four wheelers. These tractors had single or dual wheel fitted at the front end
in the centre and were considered good for negotiated shorter turns.
iii. Four-wheel Drive Tractor With Smaller Front Wheel:
A four-wheel drive tractor with smaller front wheels is simply a standard or a row-crop tractor with the
front wheels also being driven with regard to prices and traction, this type of tractor comes between the
standard and the four-wheel drive tractor with equal-sized wheels. The particular tractor has become
popular in Japan because of its excellent steering and traction characteristics in soft, wet rice fields.

32
iv. Four-wheel-drive or simple 4WD:
Four-wheel-drive tractors have been developed so as to be in able to produce more drawbar power.
The size of 4WD tractor varies in United States and Canada from 100 kW to more than 300 kW. In In
Europe, 4WD tractors may be small as 15 kW and are used especially in vineyards. Four-wheel-drive
tractors can be steered by pivoting the tractor in the centre (frame steer) or steering the wheels.
Classification on the Basis of Purpose of Use.
They are classified as follows:
(I) Utility tractor (II) Orchard tractor
(III) Lawn and garden tractor (IV) Multipurpose tractor (V) Power tiller (VI) Row crop tractor
(VII) Standard tractor (VIII) Earth moving tractor
I. Utility Tractor:
It is as shown in Fig. 25; they have generally less clearance than standard a row-crop tractors. They are
used for many on the farm and are often equipped with a front loads. A special use for that tractor is
cleaning a feedlot.
II. Orchard Tractor:
An orchard tractor slightly differs from an utility tractor except that it is a few centimeters lower. It is
only used in orchards. No part of the tractor is produced outside; therefore, tractor can easily go in
between trees safely.
III. Lawn and Garden Tractor:
It is as shown in Fig. 26; these tractors are in the ranges of 1.5 to 15 kW and are primarily designed for
the care of large lawns. They can carry a lawn moves, a sweeper, a snow blower and many other
attachments. The wheels, provided to such tractors are of scooter size but thicker in width.
IV. Multipurpose Tractor:
These tractors are designed to operate in either direction; it not only carries the implement but also
supplies the power.

Figure 18: A small 28 hp utility Tractor Figure 19: Fig. 5: Lawn and Garden tractor
33
 V. Power Tiller:
A power tiller is two-wheeled tractors operated by the operator walking behind it. It also known as
hand tractor or walking type tractor. It is used commonly in the rice-growing areas of Japan and
Southern Asia. Power tillers and are in the range of 5 to 12 kW and powered by a horizontal single
cylinder engine.
VI. Row crop Tractor:
It is all purpose tractors. They are designed for the care of all agricultural purposes like ploughing,
harrowing, leveling, pulling seed drills, planters, streep and drills or for weed control or for running
other machines like water pumps, threshers etc through its belt pulley. They have following
characteristics:
a. It should have provisions for adjustment of row spacing.
b. It should have more ground clearance.
c. It should be easy to steer and can take shorter turns.
d. It should be easy and convenient to operate.
e. It should attach and detach agricultural machines quickly and conveniently.
f. It should have provisions for P.T.O. drive.
g. It should have power lift for lowering or lifting agricultural machines.
VII. Standard Tractors:
They are designed primarily for traction, they are characterized by a drive through the two rear
wheels; with centre of gravity located at approximately two-third the wheelbase behind the front axles.
VIII. Earth Moving Tractor:
They are available in both rack and wheel types. They are heavy in weight and strongly built. These
are mainly used for earth moving work on dawns, quarries and other constructional works. Implement
Carries: It is an especial type of tractor as shown in Fig. These J tractors have and extended charis
frame between the front and rear types where all the implements, like seed drills, duster, sprayer,
loader, and platform can be mounted only easily.
2. System of Tractor
The tractor is divided into two main systems namely the engine system and tractor system.
2.1 Engine System.
It provides the source of power to drive the tractor. It includes following systems:
(a) Fuel system
(b) Ignition system
(c) Cooling system
(d) Lubrication system

2.2 Tractor System.

Power generated from engine system is available on flywheel. Then it goes to transmission system.
The tractor system starts beyond the flywheel. It includes following system.
(a) Transmission system

34
(b) Hydraulic and Hitching system
(c) Traction Mechanism
(d) Chassis
(e) Steering system
2.3 Tractor Accessories.
We will discuss them in detail of main accessories of the tractor in the respective chapters but here we
would like you to get familiar with the accessories which are as under:
a. Engine: A tractor can have powering, petrol or diesel engine. But nowadays all the tractors have
diesel engine. Engine provides the source of power to drive the tractor.
b. Clutch: Clutch is fitted between engine and gearbox and is used to connect and disconnect the
tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of
friction between driving members and driven members.
c. Transmission: Gearbox is assembled in the tractor to increase the driving torque so as to enable
the tractor to pull more loads. In the gear box housing differential and reduction gears are also
mounted. The differential helps the tractor to take turn without its inner wheel spinning while the
reduction gear mounted further to increases the driving torque of the wheel.
d. Wheels. Two wheels are mounted to the front axle and two rear wheels to the reduction gear
shaft; drive is transmitted through the gear wheels.
e. Front Axle: Front axle is mounted at the front of the tractor and two stub axles are provided at
either end through which the steering linkage is connected and wheels are steered.
f. Steering System: Operator steers the tractor through a steering system either left or right as
desired.
g. Brake System: Operator stops the moving tractor through brake system as desired.
h. Electrical System: Electrical system is provided in the tractor which makes it to work in the right
through the electricity produced by the dynamo. Moreover engine is also started through starter
which draws its electric current from battery.
i. Hydraulic Lift: Implements are lifted or lowered through hydraulic lift; moreover, draft and
depth are controlled through it.
j. Power Take Off: Provision is made in the tractor to drive stationary or moving implements like
thresher, water pump, sprayers dusters and etc.
1. Technical Terms: Certain technical terms are used in this book. These are as under and shown in
Fig. 28 (a) to (c).
a. Track: It is the distance between centers of front two tires.
b. Ground Clearance: It is the height of the lowest point of the tractor from a level supporting
surface, the tractor being loaded to its maximum permissible weight.
c. Wheel base: It is the horizontal distance between front and rear wheels measured at ground
contact.
d. Height of Fame: It is the distance from the upper edge of the frame from the ground level.

35
 Figure28: Showing Technical Terms

3.Hydraulic and Hitching System of Tractor.

Hydraulic system is a circuit in which force and power are transmitted through a fluid, generally oil.
This system has great importance in tractor. Hydraulic system is a mechanism provided in tractors to
raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted implements. The hydraulic system of a modern
tractor enables the operator to operate mounted or pull-type implements quickly and easily with a
weight transfer attachment, the hydraulic system aids in improving traction by transferring weight from
trailing implements and the front of the tractor to the drive wheels.It helps in working of three point
hitch of the tractor safety.
The hydraulic system, as in the case of electrical circuit, is complicated to understand it. Therefore,
specific symbols are used to describe them. The symbols known as graphical symbol for fluid power
diagram must necessarily be understand to learn hydraulic system.

3.1 Advantages of Hydraulic System.

It has following advantages:
i. It is easy in operation.
ii. Design is simple i.e. simple in construction.
iii. It can be fitted anywhere and in any position.
iv. Speed can be easily controlled.
36
 v. There is practically no wear and tear as these parts always run in hydraulic, oil and get lubricated.
vi. It is cheaper to maintain.
vii. Heavier jobs can be done quickly with less force.
3.2 Working of Hydraulic System.
Fig. 38 shows the schematic diagram of hydraulic system fitted with the following basic components:
(i) Reservoir: It contains sufficient oil to move the piston for lifting the load
(ii) Pump: The pump is basically a mechanical device which increases pressure energy of a liquid.
Hydraulic pump is the heart of the hydraulic system. It forces the fluid from the reservoir to the
cylinder at specific pressure.
(iii) Relief valve: It protects the system from high pressure. The valve is set slightly higher than the
working pressure. In case the pressure increases beyond the working pressure the relief valve opens
allowing the fluid to pass into the reservoir. Also, when the piston reaches its extreme position the
relief valve opens to bypass the oil.
(iv) Control valve: The control valve is used to allow the operator to direct the flow of fluid either
from the pump to the cylinder or from the cylinder to the reservoir.
(v) Cylinder: The cylinder converts the hydraulic power to mechanical power for doing various
jobs.

Figure 20: Schematic diagram of Hydraulic System.

3.3 Hitching of Implements.

For efficient and safe operation of tractors, the implements need to be hitched properly. Because if it is
improperly hitched, it will result into:
(i) Wastage of power (ii) Excessive load on steering (iii) Uneven ploughing (iv) uneven transfer of
load on tractor resulting in fast wearing of parts.
Before we study further let us study the type of draw bar available for hitching purposes.
37
 A. Trailed Type Implement.
It is one that is pulled and guided from single hitch point but its weight is not supported by the tractor
such trolley, trailed mould board plough etc.
B. Semi-mounted type implements.
This type of implement is one which is attached to the tractor along a hinge axis and not at a single
hitch point. It is controlled directly not at a single hitch point. It is controlled directly by tractor
steering unit but its weight is partly supported by the tractor such as semi-mounted mould board
plough etc.
C. Mounted Type Implement.
A mounted implement is one which is attached to the tractor, such that it can be controlled directly by
the tractor steering unit. The implement is carried fully by the tractor when out of work.
3.4 Way of Hitching.
Implements can be hitched in two ways.
A. Drawbar Hitch: Drawbar is a device through the pulling power of the tractor is provided to the
trailing equipment. It consists of crossbar with suitable holes, attached to the lower hitch link. It
is fitted to the rear end of the tractor.
B. Three Point hitch or Linkage: It is a combination of three links. One top link and other two
lower links as shown in Fig. 19 When an implement is mounted on a three point hitch the lines
projected from the lower and upper links intersect at a pull point known as "vertical point" or
"Centre of pull" and the implement appear to be pulled from that point as shown in Fig. 20. The
point lines in between rear and front axle. When the implement is raised position the virtual
point is rear to ground and when the implement is lowered the virtual point is lifted up. The rise
of virtual point causes weight transfers rear wheel. This results in increase of tractive
efficiency.

Figure 21: Three point hitch with hydraulic lift.

38
Advantages of Three Point Linkage: There are following advantages of three point linkages.
 Easy control of working implements.
 Quick attachment of implements.
 Automatic control through hydraulic system.
 Good balancing of attached implements.
Hitching of Trailed Implements: The trailed implements are hitched by following ways:
(i) Connection to the regular swinging drawbar provided on the tractor.
(ii) Connection to the lower links of three-point hitch-through a supplementary- drawbar.
(ii) Connection to (additional) trailer hitches point.

6.5 Differential.
It is a device which is used to create the difference in the speed of outer wheel and inner wheel at
curve path. When the tractor is taking a turn, the outer wheel has to travel greater distance as compared
to the inner wheel in the same time as shown in Fig. 50. If the tractors has a solid rear axle only and no
other device, there will be tendency for the outer wheel to skid. Hence if the wheel skidding is to be
avoided
some mechanism be used in the rear axle, which should reduced the speed of the outer wheel, when
tracking turn and keeps speed of all wheel same on going straight. Such a device which serves the
above function is called a Differential.

Figure 22: Construction and Parts of a Differential Gear Assembly

Working Principle of Differential.

The following are the main functions of differential:
39
 To transmit the power from transmission shaft at right angle to the axle shaft to move the wheel.
 To differentiate the speed of two rear wheels while taking turn.
Fig. 51 shows the differential system commonly used on tractors. The engine drives the crown wheel
or ring gear (R) through the bevel pinion (B). A metallic case known as differential case is mounted on
the crown wheel. Two bevel differential pinions, P1 and P2 are mounted on the axle „A‟ which is
carried by the cage. The pinions are free to revolve on axle (A) Side Gears G1 and G2 are mounted on
the splint end of the leaf axles, which are supported on roller bearing responsible for carrying both
radial and thrust leads. The bearings give rigid support for the differential unit and are ready adjusted
for end play.
On straight, paths, the cage moves along with crown wheel carrying the differential pinions and run
gear without any relative motion among them, causing the half axles to rotate at the same speed.
As soon as any of the rear wheels of the tractor comes across a loose or wet soil, where resistance to
both the wheels is not equal or when the tractor is on turn, the unequal resistance will came across both
wheels hence speed of the wheel experienced to more resistance will be reduced and accordingly the
other wheel accelerate in motion. When the gear-B, which derives motion from the engine shaft,
rotates at y revolutions, then the speed of inner gear H2 is less than y by x revolutions and the speed of
the outer gear H1 is greater than y by x revolutions. In other words, the two parts rear axle and thus the
two wheels rotate at different speed.

Figure 23: Construction and Operation of differential.

Power take off (PTO):It is the part of tractor transmission system. It consists of a shaft, a shield and a
cover. The splined to transmit torsional power to another machine. A rigid guard fitted on tractor
covers the power take off shaft as a safety device. This guard is called power take off shield.
Agricultural machines are coupled with this shaft at the rear part of tractor.

40
 (Farm Machine And Equipment Part II)
Tillage and Tillage Implement.
1.1 Definition of Tillage.
It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable condition for crop production. Soil tillage
consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as to
enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into the soil. Tillage may be called the practice of
modifying the state of soil to provide favorable conditions for plant growth. Tillage operation is
most labour consuming and difficult operation, compared to all subsequent operation in the field.
1.2 Objective of tillage.
1. To obtain deep seed bed, suitable for different type of crops.
2. To add more humus and fertility to soil by covering the vegetation.
3. To destroy and prevent weeds.
4. To aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
5. To increase water absorbing capacity of the soil.
6. To destroy the insects, pests and their breeding places and
7. To reduce the soil erosion.

1.2 Classification and types of tillage.

Tillage is divided into two classes:
1.2.1 Primary Tillage.
It constitutes the initial major soil working operation. It is normally designed to reduce soil
strength, cover plant materials, and rearrange aggregates. The operations performed to open up any
cultivable land with a view to prepare a seed bed for growing crops in known as Primary tillage.
Implements may be tractor drawn or animal drawn implements. Animal drawn implements mostly
include indigenous plough and mould-board plough. Tractor drawn implements include mould-board
plough, disc plough, subsoil plough, chisel plough and other similar implements.
Secondary tillage: Tillage operations following primary tillage which are performed to crease
proper soil tilth for seeding and planting are Secondary tillage. These are lighter and finer
operations, performed on the soil after primary tillage operations. Secondary tillage consists of
conditioning the soil to meet the different tillage objectives of the farm. The implements used for
secondary tillage operations are called Secondary tillage implements. They include different types of
harrow, cultivators, levelers, cited crushers and similar implements. These operations are generally
done on the surface soil of the farm. Secondary tillage operations do not cause much soil inversion
and shifting of soil from one place to other. These operations consume less power per unit
area compared to primary tillage operations. Secondary tillage implements may be tractor drawn or
bullock drawn implements. Bullock drawn implements include harrows, cultivators, hoes etc.Types of
Tillage
Tillage is done by tools, implements or machine.
Tool.
41
It is an individual working element such as disc or shovel.
Implement.
It is equipment generally having no driven moving parts, such as harrow or having only simple
mechanism such as plough.
Machine.
It is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing
useful work.
1.2.2 Conservation Tillage.
Tillage aims to create a soil environment favorable to plant growth. Definitions of tillage vary.
According to Lal it is defined as physical, chemical or biological soil manipulation to optimize
conditions for germination, seedling establishment and crop growth. However, define it as any physical
loosening of the soil carried out in a range of cultivation operations, either by hand or mechanized. Soil
manipulation can change fertility status markedly and the changes may be manifested in good or poor
performance of crops. In addition, tillage operations loosen, granulate, crush or compact soil structure,
changing soil properties such as bulk density, pore size distribution and composition of the soil
atmosphere that affect plant growth.
Appropriate tillage practices are those that avoid the degradation of soil properties but maintain crop
yields as well as ecosystem stability. Conservation tillage provides the best opportunity for halting
degradation and for restoring and improving soil productivity. In recent years interest in conservation
tillage systems has increased in response to the need to limit erosion and promote water conservation
Conservation tillage, by most definitions, embraces crop production systems involving the
management of surface residues. According to the Conservation Technology Information Center in
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, conservation tillage is defined as: "any tillage or planting system in
which at least 30% of the soil surface is covered by plant residue after planting to reduce erosion by
water; or where soil erosion by wind is the primary concern, with at least 1120 kg ha-1 flat small grain
residue on the surface during the critical wind erosion period." No tillage, minimum tillage, reduced
tillage and mulch tillage are terms synonymous with conservation tillage. The reasons for current
interest in conservation tillage vary from soil to soil, crop to crop, and from one agro-ecological region
to another. According to Greenland, the no-till system of cultivation with crop residue mulches forms a
basis for conservation hand sustains economic productivity. In addition, there are savings in machinery
investment and in the time required for seedbed preparation report that retaining crop residues on the
soil surface with conservation tillage reduces evapo-transpiration, increases infiltration rates, and
suppresses weed growth. Since the late sixties, many studies of the effects of conservation tillage
systems on soil properties and crop yield have been conducted in many parts of the world. A complete
review is beyond the scope of this presentation, the object of which is to give an overview of the early
studies on conservation tillage systems, discuss some results from present-day studies and outline
research needs and goals for the future aimed at enhancing and sustaining crop production through
conservation tillage systems.
Different types of conservation tillage are shown in below.

42
Minimum Tillage It is the minimum soil manipulation necessary to meet tillage requirements
for crop production

Strip Tillage It is a tillage system in which only isolated bands of soil are tilled.

Rotary Tillage It is the tillage operations employing rotary action to cut, break and mix the
soil.

Mulch Tillage It is Preparation of soil in such a way that plant residues or other mulching
materials are specially left on a near the surface.

Combined Tillage Operations simultaneously utilizing two or more different types of tillage
tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations
over a field are called combined tillage. Tillage is performed by tool,
implement or machine.

1.2.3 Conservation Tillage versus Conventional Tillage.

Tillage includes all operations of seedbed preparation that optimize soil and environmental conditions
for seed germination, seedling establishment and crop growth. Tillage is defined as the soil-related
actions necessary for crop production. The overall goal of tillage is to increase crop production while
conserving resources (soil and water) and protecting the environment. The benefits of tillage are:
seedbed preparation, weed control, evaporation suppression, water infiltration enhancement, and
erosion control. These benefits together result in increased and sustained crop yields.
2. Mould Board plough

Figure Mouldboard plough

43
A mouldboard plough is very common implement used for primary tillage operations this plough
performs several functions at a time.
Functions
 cutting the furrow slice
 lifting the soil
 Turning the furrow slice and pulverizing the soil.
Classification of MB plough
1) On the basis of power sources
a) Animal Drawn
b) Tractor drawn
2. On the basis of hitching point
a) Trailed b) Semi-mounted c) mounted
3. On the basis of no. of plough bott om
a) Single bottom b) Multi-bottom
4. On the basis of direction of throw of soil
a) one way plough b) two way or reversible plough
2.1 Components of MB plough.
M.B. Plough consists of
(a) Share (b) Mouldboard (c) Land side (d) Frog and (e) Tail piece.

Figure 24: Components of MB Plough

2.1.1 Share.
It is that part of the plough bottom which penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal cut below the
soil surface.
It is sharp, well-polished and pointed component. Different portions of the share are called by different
names such as:
(1) Share point (2) Cutting edge (3) Wing of share (4) Gunnels

Share point It is the forward end of the cutting edge which actually penetrates into the soil

44
 Throat or
It is the front edge of the share which makes horizontal cut in the soil
Cutting edge
It is the outside corner of the cutting edge of the share. It supports the plough
Wing of share
bottom
It is the vertical face of the share which slides along the furrow wall. It
Gunnel
supports the plough bottom against the furrow wall.

The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel. The steel mainly contains
Material of share about 0.70 to 0.80% carbon and about 0.50 to 0.80% manganese besides other
minor elements.

Type of share.
Share is of different types such as:
Slip share Slipnose share Shin share and Bar point share.

Figure 25: Types of share

Slip share: It is one piece share with curved cutting edge, having no additional part. It is a common
type of share, mostly used by the farmers, It is simple in design, but it has got the disadvantage that the
entire share has to be replaced if it is worn out due to constant use.
Slipnose share: It is a share in which the point of share is provided by a small detachable piece. It has
the advantage that share point can be replaced as and when required. If the point is worn out, it can be
changed without replacing the entire share, effecting considerable economy.
Shin share: It is similar to the slip share with the difference that an extension is provided to it by the
side of the mouldboard.
Bar point share: It is a share in which the point of the share is provided by an adjustable and
replaceable bar. This bar serves the purpose of point of the share and land side of the plough.
2.1.2 Mouldboard.
The mouldboard is curved part which part of the plough which receives the furrow slice from the
share. It lifts, turns and breaks the furrow slice. The texture of soil, the amount of moisture and the
extent of the vegetative cover on the surface determine the pulverization. How much the plough
bottom pulverizes the soil depends upon the shape of the mould board. A long gradual curving mould
board turns the furrow gently and does not break the soil much. Short abruptly curved mould board
twist and shear the soil and pulverize it. To suit different soil conditions and crop requirements,
mouldboard has been designed in different shapes.
The mouldboard is of following types: (a) General purpose (b) Stubble (c) Sod or Breaker and (d) Slat.
45
.General purpose MB: It is a mouldboard having medium curvature lying between stubble and sod.
The sloping of the surface is gradual. It turns the well-defined furrow slice and pulverizes the soil
thoroughly. It has fairly long mouldboard with a gradual twist, the surface being slightly convex.

Figure 26: general purpose MB

Stubble type MB: It is a short but broader mouldboard with a relatively abrupt curvature, which lifts
breaks and turns the furrow slice used in stubble soils. It curvature is not gradual but it is abrupt along
the top edge. This causes the furrow slice to be thrown off quickly, pulverizing it much better than
other types of mouldboard. This is best suited to work in stubble soil that is under cultivation for years
together. Stubble soil is that soil in which stubble of the plants from the previous crop is still left on the
land at the time of ploughing. This type of mouldborad is not suitable for lands full of grasses.
Sod or Breaker type MB: It is a long mouldboard with gentle curvature which lifts and inverts the
unbroken furrow. It is used in tough soil of grasses. It turns over thickly covered soil. This is very
useful where complete inversion of soil is required by the farmer. This type has been designed for use
in sod soils.
Slat type MB: It is a mouldboard whose surface is made of slats placed along the length of the
mouldboard so that there are gaps between the slats. This type of mouldboard is often used, where the
soil is sticky, because the solid mouldboard does not scour well in sticky soils.

Land side.
The landside is that part of the plough bottom which slides along the furrow wall, providing stability
against tilting sideways, due to soil pressure acting on the mould board.
Land side is fastened to the frog with the help of plough bolts.
The rear bottom end of the land side is known as heel which rubs against the furrow sole.
Frog.
Frog that part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the plough bottom (mould board,
share and landside) are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal. It may be made of cast iron for cast
iron ploughs or it may be welded steel for steel ploughs.

46
Tail piece.
It is an important extension of mouldboard which helps in turning a furrow slice.
2.2 Plough accessories.
There are a few accessories necessary for ploughs such as: (i) Jointer (ii) Coulter (iii) Gauge wheel (iv)
Land wheel and (v) Furrow wheel.

Figure :Jointer and Coulter

2.2.1 Jointer.
It is a small irregular piece of metal having a shape similar to an ordinary plough bottom. It looks like
a miniature plough. Its purpose is to turn over a small ribbon like furrow slice directly in front of the
main plough bottom. This small furrow slice is cut from the left and upper side of the main furrow
slice and is inverted so that all trashes on the top of the soil are completely turned down and buried
under the right hand corner of the furrow slice is cut from the left and upper side of the main furrow
slice and is inverted so that all trashes on the top of the soil are completely turned down and buried
under the right hand corner of the furrow.
2.2.2 Coulter.
It is device used to cut the furrow slice vertically from the land ahead of the plough bottom. It cuts the
furrow slice from the land and leaves a clear wall. It also cuts trashes which are covered under the soil
by the plough.The coulter may be:
(a) Rolling type disc coulter or (b) Sliding type knife coulter.
Rolling type disc coulter.
It is a round steel disk which has been sharpened on the edge and suspended on a shank and yoke from
the beam. The edge of the coulter may be either smooth or notched. It is so fitted that it can be adjusted
up-down and sideways. The up-down adjustment takes care of depth and sideways adjustment is meant
for taking care of width of cut.

47
a. Sliding type knife coutler.
It is a stationary knife fixed downward in a vertical position on the beam. The knife does not roll over
the ground but slides on the ground. The knife may be of different shapes and sizes.
2.2.3 Gauge wheel.
It is an auxiliary wheel of an implement to maintain an uniform depth of working.
Gauge wheel helps to maintain uniformity in respect of depth of ploughing in different soil conditions.
It is usually placed in hanging position.
2.2.4 Land wheel:
It is the wheel of the plough which runs on the unploughed land.
2.2.5 Front furrow wheel.
It is the front wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.
2.2.5 Rear furrow wheel.
It is rear wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.
2.4 Adjustments of mould board plough.
For proper penetration and efficient work, the mould board ploughs need some clearance where
the share joins the landside. This clearance is called suction (or clearance) of the plough. Suction in
mould board plough is of two types.
(i) Vertical suction and
(ii) Horizontal suction (side clearance)
2.4.1 Vertical Suction.
This is the bend downward of the point of share to make the plough penetrate the soil to the proper
depth when the plough is pulled forward. It is the maximum clearance under the landside and the
horizontal surface of the working position. This suction can be measured by placing a straight edge on
the bottom of the plough extending from the heel of the bottom of land side to the point of share, then
measuring vertically the greatest clearance from the straight edge to the plough bottom. A clearance of
0.3 to 0.5 cm should be measured.

.
Figure: Vertical suction on MB Plough.

2.4.2 Horizontal suction.

Horizontal suction is the amount the point of share is bend off line with the landside. The object of the
suction is to make the plough take the proper amount of furrow width. Horizontal suction is measured
48
by placing a straight edge on the side of the plough extending from the heel of the landside to the point
of share, then measuring horizontally the greatest distance from the straight edge to the plough bottom.
There should be side clearance of about 0.5 cm

Figure: Horizontal Suction

2.4.3 Throat Clearance.

It is the perpendicular distance between point of share and lower position of the beam of the plough.

Figure: Throat clearance of M.B. Plough

3.Disc plough.

Figure: Tractor Drawn Disc Plough.

49
It is a plough which cuts, turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately mounted
large steel discs. A disc plough is designed with a view to reduce friction by making a rolling plough
bottom instead of sliding plough bottom. A disc plough works well in the conditions where
mouldboard plough does not work satisfactorily. Penetration of the disc plough depends mainly on the
weight of the plough as a whole. Tractor drawn disk ploughs weigh between 180 and 540 kg per disk.
But the animal drawn plough weighs about 30 kg per disk
3.1 Advantages of disc plough.
 A disc plough can be forced to penetrate into the soil, which is too hard and dry for working with
a mouldboard plough.
 It works well in sticky soil in which a mouldboard plough does not occur.
 It is more useful for deep ploughing.
 It can be used safely in stony and stumpy soil without much danger of breakage.
 A disc plough works well even after a considerable part of the disc is worn off in abrasive soil.
 It works in loose soil also (such as peat) without much clogging.
 It is also preferred for land infested with heavy growth of vegetation and for land requiring deep
ploughing for reclamation purposes.
 It leaves the trash on top of the ground to conserve soil moisture.
3.2 Disadvantages of disc plough.
 It is not suitable for covering surface trash and weeds as effectively as mouldboard plough does.
 Comparatively, the disc plough leaves the soil in rough and more cloudy condition than that of
mouldboard plough.
 Disc plough is much heavier than mouldboard plough for equal capacities because penetration of
this plough is affected largely by its weight rather than suction.
 There is one significant difference between mouldboard plough and disc plough i.e. mouldboard
plough is forced into the ground by the suction of the plough, while the disc plough is forced into
the ground by its own weight.
3.3 Component of Disc Plough and its adjustment.
Disc : It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil. It is
made of heat treated steel of 5 to 10 mm thickness. The edge of the disc is well sharpened to cut the soil.
Disc angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to the direction
of travel. Usually, the disc angle of good plough varies between 42θ and 45θ.
Tilt angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to vertical plane.
Usually, the tilt angle of good plough varies between 15θ and 25θ.

50
 Figure: Tilt angle and disc angle of disc plough

Scraper : It is a device to remove soil that tends to stick to the working surface of a disc.
Concavity: It is the depth measured at the center of the disc by placing its concave side on a flat
surface.
The following adjustments that are done on the disk ploughs to control the depth or width of ploughing
or to increase the pulverization:
a. By increasing the tilt angle, penetration is improved.
b. By increasing the disk angle, penetration is improved but the width of cut is reduced.
c. By adding weights to the plough, penetration can be increased.
d. the width of the cut by the plough may be adjusted by adjusting the angle between the frame and
land wheel axle
3.3 Classification of Disc Plough.
3.3.1 Animal drawn standard disc plough.
It is attached to a universal frame which is mounted on two wheels. The frame is pulled by a pair of
bullocks and it is provided with a seat for the operator. There is only one disk blade on these ploughs
and it can be tilted back ward from 15 to 25 (tilt angle) in the vertical plane. It also makes an angle of
about 45θ (disk angle) with the direction of motion. The diameter of the disk is 45 cm. A rear furrow
wheel provided with the plough takes care of the side thrust of the plough.
3.3.2 Tractor drawn standard disc plough.
It consists of one to seven disk blades which have the same tilt and disk angles as the animal
drawn plough. The diameter of the disk blades varies between 60 and 90 cm. The perfectly round
concave steel disks sharpened on the edges are bolted to the cast iron supports which are
individually suspended from the main frame. Taper roller bearings or thrust type ball bearings are
used on the ploughs. These ploughs are provided with a front furrow wheel, a rear furrow wheel and a
land wheel. There are also provided with depth adjusting levers, drag links and scrapers on the lough.
When the plough is pulled forward, the individual disk rotates on its own axis. The furrow slice
rides along the curvature and is pulverized to some extent. In order to cut a deeper furrow slice,
the tilt angle of the disk is reduced. The other method of increasing the penetration is by adding weights
51
to the plough frame. If the soil condition is favourable, the tilt angle should be increased to achieve
better turning of the furrow slice. If the soil condition is not favourable, the disk angle should be
increased to improve the penetration, but the width of cut should be reduced (Fig.70).

Figure: Standard disc plough.

4.Operation and Management of Secondary Tillage Implement.

A. HARROW.
A harrow is an implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverizing the soil
as well as to cut the weeds and to mix materials with soil. It is an implement used to break the clods
after ploughing, to collect trash from the ploughed and to level the seed bed.
Harrowing is secondary tillage operation which pulverizes, smoothens and packs the soil in seed bed
preparation and / or control weeds. There are several types of harrow such as:
1. Disc harrow
2. Spring tine harrow
3. Spike tooth harrow
4. blade harrow
4.1 Disc harrow.
It is a harrow which performs the harrowing operations by means of a set (or a number of sets) of
rotating steel discs, each set being mounted on a common shaft. Disc harrows are of two types
depending upon the sources of power.

Figure 27: Disc Harrow.

52
4.1.1 Tractor drawn disc harrow.
Disc harrow is found very suitable for hard ground, full of stalks and grasses. It cuts the lumps of soil,
clods and roots. Discs are mounted on one, two or more axles which may be set at a variable angle to
the line of motion. As the harrow is pulled ahead, the discs rotate on the ground.
Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows are divided into three classes:
a. Single action disc harrow.
It is a harrow with two gangs placed end to end, which throw the soil in opposite directions.
The discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang throws the soil towards right, and left side
gang shows the soil towards left.
b. Double action harrow.
A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs, in which a set of one or two gangs follow behind the
set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way that the front and back gangs throw the soil in
opposite directions. Thus the entire field is worked twice in each trip. It is also called tandem disk
harrow in which four gangs with each gang can be angled in opposite direction

Figure 28: Different Types of disc harrow

c. Off-set disc harrow.

It is a disc harrow with two gangs in tandem, capable of being off-set to either side of the centre line of
pull. Two gangs are fitted one behind the other. The soil is thrown in both directions because discs of
both gangs face in opposite directions. It is very useful for orchards and gardens. It travels left to right
of the tractor. The line of pull is not in the middle, that's why it is called off-set disc harrow (Fig72 c).
Off-set disc harrow is based on the basic principle that side thrust against the front gang is opposed by
the side thrust of the rear gang. Hence the gangs are arranged at suitable angles so that both thrusts are
counter balanced with each other.
4.1.2 Components of disc harrow
A disc harrow mainly consists of: (i) Disc (ii) Gang (iii) Gang bolt or arbor bolt (iv) Gang angle
(v) Gang control lever (vi) Spools or spacer (vii) Bearings (viii) Transport wheels (ix) Scraper and
(x) Weight box.
53
a. Disc: It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil. Disc is
made of high grade heat treated hardened steel. Tractor drawn disc harrows have concave discs
of size varying from 35 to 70 cm diameter. Concavity of the disc affects penetration and
pulverization of soil. Usually two types of disc are used in disc harrows: a) Plain disc and b) Cut-
away disc.
Plain discs have plain edges and they are used for all normal works. Most of the harrows are fitted with
plain discs only. Cut-away discs have serrated edges and they cut stalks, grasses and other vegetative
matter better than plain discs. Cut-away discs are not very effective for pulverization of soil but it is
very useful for pudding the field especially for paddy cultivation.
b. Gang: It is an assembly of concave discs mounted on a common shaft with spools in between.
c. Gang axle or arbor axle: It is a shaft on which a set of discs are mounted. The spacing between
the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15cm to 23cm for light duty harrows and 25 to 30 cm for
heavy duty harrows.
d. Gang angle: The angle between the axis of the gang and the line perpendicular to the
direction of travel is called Gang angle.
e. Gang control lever: A lever which operates the angling mechanism of disc harrow is called Gang
control lever.
f. Spool or Spacer: The flanged tube, mounted on the gang axle between every two discs to retain
them at fixed position laterally on the shaft is called spool or spacer. It is just a device for keeping
the discs at equal spacing on the axle. It is usually cast in special shapes and sizes and is generally
made of cast iron.
g. Bearing: Bearing is essential to counteract the end thrust of the gangs due to soil thrust. Disc
harrow bearings are subjected to heavy radial and thrust loads. Chilled cast iron bearings, ball
bearings or tapered roller bearings may be used on disc harrows. Oil soaked wooden bearings are
very common for disc harrows, because they are cheaply available. Chilled cast iron bearings are
also used due to their durability.
h. Transport wheel: In trailing type discs harrows, transport wheels are provided for transport
work on roads and for preventing the damage of the roads. This also helps in protecting the edges
of the discs. Mounted type disc harrows do not require wheels for transport purpose.
i. Scraper: Scraper prevents the discs from clogging. It removes the soil that may stick to the
concave side of the disc.
j. Weight box: A box like frame is provided on the main frame of the harrow for putting
additional weight on the implement. Additional weight helps in increasing the penetration of the
discs in the soil.
4.1.3 Adjustment of disc harrow.
There are several factors which affect the penetration of disc harrow in the field. If the disc gangs are
set perpendicular to the line of draft, the penetration is not adequate. Penetration can be
increased by adding some additional weight on the frame of the harrow. For obtaining
maximum penetration, the gangs should be set with the forward edges of the disc parallel to the
direction of motion. If the hitch point is lowered, better penetration is achieved. A sharp edged disc
has more effective penetration compared to blunt edged disc. It is observed that penetration is better in
54
low speed than in high speed. In short, the following are a few adjustments for obtaining higher
penetration.
1. By increasing the disc angle.
2. By adding additional weight on the harrow.
3. By lowering the hitch point.
4. By using sharp edged discs of small diameter and lesser concavity and
5. By regulating the optimum speed.
4.1.4 Animal drawn disc harrow.
It consists of: (i) disc, (ii) gang frame, (iii) beam, (iv) gang angle mechanism, (v) scraper, (vi)
spacer(spool), (vii) clevis, (viii) axle, (ix) middle tyne, and (x) bearings

Figure: Animal drawn disc harrow

1. Disc: Disc is the main part of the harrow which cuts and pulverizes the soil. Discs are arranged
in two gangs. The thickness of the material used for disc is at least 3.15 nm. The cutting edge is
beveled for easy penetration. The disc has a square opening in the centre to allow the passage of the
axle. The disc is usually made of steel with carbon content ranging from 0.80 to 0.90%.
2. Gang frame: All the gangs are mounted on a frame, called Gang frame. It is usually made of
sturdy mild steel structure. The gang frame is bolted to the beam of the implement.
3. Beam: It is that part of the harrow which connects the implement with the yoke. The rear end of
the beam has a clevis to fix its height of hitching to suit the size of animals. It is made of wood
which is locally available in the area.
4. Gang angle mechanism: It is a mechanism by means of which the gang angles are adjusted.
Arranged of adjusted the width and depth of cuts of the implement, is done by gang mechanism.
The lever of the gang angle is usually made of mild steel flat with a wooden handle. The gang
angle can be adjusted approximately in the range from 0º to 27 º only.
5. Scraper: It is that part of the harrow which scrapes the soil from the concave side of the
55
 disc and keeps it clean for effective working of the harrow in the field.
6. Spacer (spool): Spacer is used to separate the two adjacent discs and to keep them in position. It
is usually made of cast iron. The spacer has a suitable square opening in the middle to allow
the passage of the axle.
7. Clevis: Clevis is the part fitted to the beam and the frame which permits vertical hitching of the
harrow.
8. Axle: The axle is usually 20 × 20 mm square section. The length of axis depends upon the size of
the harrow.
9. Middle tyne: The tyne which breaks the unbroken strip of soil left in between two gangs of
the harrow during operation is called middle tyne. This tyne is suitable fixed to the rear end of the
gang frame in such a way that it is replaced easily.
10. Bearing: There is one or two bearings, made of cast iron or wood fitted at each end of the gang.

4.2 Drag harrows.

Drag harrows have been used since ancient times; early farmers used to cut branches from the trees for
use in leveling the soil. Even today in some places farmers drag long bamboo pieces with long nails to
break the soil crust and stir the surface. These harrows are used to break the clods, to stir the soil, to
uproot the early weeds, to level the ground, to break the soil crust and to cover the seeds. There are
two principal kinds of drag harrows, namely, (1) spike tooth and (2) spring type harrow.
4.2.1 Spike Tooth Harrow.
Spike tooth harrows are either rigid or flexible. The flexible type tractor drawn can be rolled up for
transporting. But the animal drawn harrows are always of rigid frame type. There may or may not be
provision for changing the angle of the spikes while operating the harrow. The basic frame of the
harrow may be triangle.. It has pointed steel pegs (teeth) about 23 cm long with their pointed ends
towards ground. Each peg is rigidly clamped with the help of a U-bolt to the cross bars of the frame.
In the case of harrows with a wooden frame, the pegs have threatened ends to be tightened from the top.
Generally the wooden frame is triangular in shape, and the pegs are fixed along the three arms of the
frame. Before operating the harrow in the field, adjustments should be made for efficient and
effective operation. The peg point is tilted backward vertically so that soil is not accumulated in the
front. The pegs of the rigid harrows are fixed slightly tilted so that no arrangement is needed to change
the angle. The harrow is dragged over the surface by means of a chain or rope tied to the yoke. The
animal drawn harrows cover almost 1 to 1.2 m width and are used to stir the soil to a depth of about 5
cm. The depth of penetration can be increased by adding weights to the frame.
4.2.2 Spring Tyne Harrow.
Spring tyne tractor drawn harrows have looping, elliptical or spring like tynes. But the animal drawn
unit is only provided with elliptical tynes. They are used extensively to prepare ploughed land before
planting. They penetrate much deeper than spike tooth harrows and are generally used in the soil where
obstructions like stones, roots and weeds are hidden a few centimeters below the surface. The basic
56
frame of the harrow is mostly rectangular. The spring tynes are bolted staggered on to the frame to
avoid clogging during operation. Spike tooth and spring tyne harrows do not require lubrication.
The harrow teeth, however, are adjustable and may be loosened and turned to present a new
cutting edge when they wear out. Teeth may also be removed for sharpening. Spring tyne harrows can
be sharpened by grinding. The spikes of the spike tooth harrow are either square or diamond shaped and
are of the self sharpening type.

Figure 29: (a) Spring tooth harrow (b) Peg tooth or triangular harrow

4.3 Blade harrows.

It is generally used in clay soils for preparing seedbeds of both rainy season and winter crops. The
harrow doesnot go deep into the soil, therefore can be used for killing of weeds, covering of thrash, and
as a tillage equipment where only the sallow plowing is desired. Thus the primary function of the
implement is to pulverize the soil and create soil mulch. The blade is made of steel. The width cut by
the harrow varies from 38 to 105 cm. Frequent clogging with the roots and weeds which wrap along the
edge of blade possess a serious problem and stoppage of work. However, the improved V-shaped
blade if fitted on the implement can provide relief from clogging.. Besides, it offers the advantage of
reduction in draft, easy penetration and smooth working in the field.

Figure 30: Blade harrow

57
5. The rotovator .
It consists of 16 curved tines bolted on a horizontal power driven shaft. On this shaft 8 times are bent
at edge in right hand side and another eight in the left hand side. The times are so arranged to give
uniform cutting load on the shaft. It can be used as primary and secondary tillage by single operation
for loose soil. Rotovator ploughs, pulverizes mixes and levels dry and wet lands. It is used for pudding
also in the previously ploughed land; it replaces cultivator, disc harrow and puddler, and converts crop
residuals as manure. Rotovator offers a package of benefits to the farmers like getting a better seed
bed, weed control, improvement of humus content and soil structure.
5.1 Principle of Operation.
Rotavator works on principle of rotary motion which applies tractor engine power directly to the soil
through the PTO shaft without wheel slippage or excessive tractor weight. With the good tillage
management and proper operation, they can provide a valuable tillage alternative to plowing and
harrowing.
Two or three pair of blades are used on each flange or working set, which in turn are clamped to the
rotor shaft. As rotor shaft revolves each blade cuts a slice from the untilled soil. The cross sectional
areas of the slice depend upon the tillage and amount of forward tillage per cut.

Figure: Tractor Drawn Rotavator.

6.2 Power transmission system in a rotavator.

The rotavator takes the power directly from the tractor PTO through a shielded double universal joint to
the rotor gear box. The gear box having a crown wheel and pinion, pair of inter changeable spur gears
or bevel gear and a rotor engagement clutch alter the rotor speed by transposing or changing pair of
gears. Generally there are two pairs of gear to obtain four rotor speeds. Multiple plate clutch is provided
before power input to the gear box. The drive from gear box is transmitted to the propeller shaft, where
sprocket is attached for further power transmission from propeller shaft to rotor by chain sprocket
mechanism with reduction of speed of engine. Rotor rotates the flange with blades and cut the soil.
58
 Figure 31: power transmission system in rotavator

6. Specialized Tillage Tools:

6.1 Puddlers.
Puddling of soil is one of the most common farm operations in paddy growing areas. The most desirable
soil conditions at the time of transplanting appears to be one having semi-pervious hard pan covered
with approximately 10 to 15 cm dense mud and very little free water on the surface.It usually refers to
the churning of soil in the presence of excess water by means of a puddler or any other implement for
that purpose. Purpose of puddling is to reduce leaching of water, to kill weeds by decomposing and
to facilitate the transplanting of paddy seedlings by making the soil softer. It is done in a standing
water of 5 to 10 cm depth in the field, which has already received one ploughing by the mould board
plough. In some areas, an indigenous plough is used as a puddler by some farmers.
Puddlers ar classified as:
(i) hand operated puddlers,
(ii) animal drawn puddlers, and
(iii) tractor drawn puddlers.
Among the various types, animal drawn puddlers are mostly used in the country. The indigenous
plough and peg tooth harrow are used for puddling in paddy growing areas. None of these implements
are as effective as the rotating blade type puddlers.
6.2 Bund Formers.
It is used for making bunds or ridges by collecting the soil Bunds are required to hold water in the soil,
thereby conserve moisture and prevent run off.
The size of the bund former is determined by measuring the maximum horizontal distance between the
two rear ends of the forming boards.
Bund former consists of: (i) Forming board (ii) Beam (iii) Handle.

59
Forming board is made of mild steel of thickness 1.6 mm for light soil and 2 mm for medium and
heavy soils.

Figure 32: Bund Former.

6.3 Ridger (Animal drawn).

It is an implement, which cuts and turns the soil in two opposite directions simultaneously for forming
ridges. It is also known as furrower. Ridger is used to form ridges, for sowing row crop seeds and
plants in well tilled soil. The ridger is also used for forming field furrows or channels, earthling up and
similar other operations. Ridgers are also known by the names ridging plough and double moldboard
plough. The ridger generally has V-shaped or wedge-shaped share, fitted to the frog. The nose or the
tip of the share penetrates into the soil and breaks the earth. The moldboards lift, invert and cast aside
the soil, forming deep channels and ridges of the required size. A ridger consists of beam, clevis, frog,
handle, moldboard, braces, share and sliding shoe.

Figure: Animal Drawn Ridger.

6.4 Leveller.
In irrigated areas, land leveling is an essential operation for farming. Level fields receive uniform
penetration of irrigation water with high efficiency. The possibility of water logging and soil erosion is
reduced considerably. Land leveling is usually done in the slack season when the field is free from
60
crops. Wooden logs or planks are the most common type of field levelers used by farmers. They are
operated in ploughed land to collect loose soil from high spots and dump it into depressions. The other
improved type of land leveler which is used on the large farms, is called the leveling karaha (scoop) or
scraper.

Figure 33: Soil scoop

6.5 Subsoiler and Chisel Plough.

Due to the constant use of plough and puddling of soil for long time, hard pan get formed causing soil
aeration problem & water logging. To improve infiltration & drainage, sub-soiler or chisel plough is
used for deep tillage (60-70 cm) especially for breaking of hard layer beneath soil surface called
plough pan. It is used for tillage in field in between 3 – 5 years. It can be used for laying the perforated
pipe beneath soil for sub-surface drainage. Working depth of chisel plough is 35-45 cm. It has series of
rigidly mounted standards spaced 30-45 cm (adjustable) &equipped with replaceable shovels. Cutting
blade is made-up by the high grade carbon steel or alloy steel and having blade enter to the soil at 40o.

Figure: Sub soiler and chisel plough.

61
7. Spring Loaded Tines Cultivator.
A tine hinged to the frame and loaded with a spring so that it swings back when an obstacle is
encountered, is called spring loaded tine . Each tine of this cultivator is provided with two heavy
coil springs, tensioned to ensure minimum movement except when an obstacle is encountered.
The springs operate, when the points strike roots or large stones by allowing the tines to ride over the
obstruction, thus preventing damage. On passing over the obstruction, the tines are automatically
reset and work continues without interruption. The tines are made of high carbon steel and are held in
proper alignment on the main frame members. This type of cultivator is particularly recommended for
soils which are embedded with stones or stumps. A pair of gauge wheel is provided on the cultivator
for controlling the depth of operation. The cultivator may be fitted with 7, 9, 11, 13 tines or
more depending upon the requirement.

Figure: Cultivator with spring loaded tines

Cultivator with Rigid Tines.

Rigid tines of the cultivator are those tines which do not deflect during the work in the field. The tines
are bolted between angle braces, fastened to the main bars by powerful clamps and bolts. Spacing of the
tines are changed simply by slackening the bolts and sliding the braces to the desired position. Since
rigid tines are mounted on the front and rear tool bars, the spacing between the tynes can be easily
adjusted without getting the tines chocked with stubbles of the previous crop or weed growth. A pair
of gauge wheel is used for controlling the depth of operation.

Figure: Cultivator with rigid tines

62
 1. SEEEDING AND PLANTING MACHINES.
Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in the properly prepared bed, at optimum depth, at
uniform spacing so that the recommended seed rate is maintained to have good germination in the
field. Important factors that affect seed germination and emergence include:
 the viability of the seed (percentage germination under laboratory conditions)
 soil temperature
 availability of soil moisture to the seeds
 soil aeration and the resistance of the soil to seedling emergence
These are influenced by the soil type, the physical condition of the soil, depth of sowing / planting, the
intimacy of contact between the seed and the soil, the degree of compaction of the soil above the seeds
and formation of surface crust after sowing. Final field emergency stand is also influenced by pre-
emergence, physical losses by birds and the post emergence losses due to diseases; insects and adverse
environmental conditions. It should be apparent that sowing equipment cannot control all the factors
involved in the emergence. Most of the crops under optimum irrigation condition are shown on flat
surfaces. Under too low or too high rainfall conditions, the sowing is done in furrows or on ridges and
the root crops are generally sown on ridges.
1.1 Methods of sowing.
1.1.1 Broad Casting.
It is the scattering of the seeds on the field surface after broadcasting; they are covered by
manipulating the soil. In this case, the intercultural operations can be carried out only with hand tools.
Millets, upland paddy and other rain fed crops are broadcasted. This is the method broadly adopted for
nursery raising in the low land rice cultivation.
1.1.2 Dibbling.
It is the process of placing the seeds in holes at definite depth made in seed bed and covering them.
The and tool used is called dibbler which has many conical projections made in a frame. This is
adopted for small plots and is generally used for vegetable crops.

Figure: Hand Dibbler.

63
1.1.3 Seed dropping.
Behind the plough in the furrow made by the indigenous plough is a common method used in most of
the dry land areas. A man or woman following the plough drops the seed by hand and the seed is
covered when the next furrow is opened.
1.1.4 Drilling.
It means dropping the seeds in the furrow through send tubes. Metering of seed may either be done
manually or mechanically. The accuracy of depth of placement, spacing and amount of seed sown are
much higher than the other methods. The rear covered is also more. The only disadvantage is that
seeds may sometimes get damaged and get clogged during operation Drilling can be done either
manually (behind the country plough) or by tractor drawn seed drills.
1.1.5 Hill Dropping.
In hill dropping the seeds are sown in lines as in drilling and seed dropping in line is also controlled.
Unlike drilling the seeds are dropped at a fixed spacing and not in a continuous stream. In hill
dropping, plant spacing in a row is also maintained.
1.1.6 Check Rowing.
It is the method in which the spacing between the rows is the same as that between the plants. This
makes it possible to do inter culture in both directions.
1.1.7 Transplanting.
It is commonly done for paddy vegetable crops and flower plants. Due to the better care given to the
plants in the nursery stage, transplanted seedlings given more yield. This is a labor intensive and time
consuming operation. Transplatner is the machine used for this purpose.
1.2 Seed Drill.
Seed drill is a machine for placing the seeds in a continuous flow in furrows at uniform rate and at
controlled depth with or without the arrangement of covering the seed with soil. Drills are used for
sowing seeds in rows at 15-35 cm apart. The seed drill performs the following functions:
a. To carry the seeds,
b. To open furrow to an uniform depth,
c. To meter the seeds,
d. To place the seed in furrows in an acceptable pattern, and
e. To cover the seeds and compact the soil around the seed.
Seed drills, fitted with fertilizer dropping attachment, distribute the fertilizer uniformly on the
ground, is called seed cum fertilizer drills. It has a large seed box which is divided length wise into two
compartments, one for seeds and another for fertilizers.
1.7.1 Components of seed drill.
A seed drill with mechanical seed metering device mainly consists of:

64
(i) frame, (ii) seed box, (iii) seed metering mechanism,
(iv) Furrow openers, (v) covering device, and (vi) transport wheels.
Frame: The frame is usually made angle iron with suitable braces and brackets. The frame is
strong enough to withstand all types of loads in working condition.
Seed box: It may be made of mild steel sheet or galvanized iron with a suitable cover. A small
agitator is sometimes provided to prevent clogging of seeds.
Covering device: It is a device to refill a furrow after the seed has been placed in it.
Covering the seeds are usually done by patta, chains, drags, packers, rollers and press wheels,
designed in various sizes and shapes.
Transport wheel: There are two wheels fitted on the main axle. Some seed drills have got pneumatic
wheels also. The wheels have suitable attachments to transmit power to operate seed dropping
mechanism.
1.3 Seed metering mechanism.
The mechanism of a seed drill or fertilizer distributor which deliver seeds or fertilizers from the
hopper at selected rates is called Seed metering mechanism . Seed metering mechanism may be of
several types:
fluted feed type, internal double run type, cup feed type,
cell feed mechanism, brush feed mechanism, auger feed mechanism,
spicker wheel mechanism, star wheel mechanism.
Most common type of metering devices that delivers a more or less continuous flow of seeds is fluted
roller type or internal double run type. These metering devices are driven by ground wheel. Some of
above metering devices have not been commercially accepted and popularized.
1.3.1 Fluted feed type seed metering mechanism.
The fluted wheel (also known as fluted roller) is driven by a square shaft. Fluted rollers are
provided with longitudinal grooves along the outer periphery and can be shifted on the shaft
sideways . The size of groove is different for different crops. The fluted rollers are mounted at the
bottom of the seed box; receive the seeds into longitudinal grooves and pass on to the seed tube through
the seed hole. By shifting the rollers sideways, the length of the groove exposed to the seed, can be
increased or decreased and hence the amount of seed sown is changed. The number of rollers on a drill
is the same as the number of furrow openers. There is also an adjustable gate on the discharge side of
the fluted wheel. The gate opening can be changed to fit the size of the seed. Generally, the speed of the
square shaft is constant, but on some drills, the speed of the shaft can also be changed, resulting
in a change in the seed rate. The number of flutes on the roller ranges from 8 to 12. This method is
favored for sowing small or medium size seeds. For bold size seeds, this mechanism is not preferred
as the seeds are likely to get crushed during metering operation.
Fluted roller is a simple, low cost, trouble free device suitable for bulk metering even for granulated
fertilizers. An improved design of the fluted roller has spiral shaped flutes. This design offers a
uniform distribution of seeds as compared to straight shaped flutes. However, most of the low cost
65
animal drawn fertilizer- drills are fitted with straight shaped rollers. It is mostly used for drilling wheat.
The fluted feed mechanism is more positive in its metering action than the Internal double run method.

Figure 34: Fluted roller seed metering mechanism.

1.3.2 Internal double run type seed metering mechanism.

It has a double faced wheel; one face has a larger opening for the larger seeds and the other face or side
has a smaller opening for use with smaller seeds. A gate is provided in the bottom of the box to cover
the opening not in use. When one of the sides is being used, the seed is prevented from flowing
through the other side by using a special cover. The discs mounted on a spindle and housing in a
casing fitted below the seed box. The rate of seeding is varied by adjusting the speed of the spindle
which carries the discs. This mechanism is used for metering bold and small seeds.

66
 Fig. Internal double run type seed metering mechanism
Cup feed seed metering mechanism
It is a mechanism consisting of cups of spoons on the periphery of a vertical rotating disc which picks
up the seeds from the hopper and delivers them into the seed tubes. It consists of a seed hopper which
has two parts. The upper one is called Grain box and the lower one is called Feed box. Shuttles are
provided to connect these boxes. The seed delivery mechanism consists of a periphery of each disc.
The spindle with its frame and attachment is called Feed barrel. When the spindle rotates, one disc
with its set of cups rotates and picks up few seeds and drops them into small hoppers. The cups have
two faces, one for larger seeds and other for smaller seeds. The seed rate is controlled by the
size of the cups and the rate at which the seed barrel revolves. This type of mechanism is
common on British seed drills.

Cell feed seed metering mechanism

It is a mechanism in which seeds are collected and delivered by a series of equally spaced cells on the
periphery of a circular plate or wheel.

67
Auger feed seed metering mechanism
It is a distributing mechanism, consisting of an auger which causes a substance to flow evenly in
the field, through an aperture at the base or on the side of the hopper. Many of the fertilizer drills of the
country have got Auger feed mechanism.
Star wheel seed metering mechanism
It is a feed mechanism which consists of a toothed wheel, rotating in a horizontal plane and
conveying the fertilizer through a feed gate below the star wheel.

Furrow openers
The furrow openers are provided in a seed drill to open up furrows before dropping the seeds, which
facilitate the placement of seed and fertilizers at a desired uniform depth and spacing. Furrow openers
play a very significant role in placing the seed and fertilizers at the moist zone of the soil. The seed tube
conducts the seed from the feed mechanism into the boot from where they fall into the furrows.
Type of furrow openers
In general, two main types of furrow openers used with ferti-drills are:
(i) rotating type openers i.e., single disc and double disc type, and
(ii) fixed type openers i.e., shovel type and shoe type.

Fig. Types of furrow openener

1 Shovel type furrow opener
Shovel type furrow openers are widely used in seed drills. There are best suited for stony or root
infested fields. These shovels are bolted to the flat iron shanks at the point where boots are fitted which
carry the end of the seed tubes. In order to prevent shock loads due to obstructions, springs are
provided. It is easy in construction, cheaper and easily repairable.

68
2 Shoe type furrow openers
It works well in trashy soils where the seed beds are not smoothly prepared. They are made from two
flat pieces of steel welded together to form a cutting edge. It is specially suited for black cotton soil.
Shoe is made of carbon steel having minimum carbon content of 0.5 percent with a minimum thickness
of 4 mm.
3 Disc type furrow openers: They are of two types
(a) Single disc type and (b) Double disc type.
(a) Single disc type furrow openers : Disc type furrow openers are found suitable where plant
debris or trash mulches are used. It is a furrow opener consisting of one concave disc and set at an
angle while operating, shifts the soil to one side making a small ridge. The disc is kept clean by two
scrapers, one toe shaped at the convex side and one “T” shaped at the concave side. The disc penetrates
well in the soil, cuts all the trashes and clods in the field. It works in sticky soils also, but the discs are
costly and maintenance work is bit difficult.
(b) Double disc type furrow openers : In double disc type furrow opener, there are two flat discs,
set at an angle to each other. The discs open a clean furrow and leave a small ridge in the centre. The
seeds are dropped between the two discs, providing a more accurate placement. It is suitable for
the trashy lands. Seed drills attached with tractors having high speeds, usually have this type of
furrow opener.
Calibration of seer drill and seed-cum-fertilizer drill
The procedure of testing the seed drill for correct seed rate is called calibration of seed drill. It
is necessary to calibrate the seed drill before operating in the field to get a predetermined seed rate
of the machine. The following steps are to be followed for calibration of seed drill or seed-cum-
fertilizer drill.
Step 1: Determine the nominal width (W) of drill.
W=M×S
Where M is the number of furrow openers and S is the spacing between the openers in metre
and W is in metre
Step 2: Find the length of a strip (L) having nominal width W necessary to cover 1/25th of a hectare.

Step 3: Determine the number of revolutions (N) the ground wheel has to make to cover the length
of the strip (L).

Step 4: Raise the seed drill in such a way that the ground wheels turn freely. Make a mark on the drive

69
wheel and a corresponding mark at a convenient place on the body of the drill to help in counting the
revolutions of the drive wheel.
Step 5: Put selected seed and fertilizer in the respective hoppers. Place a sack or a container under each
boot for seed and fertilizers.
Step 6: Set the rate control adjustment for the seed and the fertilizer for maximum drilling. Mark this
position on the control for reference.
Step 7: Engage the clutch or on-off adjustment for the hoppers and rotate the drive wheel at the speed
N.

Step 8: Weigh the quantity of seed and fertilizer, dropped from each opener and record on the data
sheet.
Step 9: Calculate the seed and fertilizer, dropped in kg/ha and record on the data sheet.
Step 10: Repeat the process by suitable adjusting the rate control till desired rate of seed and
fertilizer drop is obtained.
Rice transplanter
Two methods are used for raising rice crop, namely upland cultivation (direct seeding) and wetland
cultivation (direct seeding and seedling transplanting). Rice transplanting by hand is very
tedious, expensive and labour consuming operation. Many attempts have been made to develop
manual as well as self-propelled rice transplanter for transplanting of rice. The manual rice
transplanter consists of frame, movable tray and seed picking fingers. Mat type seedlings are placed in
the inclined trays. Fingers pick up the seedlings when they are pushed downward and place them in the
prepared soil. Plant-to-plant spacing can be controller by the operator. Transplanters are
available in 5-6 rows with comb type fingers. It s working capacity varied from 0.3-0.4 ha/day and
requires two persons, one for operating the transplanter and other for filling the tray with mat
seedlings.

Fig. Manual Rice Transplanter

70
 The self propelled rice transplanter consists of air-cooled gasolines engine, main clutch, running
clutch, planting clutch, seeding table, float, star wheel, accelerator lever, ground wheel, and handle and
linkage mechanism. Seedlings are grown in special seedling trays in controlled environment called mat
seedlings. When seedlings are 25-30 day-old, they are uprooted and placed in slanting seedling
trays. Power from the engine is transferred to main clutch from where it is transferred to planting
and a running clutch. The fingers on four bar linkage mechanism catch 3-4 seedlings at a time separate
them from the mat and place it in the puddle soil. A float supports the machine on the water
while working in the field. There are two end wheels that facilitate the movement of the
transplanter. A marker is provided to demarcate the transplanting width during operation. The
machine maintains row to row and plant to plant spacing. The planting capacity of the machine is about
0.05-0.1 ha/hr.

71
Plant Protection Equipments
A pest may be any troublesome animal, insects, and plants that interfere with the comfort, health of
human beings or productivity of various crops. On this earth pests are continuously competing with us
by damaging food, feed & fibre or preventing the efficient growth of plants. They spread diseases in
humans as well as their domestic animals.
Estimates of crop and crop produce loss shows that annually about one-third of the total food production
is being destroyed by pest. The total loss percentage if categorized according to the types of pests is as
follows- weeds - 33%, diseases -26% , insects -20%
Sprayers
Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets. Sprayer is used for the following purpose:
(i) Application of fungicides to minimize fungal diseases,
ii) Application of insecticides to control insect pests,
iii) Application of herbicides to remove weeds and
(iv) Application of micronutrients on the plants.
The main functions of sprayer are:
(i) to break the liquid into droplets of effective size,
(ii) to distribute them uniformly over the plants, and
(iii) to regulate the amount of liquid to avoid excessive application
Desirable quality of sprayer
(a) The sprayer should produce a steady stream of spray materials in the desired fineness of
the particle so that the plants to be treated may be covered uniformly.
(b) It should deliver the liquid at sufficient pressure so that it reaches all the foliage and spreads
uniformly over the surface of the plant
(c) It should be light weight, sufficiently strong, easily workable and repairable.
Type of sprayer
1. Manually operated sprayers
Bucket type sprayer
It consists of a hand operated single or double acting pump, which may be placed into any ordinary
bucket containing spraying solution. Plunger rod is hollow and serves as the compression chamber.
Liquid is discharged in both suction and delivery strokes, hence a continuous application can be
made. One hand operates plunger, while another hand keeps the pump in stable position. This
pump is mostly made of brass. It is very light and easily handled and develops sufficient pressure to
spray small gardens and low trees. It develops a pressure of 4 -10 kg/cm2 .

72
 Fig. Line diagram of bucket type sprayer
Knapsack sprayer
It is very common type of sprayer, is provided with a pump and a large air chamber permanently
mounted in a 9 to 22.5 lts tank. The handle of the pump extending over the shoulder or under the
arm of operator, which makes it possible to pump with one hand and spray with other hand. Spray
liquid is delivered through the delivery system, consisting of lance and nozzle, which is connected
with the pump by a flexible hose. A uniform pressure can be maintained by keeping the pump in
operation. It is generally carried on the back of the operator. It is quite useful for spraying small trees,
shrubs and row crops up to 2.5 m height. These sprayers are useful because of their simplicity in
operation, durability and for diverse use including spraying bushes of tea and coffee .One man can spray
about 0.4 – 0.5 ha in a day, thus spraying about 90 lts of spray liquid. A pressure of 3 -5 kg/cm2 is
maintained in the pressure chamber.

Line diagram of knapsack sprayer

73
Foot - operated sprayer
It is also called pedal pump. It consists of a plunger assembly, stand, suction hose, delivery hose and
an extension rod with nozzle. One end of suction hose is fitted with a strainer and other end with a
flexible coupling. Similarly, one end of delivery hose is fitted with a cut-off valve and other end with a
flexible coupling. An additional container is required to hold spray fluid, as this sprayer does not
have a built-in tank. Continuous pedaling is required for uniform spray. It can develop a pressure of
17-21 kg/cm2 . It is easy to operate and can be used for spraying tall crops and fruit trees up to 4 m
height. Sprayer can be used to spray trees up to 6 m height with additional hose pipe.

Fig.Line diagram of foot operated sprayer

Compression Sprayers
In these types of sprayers, air is compressed into the container by the compression air pump.
When sufficient pressure is developed, then the delivery system is operated to obtain spray in the
form of fine droplets. The compressed air forces the liquid through the nozzle and the desired type of
spray is achieved. For this purpose, the tank is usually filled to three fourths of its capacity, leaving
one-fourth volume for the compressed air. The air pump is fitted vertically inside the container
which acts as a force pump.
The compressed air sprayer consists of an air pump, is fitted vertically inside the airtight chamber. The
outlet pipe is suspended in the liquid in the chamber, the end running into the bottom of the
chamber, the other end is provided with a nozzle. The chamber is usually filled to three fourths of its
capacity, leaving one-fourth volume for the compressed air. Before spraying, the pressure is developed
by pumping air into the chamber and continued till sufficient pressure is built. When sufficient
pressure is developed, then the delivery system is operated to obtain spray in the form of fine droplets.
The tank capacity is usually 14 lts. Frequent pumping must be done to maintain the required pressure.

74
Power sprayers
Power sprayers are operated usually with IC engines. The prime mower capacity varies from 1 to
5 hp. The pressure pump is operated by a small power unit ensuring a constant steady pressure. These
sprayers are essentially high volume sprayers and operated at pressure ranges from 20 to 55 kg/cm . 2
These machines are usually portable type. Sometimes, power sprayers are operated by the PTO
shaft of the tractor. Power sprayers can cover much larger area, and do the job efficiently. A power
sprayer essentially consists of: (i) prime mower, (ii) tank, (iii) agitator, (iv) air chamber, (v) pressure
gauge, (vi) pressure regulator, (vii) strainer, (viii) boom and (ix) nozzles.

Prime mower : Prime mower is needed to supply power to the power sprayer. It is usually
internal combustion engine. The power generally varies from 1 to 5 HP.
Tank : Steel tank is widely used to prevent corrosion. Plastic tanks are also getting popular due
tofreedom from corrosion and ease of moulding into smooth shape. A covered opening, fitted with
a removable strainer is provided for easy filling, inspection and cleaning. A drain plug is provided
at the bottom of tank for draining the liquid.
Agitator : Agitators are needed to agitate the liquid in the tank. Propeller or paddle type mechanical
agitators are provided to agitate the liquid. Horizontal shaft with flat blades rotating at about 100 to 200
rpm may be used. Paddle tip speed in excess of 2.5 m/s may cause foaming.
Air chamber: An air chamber is provided on the discharge line of the pump to level out the pulsations
of the pump thereby providing a constant nozzle pressure.
Pressure gauge : It is provided on the discharge line to guide the operator regarding spray
pressure. It should be under specified limit.
Strainer: It is provided in the suction line between the tank and the pump to remove dust, dirt and other
foreign materials.
Boom : It is driven by a tractor, has a long boom in a horizontal plane on which nozzles are
fixed at specified spacing. The boom can be adjusted vertically to suit the height of plants in
different fields.
Nozzle : It is used to break the liquid into the desired spray and deliver it to plants.

Care and maintenance of sprayer

(i) All washers and packings should be soaked in oil or water before use.
(ii) The ends of the nozzle should be unscrewed and cleaned before starting the work.
(iii) When spraying is over, the sprayer should be operated for sometime with clean water to remove
sediments from the pressure vessel and the discharge tube.
(iv) Special attention has to be paid in case of power sprayers for the following:
(a) Lubricating oil of the engine should be changed for every 100 working hours unless otherwise
75
 advised by the manufacturers.
(b) Do not disturb the packing until a leak is observed.
(c) The spray pump should not be worked at more than recommended pressure.
(d) Oil level in the pump of the engine should be checked every time and all grease points should
be greased once in a day.
(e) Recommended oils and fuels should always be used in the engine.
(f) Nozzle should be thoroughly cleaned after use by blowing air through it.
Dusters
Duster is a machine to apply chemical in dust form. Dusters make use of air streams to carry pesticides
in finely divided dry form on the plants. A duster essentially consists of: (a) hopper, (b) agitator, (c)
feed control, (d) fan or blower and (e) delivery nozzle.
Types of dusters
Plunger type hand duster
This machine consists of a chamber for the dust, outlet, a cylinder with piston, piston rod and handle.
Sometimes the dust chamber is placed below the cylinder. By moving the piston back and forth in the
cylinder, dust is forced through the outlet. This type of duster is suitable for dusting a small area.
Rotary type hand duster
This type of duster is provided with an enclosed fan geared to a hand crank and a hopper holding the
dust. It is equipped with an agitator to stir the dust and a regulator to control the discharge opening. The
duster is usually fastened to the operator by means of shoulder strips. The right hand is used for anking
and the left hand to guide the discharge tube. These dusters can hold about 3.6 to 4.5 kg of dust and are
large enough to treat 0.4 to 0.6 hectare of cropped area in a day. Ordinarily they are not found suitable
for dusting over 3 meters height.

Fig. Line diagram of rotary duster

Power duster
76
The power duster of small capacity is generally mounted on the back of the operator. It consists of
cylindrical container, blower, high speed engine and discharge hose pipe. The cylindrical container
is provided with two compartments, one for gasoline, and the other for the powder to be dusted. The
blower is directly mounted on the crankshaft of the high speed (4000 rpm) air cooled engine. The
air pressure is utilized to agitate the dust in the container in order to blow it through the flexible hose
pipe. The direction of the dust is regulated by a movable delivery spout suitably fitted with the unit. The
dust can be blown up to about 6 meters height. Such a duster can cover about a hectare in a day. This
type of duster can be converted into a sprayer with little modifications. Portable type power dusters are
also in use. They are mounted on two wheel trolleys.
Care and maintenance of dusters
(i) Duster should be thoroughly cleaned before and after use with a suitable brush.
(ii) The hopper should be filled with dust about half of its capacity.
(iii) The lid of the hopper should be closed during the operation.
(iv) In rotary dusters, the handle should be cranked at 30 to 35 rpm for efficient performance.
(v) Before and after use of the duster, the dust from the fan box, suction pipe and hopper should be
thoroughly blown out.
(vi) Pieces of paper, gunny bag and other foreign materials should be prevented from getting into
the hopper.
(vii) The agitator parts and dust feed should be occasionally checked for blockage by foreign
matter.

77
Harvesting Machines
Harvesting is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking digging or a combination of these operations
for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground and removing the useful part of
fruits from plants.
The operation of cutting a plant is achieved by four different actions.
(1) Slicing action with a sharp smooth edge
(2) Tearing action with a rough serrated edge,
(3) High velocity single element impact with sharp or dull edge, and
(4) A two element scissor type action.
Harvesting can be done by
 Manually operated tool
 Animal drawn machine
 Mechanically operated machine.
Generally, manual harvesting involves slicing and tearing actions that result in plant structure failure
due to compression, tension or shear. The serrated sickle combines a slicing and a sawing action.
Sickles with serrated edges do not require the repeated sharpening needed by smooth edge sickles.
Single element impact cutting is an economical method of cutting unrestrained vegetation and
has been widely used in rotary lawn mowers, forage choppers, and some tractor mounted cutter
bar. Usually a single element, sharp edged blade requires a velocity of about 10 m/second for
impact cutting. A dull edged, single element blade requires a velocity of about 45 m/second.
The two element scissors action is the most widely used for harvesting agricultural crops. The
reciprocating cutter bars that are commonly used for harvesting paddy/wheat use this principle. The
inclined angle between the cutting edges is about 38 degrees. The serrated blades permit a larger
inclined angle because the plants can not easily slip between the two cutting edges. Reciprocating
cutter bars do an excellent job of harvesting but are characterized by the high energy, losses,
short dynamic imbalance, and restricted operating speeds. Improvements have been relatively limited
by the high inertial and frictional forces involved in this type of mechanism.
A. Sickle

Sickle
78
It is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting other vegetations. It is
essentially consists of a metallic blade and a wooden handle. Blade is the main metallic part of the
sickle. It is desirable to make the blade of carbon steel. It is made in a curved shape. The tooth of
serrated sickle is made sharp for efficient working in the field. The handle of the sickle is made of well
seasoned wood. The forged end of the blade for fixing the handle is called tang. The plain or serrated
edge in the inner side ofthe blade is called cutting edge. Protective metallic bush fitted at the junction of
the blade and the handle to keep the tang tight in the handle is called ferrule. arvesting by sickle
is very slow and labour consuming device.
B. Mower
Mower is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath. The Conventional mower
has the following main parts
a) Frame to support moving parts
b) Power transmitting unit to receive and transmit motive force
c) Cutter bar to cut crops and separate it from uncut portion.
d) Wheels for transport and for operating the cutting mechanism
e) Auxiliary parts to lift and drop the cutter bar

Frame
The frame of the mower is a heavy casting which supports other parts and provides openings for
main axle, countershaft and crankshaft. It also provides space for gears, clutch and bearings. The
lever for lifting the cutter bar is attached to the frame.
Power transmitting unit
In bullock drawn mowers, the power transmitting unit consists of main axle, gears, crankshaft, crank
heel and pitman. The main axle receives power from one of the transporting wheels. A pur gear
ounted on the main axle drives the spur pinion on one end of the countershaft in the gear box. The
crank wheel and the pitman are fixed on the outer end of the crankshaft. The eciprocating (back nd
forth) motion is transmitted to the pitman, which in turns operates the knife in the cutter bar. The knife
is connected to the pitman with a ball and socket joint. The knife makes about 1600 cutting strokes per
minute. In order to engage or disengage the driving unit, generally a dog clutch is provided on
the counter shaft so that the man can operate it by foot from the seat. The tractor drawn semi-mounted
or mounted type mowers are operated by the P.T.O. shaft. In this case, the cutting mechanism is
driven independently of the forward speed of the mower. A shaft is connected with the PTO shaft,
which drives a V pulley with the help of a universal joint. The V pulley rotates another smaller pulley
on the crank shaft of the machine and reciprocating motion is transmitted to the cutter bar. Other basic
components of the machine are the same as that of bullock drawn mower with some variations
in size and minor accessories.

79
 Components of reciprocating type mower
Cutter bar
It is an assembly comprising of fingers, knife section, ledger plate, wearing plate, knife guides (clips)
and shoes . It is used for cutting grasses and forage. It is made of high grade steel. It work like a knife.
The knife is a metal bar, on which triangular shaped sections are mounted. The cutting edges of
these knife sections are mostly smooth edges. The knife secions move back and forth and cut
plants in both directions. The section of knife should always stop at the centre of the guard on each
stroke. The length of the stroke is 7.5 cm. Ledger plate is a hardened metal, inserted in a finger over
which knife sections move to give a scissor like cutting action. Knife clips hold the knife sections
down against ledger plates but allow it to move freely. Knife clips are placed together with wearing
plates to absorb the rearward thrust of the crop to the knife. Wearing plate is a hardened steel
plate, attached to the finger bar to form a bearing surface for the back of the knife.A badly worn
wearing plate or a loose knife clip may allow the knife to bend.

Fig. Components of cutter bar

Pitman is a type of connecting rod which is pinned to the crankshaft with the help of a pin. It
transmits reciprocating motion to a knife head. Wooden pitman is commonly used for the mowers.
80
A shoe is always provided on each end of the cutter bar to regulate the height of cut above the ground.
The inner shoe is larger in section and is placed at the inner end of the cutter bar. The outer shoe is
placed at the outer end and is smaller in section. The inner shoe has a larger area of contact with the
ground than the outer one. This results in smooth and easy sliding of the cutter bar on the ground.
Grass board is provided at the outer end of the mower, which causes the cut plants to fall towards the
cut material. The angle of the grass board can be changed for different crops.
Wheels
Early imported mowers had a pair of wheels made of cast iron with sufficient width and number of lugs
to develop better grip in the soil. Now pneumatic wheels have been introduced. Because of the ratchet
and pawl arrangements, the transport wheels transmit power to the knife.
Auxiliary parts
There is a lever provided within the easy reach of the operator to enable him to lift the cutter bar from
his seat. In addition to this, all animal drawn mowers are provided with a foot lift so that the cutter bar
can be raised when turning at corners or to avoid obstructions. A hand lever is also provided to adjust
the height of the cut.
Registration and Alignment

Fig. Registration of mower

As the pitman arm moves the knife back and forth, the centre of the knife section must stop in
the centre of the guard on each stroke, when it is in operating condition . This is called
registration . It is essential for an even job of cutting, and unclogging of the cutter bar.
Adjustment is commonly made by moving the entire cutter bar in or out with respect to the pitman. On
most of the mowers, the outer end of the cutter bar is carried a little ahead of the inner end to overcome
the pressure exerted by the standing crop on the cutter bar, while it is under working condition. In
general, the cutter bar is set at about 88° to the direction of motion, i.e., inward lead of 2°. This is called
lead and gives better cutting. When the cutter bar is properly aligned, the knife and pitman run in a
straight line. The lead can be measured by stretching a string parallel to the pitman up to the outer end.
Generally, 2 cm lead per metre length of cutter bar is adequate.
C. Reaper:
It is a machine used for harvesting cereal crops mostly at ground level. These are either Power tiller
operated or tractor operated (semi mounted or trailed type). When the machines drop the cut crop in
the form o f a continuous windrow or in the form o f bunches in the field for easier collection, it is

81
known as Reaper Windrower where as when these machines reap the crop, bind them into small
bundles and lay them on the ground they are called Reaper Binders.

Type of Reaper or Windrower:

1. Power Tiller mounted reaper: This type o f reaper has a cutting width varying between lm to
.6m with a 3-10hp engine. The reaper has dividers of which the left one separates the crop to be
cut from the uncut crop while the other row dividers guide the crop into the star wheel from
where it is lifted by special lugged belts. A reciprocating cutter bar (which consists of serrated
knives and guards) provides the cutting action. After cutting, the star wheel passes the crop to
the flat vertical belt conveyor with lugs, which transfer the crop to the right outlet and drive the
star wheels. The pressure spring keeps the cut crop positioned vertically while it is transferred
laterally. An outlet plate controls the evenness of the windrow when the cut crop is laid on the
field. Power from the engine is transmitted by means of the V-belt and pulleys to the input shaft
and through a set of bevel gears to the harvester unit.

2. Self propelled Vertical conveyor reaper:

It is engine operated walking type harvester suitable for harvesting and windrowing cereals and
oil seed crops. The engine power (4.5 kW) transmitted to cutter bar and conveyor belt through
belt pulleys. This one meter wide machine saves 52% labour, 90% operating time and 52% cost
of operation compared to conventional harvesting with hand operated sickle. The width of cut
is 0.9 m and field capacity of 0.175 ha/hr was achieved while operating at a forward speed of
2.7km/hr.
3. Tractor Front Mounted Reaper Windrower (Vertical Conveyor Reaper):
The main parts of the reaper are crop row dividers with star wheels, cutter bar & conveyor
belts. The operation is similar to that of the power tiller driven reaper. The crop row dividers enter
the standing crop and star wheels on these help in guiding the crop towards the cutter bar. The Star
wheels also help in conveying the crop. The lugged conveyor belts convey the crop towards the
right hand side of the machine. The power to different mechanisms is transmitted from tractor P
TO shaft through gearbox by a long shaft running beneath the tractor body to the front and with the
help of universal joint and telescopic shaft it is connected to the gearbox on the reaper. The power
to the cutter bar is given from the crank provided at the lower end of the vertical shaft of the
gearbox. The conveyor belts gets power from two pulleys provided at the right hand side o f the
machine, which is connected with chain and sprockets to the vertical shaft of the gearbox. The star
wheels run in mesh with the top conveyor belt in rack and pinion fashion. Lugged V-belts are
provided on crop row dividers lor grinding the star wheels. Two rows of crop retaining spring are
provided between two conveyor belts. The machine is suspended on hydraulic system of the tractor
with the help of parallel bar linkages and wire rope pulley lifting system. The precise control on
height of cut is achieved through depth control lever of the tractor.
It has a cutting width of 1.6 m-2.05 m with 7 or 9 dividers and is driven by a 25-65 hp tractor. It is
operated at a speed of 1.8-4.5 km/hr. and has a field 0.2-0 4 ha/hr. capacity which varies from 0.2 -
0.4 ha/hr.

82
 Fig: Tractor front mounted VCR

Reaper Binder
A single or double row self propelled reaper hinder was originated in Japan and is suitable for
harvesting rice or wheat. The unit has a cutting width of 25-40 cm. These are walk behind type,
provided with a 2.5-4.5 hp petrol engine fitted with two wide radial tyres or a four wheel riding type
driven by a 10 hp engine.
The crop dividers separate the crop to be cut while the crop lifting devices at the left and right hand
side guide the crop to the cutter bar. Two star wheels at the right side and on the left side move the cut
crop towards the crop conveyors. There are two chains with lug type crop conveyors provided on two
levers to carry the crop to the knotter mechanism. When a bundle of pre set size is formed, the trigger
lever engages the knotter mechanism. The knotter needle carries a twine around the collected crop a
knot is tied. The ejector fingers push the crop out of the knotter as soon as the knot is completed.
An auxiliary conveyor of V-belt with lugs type assists the ejector fingers in delivering the bundle
away from the machine. Three sizes of bundles, which correspond to 250, 300 & 350 mm
circumferential length, can be obtained.

83
THRESHING

Threshing: It is the process of detaching grains from the earheads or from the plants.
Principle of threshing. Threshing separates grains from panicles, cobs and pods. Threshing is based on the
principle that when:
1. Some impact or pounding is given on crops; the grains are separated from panicles, cobs or pods.
2. The crop mass passes through a gap between drum and concave, wearing or rubbing action takes place.
This separates grains from panicles.
Thus the rupture of the bond between the grains and ears is due to s to the factors, like:
1. Impact of beaters or spikes over grains and
2. Wearing or rubbing action.
The strength of the bond between the grain and the panicle depends upon:
(a) Type of crop (b) Variety of crop
(c) Ripening phase of grain and (d) Moisture content of grain.
During operation, the crop material is slightly pushed into the threshing cylinder through the feeding
chute, which gets into the working clearance between the circumference of the revolving drum having
attached spikes, and the upper casing. The speed of the spikes is greater than the plant mass due to
which they strike the latter which results in part of the grain been separated by the straw.
Simultaneously the, drum pulls the material through the gap between the spikes and the upper casing
with a varying speed. As a result, the material is struck several times by the spikes causing threshing of
the major portion of the grain and breaking stalks into pieces, and also accelerating them through the
inlet of the lower concave. As the material layer shifts towards the converging gap of lower concave,
mutual rubbing of the ear stalks, as well as rubbing of the ears against the edges of the concave bars
causes breaking of the stalks. The thicker stalk that cannot be sieved through the concave again joins
the fresh stalk and the same process is repeated until it can pass through the concave apertures.

Fig: Line diagram of a thresher with crop flow

84
The efficiency and quality of threshing depends up:
1. Drum Speed
2. Number of beaters
3. Drum size
4. Gaps between drum and concave
5. Quality and condition of plant mass fed to the thresher
6. Direction of feeding and
7. Rate of feeding
Threshing methods. The common methods of threshing are:
Threshing by manual labour. Threshing by manual labour is a slow and labour consuming device. Process of
beating the harvests on a floor or beating by stick is the method followed for small quantity of harvests.
Threshing by animals. Threshing by animals is very common method used in villages. The harvest is spread on a
clean threshing space, the animals are tied in line one after the other with the help of a strong pole, fixed in the
centre of the threshing space. Animals move round and round on the harvest and trample them continuously till the
grains are completely separated from straw. One man drives the animals from the back.
Threshing by machines. With the increase of mechanization in farms, threshing machines are getting popular day
by day. Different types of threshers are used for threshing.
Olpad thresher: It is mainly a wheat thresher consisting of notched discs placed on three axles, fixed on a wooden
or iron frame on which a seat and a platform are provided. This thresher is operated by animal. Olpad thresher is
said to have its origin at a small place named Olpad in Gujarat State. This thresher is useful for threshing wheat,
barley, gram etc. on a threshing floor. This thresher has three or four wheels to facilitate its movement from one
place to another. Oplan thresher mainly consists of:
1. Frame
2. Disc spacer (spool)
3. Disc axles
4. Bearing blocks
PADDY THRESHER (PEDAL OPERATED)
It consists mainly of a well balanced cylinder with a series of threshing teeth fixed on wooden slats. It has got gear
drive mechanism to transmit power. While the cylinder is kept in rotary motion at high speed, the paddy bundles of
suitable sizes are applied to the teeth. The grains are separated by the combing as well as by hammering action of
the threshing teeth. This thresher mainly consists of:
1. Body frame 2. Cylinder
3. Drive mechanism 4. Axle

85
1. Body frame: The body frame of the paddy thresher consists of the base, the side frame, the
front grain shield and rear grain shield.
a. Base: The base may be made of mild steel angle section or of wood. It is suitably fixed
to the side frame of the body.
b. Side frame: The side frame supports side boards which are usually made of mild steel
sheet.
c. Front grain shield: The front grain shield is made of wooden plank of about 12 mm
thickness and is fitted suitably to the side frames.
2. Cylinder: The cylinder may be in two sizes. One size is about 450 mm in length when the
thresher is operated by one man. The other size is 700 mm in length when it is to be operated
by two persons. The cylinder has slats, cylinder end disc and threshing teeth.
a. Slat: Each wooden slat is fixed to the cylinder end discs by mortise and tendon
joints.
b. Cylinder end disc: The cylinder end disc may be webbed in order to reinforce them.
There are mild steel bars, rolled or welded along the edges of the disc.c) Threshing
teeth. Threshing teeth are fixed to the slats. They are curved in shape. The threshing
teeth project out about the surface of the slats to a suitable height.
3. Drive mechanism: The drive of the pedal thresher is of eccentric type. Drive consists of a crank, one end of
which is connected to a spur gear. The other end of the crank is connected suitably to the pedal frame fulcrum,
which is welded to the pedal frame. The normal operating speed is about 400 revolutions per minute.
a. Gear housing: Gear housing is made of cast iron. It consists of suitable spur gear which engages the
pinion for transmitting power.
b. Crank: The crank is made of mild steel bar.
c. Pedal frame fulcrum: It is made of mild steel flat.
d. Pedal hoard: The pedal board is made of wooden plank.
4. Axle: The cylinder axle and the gear stub axle are made of mild steel round bar. High axle is supported by
bearing with loose balls in cup and cones and is protected by suitable guards.

POWER THRESHER
It is a machine operated by a prime mover such as electric motor, engine, tractor or power tiller used for threshing.
A power thresher performs several functions such as:
1. To feed the harvest to the threshing cylinder.
2. To thresh the grain out of the head.
3. To separate the grain from the straw.
4. To clean the grain.
5. To put the grain in a bag.
6. To make bhusa (chaff).suitable for animal feeding.
Removal of seeds from the grain heads is done by rotating cylinders, whose threshing action depends primarily
upon impact. When a slow moving material comes in contact with the high speed cylinder, the heads or pods are
shattered and grains are freed from straw- Further threshing is done when the material passes through the restricted
86
clearance space between the cylinder and the concave portion of the unit.

Fig: Power Thresher

COMPONENTS OF POWER THRESHER:

The main components are:
A. Feeding unit: This consists of a feeding tray/chute/trough/hopper/conveyor from where the crop is
fed from the feeding tray into the cylinder. There are different types of feeding units which are
described as below.
Different Types of Feeding Systems: Different types of threshers are having different types of
Feeding systems:
1. Chute Fed. The chute is made up of mild steel sheet. From safety point of view the chute should
have a minimum length of 90cms and covered from the top at least to 50 cms. It is joined at one
end, at the bottom to the thresher while the crop is fed through the other open end. A slight slope
is maintained so that the crop automatically proceeds towards the threshing unit.

2. Hopper Fed System: The hopper fed system is provided on large threshers where the length of
the threshing cylinder is more than 40cm. It is used in threshers used for threshing crops like
sunflower, maize, sunflower etc and it is mounted at an angle of about 50°.
3. Conveyor Fed System. This is used in spike tooth or rasp bar type of thresher of higher
horsepower. Chain or canvass conveyors are used in the feeding tray to shift the material from
the feeding unit to the threshing unit. Crop is fed uniformly with this system. The tray is covered
50cms at the top to avoid accidents.
4. Feed Roller type: This is used in the syndicator type thresher and in larger capacity threshers
of both hammer mill and spike tooth type. This system is provided with one spring loaded roller,
two feed rollers, gearbox, transmission shaft, clutch and a clutch lever. In case the operator‟s
87
 hand goes inside or the threshing cylinder gets choked, there is a provision to reverse the
direction of the feed rollers.
B. Threshing unit: This unit consists of a threshing cylinder fitted with spikes/ hammer / bars
around its periphery and a concave beneath it, which covers the lower portion of the cylinder. The
cylinder rotates at high speed and thus the crop is threshed and the entire portion of the threshed
material falls from the concave on to the top sieve of the cleaning system.
a. Concave: It is a concave shaped metal grating, partly surrounding the cylinder against which the cylinder
rubs the grain from the plant or ear heads and through which the grains fall on the sieve

Fig: Concave

b. Cylinder or drum: It is a balanced rotating assembly, comprising rasp, beater bar or spikes on its periphery
and their support for threshing the crop.

Fig: Cylinder and Concave

Types of Threshing Cylinder

There are following types of thresher:
1. Hammer mill type 2. Rasp bar cylinder type
2. Spike-tooth cylinder type 3. Syndicator type
4. Drummy type thresher 5. Axial flow type
1. Hammer-mill type. It is a thresher with threshing unit consisting of hammers or beaters with a closed cylinder
casing and concave. It is equipped with a set of oscillating sieves and an aspiratory blower for separation and
cleaning of grains.
88
 Fig: Hammer mill type
1. Rasp-bar cylinder type. In this thresher, the thresher unit consists of bars with serrations having an open
concave, consists of a number of corrugated steel bar mounted axially on periphery of cylinder. The corrugations
on the bar run opposite on adjacent bars. These corrugations provide rubbing or rasping action on the crop as it
passes through the threshing area. In this thresher, chaff is not formed but in some thresher, separate attachment is
provided for making chaff. The cleaning system is provided with blower fan and straw walker.

Fig: Rasp-bar cylinder type

2. Spike-tooth type: It is a thresher, the threshing unit of which consists of drum having rows of spikes with a
closed cylinder casing and concave and equipped with a set of sieves and aspiratory blower. As the cylinder
rotates, its teeth pass between the stationary teeth of concave. In this design, the teeth tear and shred the material
instead of rubbing them, which causing threshing action. The concave unit is made up of square bars and is more

89
 aggressive than other type and it will grasp and digest heavier volume of material. Almost all rice threshers are
equipped with this type.

Fig: Spike tooth type

3. Syndicator type: It is a thresher, the threshing unit of which consists of a corrugated flywheel with serrated
chopping knives and a closed cylinder casing and concave. This is also known as chaff-cutter type thresher.

Fig: Syndicator type

4. Drummy type thresher: It is a hammer mill type thresher without separation and cleaning system. Usually a
centrifugal blower is provided for partial separation and cleaning of grain.
5. Wire loop type: wire loops are provided on periphery of a closed type cylinder and woven
wire mesh is provided at the bottom.

Fig: Wire loop type

90
C. Cleaning Unit
The function of the cleaning unit is to separate and clean the threshed grain. The cleaning unit mainly consists of
two or more oscillating sieves, a fan and an air sucking duct known as Aspirator. Usually two ducts are there, one
primary duct and the other secondary duct. The function of the primary duct is to remove major portion of straw,
dust and other foreign matter. The secondary duct is used for final cleaning of the grains. Thresher provided with
Aspirator unit is usually called Aspirator type of thresher.

Fig: Drummy Thresher

Those threshers which are not fitted with aspirator unit have got only one blower, which blows air in horizontal
direction. This type of thresher is commonly called Drummy thresher.

Aspirator: It is a component of the cleaning unit used for cleaning grain by drawing air through the grain mass.
Blower: It is a device to produce air blast.
Winnower: It is a machine with one or two sieves and fan using air stream across falling grain.

Fig: Winnower
Winnowing fan: It is a machine used for creating air blast mainly for the purpose of winnowing of grains.
Seed damage: Seed damage may occur due to cylinder concave clearance being too small. In some cases the
damage is due to the impact blow which is directly related to the cylinder peripheral speed. The speed damage may
or may not be visible. The internal damage may be known only by germination test.
Cylinder adjustment: Cylinder concave clearance may be adjusted by raising or lowering the cylinder and the
91
concave unit. Clearance should be as great as can be used with satisfactory threshing. Cylinder speeds may be
changed by changing sheaves and sprockets.
Threshing Efficiency:
Threshing efficiency depends upon following factors:
1. Peripheral speed of the cylinder
2. Cylinder-concave clearance
3. Type of crop
4. Moisture content of crop
5. Weather condition
6. Feed rate
On of the basis of feeding system, the power thresher can be of four types:
1. Chute-feed thresher. A thresher in which the feeding of the crop is done through a chute.
2. Conveyer-feed thresher. A thresher in which the feeding of crop is done through a conveyer.
3. Feed roller-feed thresher. A thresher in which the feeding is done with the feed rollers equipped with chute or
an endless conveyer.
4. Hopper-feed thresher. A thresher in which feeding of the crop is done through the hopper. It is also known as
bulk feed thresher.
On the basis of crop, thresher may be of following types:
1. Wheat thresher. Equipment used for threshing of wheat crop with or without bhusa making provision.
2. Paddy thresher. Equipment used for threshing paddy crop.
3. Groundnut thresher. Equipment used for threshing of groundnut.
4. Millet thresher. Equipment used for threshing of millet crop.
5. Soybean thresher. Equipment used for threshing of soybean crop.

Multicrop thresher:
Equipment used for more than one crop with or without minor adjustment.
This thresher has either spike tooth cylinder or rasp bar cylinder depending upon the manufacturer. It

Fig. Multi-crop thresher

92
has cleaning and bagging attachments. This thresher can be used for crops like paddy, wheat, sorghum, soybean,
gram, millets etc. It can be operated by 5-20 hp power depending upon the models. Its capacity may be 300-2500
kg/hr. The thresher incorporates the desirable features of a wheat thresher and IRRI axial flow thresher
for paddy. It consists of a feed tray, spike tooth cylinder, straw thrower, blower, and cleaning sieves.
Three concave grates are provided for threshing different crops. A semi hexagonal top cover and spiral
louvers arc provided for threshing paddy. It is used while fine chaff is not required. Spiral louvers on
top cover move the material axially from feed end to discharge end. Long straw is ejected from
machine by thrower paddles provided at the discharge outlet. For threshing other crops top cover is
replaced by a semi circular cover and a semi circular disc is inserted in between cylinder and straw
thrower, to achieve better threshing. It can be run by a 5hp electric motor/7.5 hp diesel engine. The
spike length of the cylinder can be adjusted from 50-70 mms. Three sizes of concave made up of 6mm
square bars with 7 mm. 9 mm & 25 mm gap between two bars and concave clearance from 7-25 mm
for different crops i.e. cereals, pulses, oilseeds etc. Three sizes of sieves 4.9 mm. 7.8 mm andll.2 mm
arc available for different crops. An aspirator blower is mounted behind the cylinder with two suction
opening -one at the separating chamber & another at the main gram outlet. The cylinder and the shaker
assembly get power through the blower shaft V-belt & pulley drive.

Combine Harvester
Combine harvester is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, cleaning and collecting the grain
while it moves over the land. All the five operations are carried out in single operation of the
harvester. The machine is versatile and with minor adjustments can handle a variety of crops. The
size of the Combine is indicated by the width of cut, it covers in the field.
It is interesting to know that since time immemorial, sickle is used for cutting the crop. The cut crops
are then threshed either by beating by wooden sticks or by animal feet and then winnowed. Such scene
is not uncommon even today in many parts of the country where reapers & threshers have not reached.
Combine harvester in its primitive form was introduced in Germany and U.S.A in late 19th century and
became popular in next decades. In India, though a few tractor drawn combine harvesters
manufactured by Minneapolis Moline U.S.A. and sell-propelled Russian combine harvesters were
available with some Govt. farms and landlords. However, between 1970-73 introduction o f E512 G D
R combine in Punjab, Haryana and M.P was made in a big way. This was another revolution in the
farm mechanization sector. Gradually indigenous production started with the manufacture of a Swaraj
8100 combine harvester in organized sector by M/s Punjab Tractors Ltd., which followed
manufacturing of the machine in small sector in a small way.
Surprisingly in 30 years of its production on commercial scale in India there are 60 more
manufacturers with a production capacity of 5 to 150 combines per year. On an average about 800
combines are added every year on Indian farms. All these manufacturing units are located in the state
of Punjab.
Types of Combines:
There are two types of combines:
1. Self propelled
(a) Wheel type

93
(b ) Track type
2. The PTO driven type combine is pulled by a tractor: The tractor pulls the combine by its tractive power. The
power take- off shaft of the tractor supplies power to their cutting and threshing mechanism. The power
requirement of the combine may be taken as 8 hp per metre width of cut for pulled type machine and 12 hp per
metre width of cut for self propelled type of machine.
(a) Pull type-driven by PTO shaft
(b ) Tractor mounted on harvester chassis and drive to harvester through tractors rear axle.
1. Self Propelled Combine Harvester
This has got its own independent engine. This engine gives the power for operating the mechanism of
cutting, threshing, separating and cleaning the grain as well as for pulling the weight of the combine. It
is one man operated and the operator seats high on the machine, has a clear direct view of his work
with all controls. The size of cutter bar of self-propelled machine varies from 2 to 4 meters. It is
provided with diesel engines. The engine is arranged in such a way that it is away from the dust –laden
air, therefore, it is usually mounted behind the cab on top of the thresher unit. Operating speed of its
varies from 4 to 6 km/hr whereas, the road speed comes up to 17 km/hr. within these speed ranges the
operating and travel speeds varied by an infinitely variable V- belt pulley assembly. The drum speeds
are variable within a range from 600 to 1400 rpm.
Working Principle:
Header is used to cut and gather the grain and deliver it to the threshing cylinder. The straw is pushed back on
the platform by the reel. Small combines use Scoop type headers, while large combines use T type headers with
auger tables.
Harvesting is done by a cutting unit, which uses a cutter bar similar to that of a mower. The knife has got
serrated edge to prevent the straw from slipping while in operation. There is a suitable cutting platform which is
provided with a reel and a canvas.
The red is made of wooden slats which help in feeding the crops to the cutting platform. The reel gets power
through suitable gears and shafts. The reel revolves in front of the cutter bar, while working in the field. The
reel pushes the standing crops towards the cutting unit. The reels are adjustable up and down as in or out. The
cutter bar of the combine operates like a cutter bar of a mower. It cuts the standing crops and pushes them
towards the conveyor. The conveyor feeds the crop to the cylinder and concave unit. Canvas Table conveyors are
mostly used with scoop type headers which have narrow cut.
Auger and canvas conveyers are used for narrow body machines which have wide cut. The grain is swept
underneath the augers and conveyed behind them. The flights are often straightened out at the centre which
works as paddles in feeding the grain to the under shot conveyor web. This delivers the grain to the cylinder.

Fig: Cross Section of auger header

94
In most of the machines, a beater in front of the cylinder, rotating in the same direction is used with
under shot conveyors. This aids in stripping the crop from the conveyor and feeding it to the cylinder.
The threshing takes place between the cylinder and concave unit of the combine. The basic components of the
threshing unit of the combire are similar to a power thresher. As soon as the crops are threshed the threshed
materials move to straw rake. These rakes keep on oscillating and separating the grains. The cleaning unit consists
of a number of sieves and a fan. The cleaning takes place on these sieves with the help of fan. The unthreshed
grains pass through tailing auger and go for rethreshing. The clean grains pass through grain elevator and finally go
to packing unit. Grains are collected in a hopper provided at the suitable place. The fan is adjusted such that the
chaff etc. are blown off to the rear side of the machine. The site of the combine is indicated by the width of cut, it
covers in the field.
Functions of combine harvester
1. Cutting the standing crops
2. Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit
3. Threshing the crops
4. Cleaning the grains from straw
5. Collecting the grains in a container
Constructional Features
A. Cutter Bar
Also known as header assembly is a hydraulically controlled platform and it consists of:
1. Cutting blade or knife assembly
2. Auger
3. Feeder channel
4. Reel
1. Cutting blade or knife assembly:
It consists of steel bar to which are bolted fingers. Serrated knife moves to and fro through these
fingers and thus act as a scissors to cut the crop. Various components of knife assembly are shown
in fig: below. The blade assembly operates at a speed of 1.2 to l.5m/sec and gets its reciprocating
motion through bell crank lever.

95
 Fig: Method of providing knife movement

2. Auger: It is made up of sheet metal, which is smooth in the centre and is provided with screw
thread on either side. One thread is left handed while the other one is right handed to ensure that the
material is drawn towards the central portion o f the auger when it rotates. The central portion is
provided with an eccentrically arranged gripper which feeds the material to the inclined elevator, also
known as feeder channel.

Fig: Feeder Channel

3. Feeder Conveyor: The feeder channel takes the crop from the cutter bar. The tension o f the
conveyor chain is important and the lower conveyor shaft floats to allow feed material to move

96
 smoothly. Insufficient tension may cause jumping of the chains and can cause faster wear of the
conveyor. The tensioning is adjusted by two setting screws, which are provided on both sides.
Depending upon the length of the channel, the gap varies. However the best setting is when one of
the serrated bottom strip touches the bed.
4. Reel: A reel is a device that helps to prevent the shattering of the crop and allows the crop to move
uniformly to the platform auger. It also helps to handle matted crop. However, in early days
wooden slat type were comm on but now a days only pick up reel are popular. The reel has several
steel lines attached to steel slats. The reels are adjustable. If the auger at the table fails to pick up
the material, the reel must be set further ahead and the reel speed reduced, where as if the reel
winds up the reel speed must be properly, matched with travel speed.
B. Threshing Unit:
This consists of a stone trap, rear beater, cylinder & concave. The crop material, from the header
assembly passes through the rotating cylinder and stationary concave where it is threshed and the bulk
of grain is removed. Three types of cylinders are available
1. Spike tooth 2. Rasp bar, or 3. Angle bar
The spike tooth is mostly used for rice or soybean etc. whereas a rasp bar type cylinder is suitable for
most of the grains. In spike tooth cylinder many steel teeth are bolted or welded to the metal bars. The
concave also has teeth mounted on bars. The combination of spike teeth of cylinder & concave tear &
shred the material and thus threshing lakes place.
The rasp bar type cylinder consists of a number of corrugated steel bars attached to the steel bars. The
concave is a grate consisting of parallel steel bars held together by curved sidebars. The direction of
rasp bar corrugation of one bar is opposite to the other. The corrugations of the rasp bar create rubbing
action on the crop.
Depending upon the crop, the cylinder can be run at a variable speed between 600 and 1400 rpm. High
speeds should be preferred for the crops that are difficult to be threshed, for e.g. dam p straw
whereas for easy to thresh and sensitive crops the low speed should be used. The variable speed is
possible with the help of variable pulleys. In addition to the provision of cylinder speed, the clearance
between cylinder and concave is also adjustable and depending upon the grain size & moisture content,
a well combination o f cylinder speed and concave clearance gives satisfactory results.
C. Rear Beater: A beater is an assembly which diverts the straw coming from cylinder towards straw
walker.
D. Straw Walker: The straw assembly consists of four individual walkers, are mounted on a crank
shaft at 90° o r 180° apart and thus oscillate to and fro. The box like structures is in several steps
and is inclined towards the rear. Serrated strips with the teeth pointing in travel direction are
attached to the walkers to improve the distribution of the threshed material over the whole walker
area w hen co m b in e is w o rk in g on slopes. All the walkers have wide meshed sieve which
allow loose grain to fall down on the return pan which ultimately slides back to cleaning sieves.
E. Grain Pan: The grain pan is made up of sheet metal with corrugations and is located directly
under cylinder concave. Major part o f the grain falls on it through concave whereas the remaining
grain is separated from straw also falls on it through straw walker. The gram is usually mixed with
chaff, weed etc. and thus it passes to cleaning unit where it gets separated.

97
F. Cleaning unit: Two sieves, one over another are arranged below straw walkers The upper sieve is
an extension of grain pan and it gets grain along with thrash from pan. T he up p er sieve has an
adjustable aperture, which can be increased or decreased. The lower sieve, which is known, as
grain sieve has holes of the grain size and is not adjustable. Both the sieves are shaking rearward. A
blower supplies air current at a high velocity, which is also adjustable. The grain and thrash falling
on u p p er sieve gets separated. The bigger size o f straw /chaff etc. is thrown away whereas grain
with small pieces of thrashes moves over the grain sieve. The grain falling below is taken to grain
auger and elevator.

Fig: Cleaning Unit

Advantage of Combine Harvester Thresher
1. It saves the cost of harvesting and threshing the crops.
2. It reduces the labour requirement of the field.
3. The grains can be obtained easily from the crops and thus the risks of fire, rain and other hazards are minimized.
4. It cleans the field earlier, which permits easy dry weather farming.
5. As the grains come in hand earlier, there is every possibility to get good profit in the market.
6. If the straw has to be used as an organic manure, it can be done by spreading the straw at the time of harvesting
itself
Disadvantages
1. Higher initial cost.
2. Unadoptable for mixed farming
3. Heavy loss of grain and a straw in the field
4. Cannot be used in fragmented piece of land.

98
 Testing and Evaluation of Farm Machine
Tractor is one of the important sources of power. The great demand of tractor has promoted many
manufacturers to increase the production of tractors. Since production of tractors need heavy
investment, therefore, it is necessary to judge the performance of machine being manufactured by a
particular manufacturer. Thus, there was a need to have an impartial agency for evaluating the
performance of the tractor. These testing agencies also act as a bridge between the manufacturers and
users of tractor.
1.1 Test Facility in India.
The idea of opening a test facility in India was conceived in 1951, a tractor testing station was initially
opened in 1956 at Nagpur, which was later on amalgamated with the item Tractor Training Centre,
Budni in October 1959 and renamed as Tractor Training and Testing Station. The first test report was
released in 1961. In 1983, the station was upgraded to the status of an Institute and renamed as Central
Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute, Budni. The Institute is a member of Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) for testing of tractor and equipped with most
modem testing facilities with instrumental system.
1.1.1 Public Testing Agencies in India.
The country has the following public testing agencies for agricultural machines and tractor:
 Central Farm Machinery Training and Testing Station, Budni (MP),
 Northern Region Farm Machinery and Tractor Taining and testing Centre, Hissar (Haryana), 1972.
 Southern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute, Anantpur (A.P.), 1983.
1.1.2 International Testing Stations.
There are following international Testing Stations:
 Agricultural Machinery Testing Institute, Uppsla (Sweden)
 National Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Siloe (U.K.)
 Nebraska Testing Station (U.S. A.)
1.2 Nature of Test Report.
The test reports released by the station are confidential and commercial in nature.
i. Confidential Tests
These tests are done to provide confidential information on performance of tractor for suitability of
commercial production. These tests are done at the initial stage of tractor development.
ii. Commercial Tests
These tests are done for the tractors which are in commercial production or sale to establish their
performance characteristics.
i. Batch Testing (Step by Step Testing)
Sinch January 1977 batch testing of tractor has been introduced and its broad objective are:

99
 a. To check whether the defects pointed out during the earlier tests have been rectified and to
improve performance and durability.
b. To check the variation in the performance of tractor is if there is any change in design,
manufacturing technique, material of construction and some other factor.
c. To acces the durability of the tractor operating under wide range of field condition.
d. To facilitate the manufacturer to update the specification of the tractor based on tests on the latest
model of tractors.
e. To assist the buyers to have information on the quality of tractor after sale & service facilities
provided by the dealer network.
2. Types of Test.
Normally, two types of testing are carried out for any tractor namely Lab test and Field test.
2.1 Lab Test.
The lab tests comprise of general specification checking. Power test, position or central gravity,
performance of brake, ambient noise emitted by the tractor and noise level at drivers ear level, power
lift and hydraulic pump performance, air cleaner, oil pullover test, visibility from driver seat, vibration
at various assembles. Laboratory tests can be summaries as below:
A. Power Test:
a. PTO performance test
b. Belt pulley performance test
c. Drawbar performance test
d. Hydraulic power and lifting capacity test
B. Safety Test:
a. Brake test
b. Centre of gravity position.
c. Turning ability test
C. Economical Test:
a. Noise measurement
b.Mechanical vibration test
c. Visibility from driver's seat
d.Smoke level
D. Miscellaneous test:
a. Air cleaner oil pull over test
b. Component/Assembly inspection.
2.2 Field Test.
The field performance is a section for operating the machine (tractor) in field for determining the
important parameter like:
a. Rate of work
b. Quality of work
c. Fuel consumption

100
d. Labour requirement
e. Handling characteristics
f. Soundness of construction

Selection of farm machines

A Selection of tractor depends upon following factors:
a. Land holding
Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of
land. In other tractor 20 -25 hp is suitable for 40 hectares farm.
b. Cropping pattern
Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate irrigation facilities are available and
more than one crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable for 40 hectares farm.
c. Soil condition.
A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall weight may work successfully
in lighter so but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in black cotton soil.
d. Climatic condition.
For very hot zone and desert area, cooled engines are preferred over water cooled engines. Similarly
for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because water is liable to be frozen at higher
altitude.
e. Repairing facilities.
It should be ensured that the tractor purchased has a dealer at nearby place with all the technical skill
for repair and maintenance of machine.
f. Running cost.
Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others so that running cost may
be less.
g. Initial cost and resale value.
While keeping the m mind, the initial cost should not be very high, otherwise higher amount of interest
will have to be paid.
h. Test Report
Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be consulted for guidance.

**Best of luck**

101