LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1–1 Water drive ................................................................... 10

Figure 1–2 Gas cap drive................................................................. 10
Figure 1–3 Solution gas drive ......................................................... 11
Figure 1–4 Steamflooding............................................................... 11
Figure 1–5 Recovery using chemicals or detergents....................... 12
Figure 1–6 General relationship of viscosity to API gravity........... 16
Figure 1–7 General relationship of viscosity to temperature......... 17
Figure 1–8 Classification of fossil fuel as organic sediments ......... 21
Figure 1–9 Classification of fossil fuels as hydrocarbon
resources and hydrocarbon producing resources......... 21
Figure 1–10 Simplified of the use of pour point to define
heavy oil and bitumen ................................................. 24
Figure 1–11 Schematic representation of the properties
and recovery methods for crude oil, heavy oil,
bitumen, and coal......................................................... 25
Figure 1–12 Representation of the changing parameters
for crude oil and/or heavy oil....................................... 25
Figure 2–1 Separation scheme and nomenclature of different
fractions of petroleum and heavy oil ........................... 30
Figure 2–2 Representation of resource estimation ......................... 45
Figure 3–1 Anticlinal traps ............................................................. 63
Figure 3–2 A fault trap .................................................................... 63
Figure 3–3 A salt dome trap............................................................ 63
Figure 3–4 Representation of the zones in a reservoir ................... 67
Figure 3–5 Schematic of the separation of heavy oil
into various bulk fractions............................................ 77

ix
x List of Figures

Figure 3–6 Representation of the asphaltene fraction as a

collection of species of different molecular weight
and polarity .................................................................. 80
Figure 3–7 Asphaltenes from different crude oils will vary in the
relationship between molecular weight and polarity
depending on the relative amounts of the precursors
and the maturation process parameters ....................... 80
Figure 3–8 Illustration of the make-up of two different
asphaltenes by HPLC .................................................... 81
Figure 4–1 Relationship of pour point and reservoir
temperature................................................................. 119
Figure 4–2 Representation of the variation of the solubility
parameter of petroleum fractions through variation
with the H/C atomic ratio and comparison to
benzene and polynuclear aromatic systems............... 119
Figure 4–3 Variation of the solubility parameter of the
asphaltene fraction and the oil with reaction
progress ....................................................................... 121
Figure 4–4 Order of deposition of asphaltene constituents
during thermal changes.............................................. 121
Figure 5–1 Methods for oil recovery ............................................ 140
Figure 5–2 Directional drilling ..................................................... 145
Figure 5–3 The Christmas Tree..................................................... 147
Figure 5–4 Solution-gas drive ....................................................... 149
Figure 5–5 Gas-cap drive .............................................................. 149
Figure 5–6 Water drive ................................................................. 151
Figure 5–7 A horsehead pump...................................................... 154
Figure 5–8 Oil production methods ............................................. 159
Figure 5–9 Steamflooding............................................................. 163
Figure 5–10 Use of Detergents........................................................ 163
Figure 5–11 Modified in-situ extraction......................................... 167
Figure 6–1 Schematic for Chemical Enhanced Recovery
Processes...................................................................... 202
Figure 6–2 Schematic for Miscible Enhanced Recovery Processes....202
Figure 7–1 Oil recovery by thermal methods............................... 223
Figure 7–2 Recovery is site specific and depends upon several
variable factors............................................................ 227
Figure 7–3 Multilevel cracking reactions using the asphaltene
constituent as an example.......................................... 242
Figure 7–4 Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) ..................... 245
Figure 7–5 The THAI process ........................................................ 250
Figure 8–1 A conventional refinery.............................................. 264
Figure 8–2 The Aquaconversion process ...................................... 265