PAPERS

Dynamic Measurementand Interpretation of the

Nonlinear Parameters of Electrodynamic Loudspeakers*

WOLFGANG KLIPPEL

Institute of Acoustics, University of Technology of Dresden, 8021 Dresden, Germany

An extended model of nonlinear loudspeaker distortion represents both closed- and

vented-box systems. The nonlinear parameters, which vary with voice-coil displacement,
are measured dynamically, and the coefficients in their series expansions are determined.
This method identifies the dominant causes of distortion and suggests constructional
improvements. Calculated second- and third-order distortions agree well with the mea-
sured responses.

0 INTRODUCTION pecially at low frequency. The following parameters

are inserted in the equivalent circuit of a vented-box
Digital techniques everywhere improve the handling loudspeaker [2], as shown in Fig. 1.
of audio signals, but at the end of the chain it is an
BI(x) -- electrodynamic driving parameter
analog system that radiates sound. At low frequency,
the electrodynamic loudspeaker can produce nonlinear ST(X) = mechanical stiffness of suspension (spider,
outer rim), linT(x)
distortion that defeats the expectations for high-fidelity L(x) -- inductance of voice coil
reproduction. Digital transducers must be developed,
but at present no alternatives compete successfully with sB (x) -- mechanical stiffness of air in the enclosure,
the efficiency, weight, and cost of the conventional 1/nB(x).
loudspeaker, s(x) -- total stiffness of closed-box system
This paper continues the work of Kaizer [1], using Additional symbols are
an extended model, and studies the problem of nonlinear
x -- voice-coil displacement
parameter measurement, the principal obstacle in the
m = mechanical mass of moving voice coil,
practical application of nonlinear modeling.
cone, air
Z_m = mechanical resistance of suspension,
I MODELING THE NONLINEAR LOUDSPEAKER radiation

The lumped parameters of a nonlinear model cannot Re = electrical resistance of voice coil
mB = mechanical mass of moving air in vent
be assumed to be constant; they depend on the system z_ -- mechanical resistance in vent and box
variables (voice-coil displacement, current, power Fm(i, x) = electromagnetic driving force
dissipation, and so on). Those parameters sensitive to
u = input voltage
displacement produce the dominant nonlinearities, es-
i = input current.

The last branch of Fig. 1 represents the mechanical

* Presented at the 88th Convention of the Audio Engineering
Society, Montreux, Switzerland, 1990 March 13-16, under
the title "Dynamical Measurement of Nonlinear Parameters
of Electrodynamical Loudspeakers and Their Interpretation."
Manuscript received 1990 January 3; revised 1990 May 22.
equivalent of the vented box. If the air mass and vent
loss equivalents are eliminated, the model becomes
that for a closed box [3]. The additional force Fm(i , x),
a function of current, is generated by the variable in-

944 J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.38,No.12,1990December
 PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER NONLINEAR PARAMETERS

ductance. It can be viewed as an electromagnetic drive added,

[4], [5] given by
S(X) = ST(X) + XB(J) = SO + SlX + S2x2

1 i2 dL (x)
Fm(i, x) = _ dx (1) = (ST0 + SB0) + (STi q_ SB1) X q_ (ST2 + SB2)X 2 .
(6)
and can be measured on a loudspeaker with a demag-
netized field. 1.1 Nonlinear Loudspeaker Response
The electrodynamic two-port B l(x), force Fm(i, x), The differential equation for the equivalent circuit
and inductance L(x) are lumped together as a nonlinear can be solved by the exponential input method [6], [7]
electromechanical two-port (dotted box in Fig. 1) using the Volterra series expansion. Interpretation of
characterized by the following relations: the Volterra expansion in the time and frequency do-
mains and its application to the nonlinear closed-box
u -- fl(i, x, x') loudspeaker are given in detail in [1]. Transfer functions
of the vented- and closed-box systems can be described
by frequency-domain Volterra kernels. This paper skips
= Bl(x)x' + dL(x)ix' + di(t)L(x) (2) thederivationandpresentsthesolutionsfortheextended
dx dt model.

1 i2 dL(x) (3) 1.1.1 Solution for Voltage Drive

F = f2(x,i) = Bl(x)i + _ dx The first-order Volterra kernel of voice-coil dis-
placement for the voltage drive corresponds to the linear
Dependence of the variable elements on the dis- response
placement is approximated by a truncated power series,
Blo
Bl(x) =Blo + bix + b2x2 ql(Pl) = d(p)(Re + Lop) + p(Blo) 2 (7)

L(x) = Lo +l]x + 12x2 with

(4)
ST(X) = ST0 +STlX + ST2X2 J(p) = mp 2 + Zm_p + ST0

SB(X ) = SB0 + SBlX -3- SB2 x2 1

+
1/mBp 2 + 1/z_-p + 1/SBo
where B 10,Lo, ST0, and sB0 are the constant parameters
that model linear behavior. First-order coefficients bi, The second-order Volterra kernel
Ii, STl, and sm specify the asymmetry primarily re-
sponsible for second-order distortions. The second- q2(Pi, P2) = -ql(Pl + P2)ql(Pi)qi(P2)
order coefficients specify the symmetrical square-law
nonlinearities that produce third-order distortions.

compression
Enclosure can be calculated
air stiffness from Kaizerto [1],
corresponding adiabatic x { a[J(pO + J(P2)] + b[J(pOp2

SB(X) = SB0 + SBIX q- SB2 x2 -3- J(P2)Pl] + c[J(pi)pl + J(P2)P2]

Po
= 2S2 V0 [ 1 - (_ + 1)--
V0
+ d + e(p] +p2) +f
[, 1]}
qi(-P0
+--
ql(P2) (8)

and the third-order Volterra kernel

+ + + \Ye/ J (5)
q3(Pl, P2, P3)

where 6

S = effective cone surface = -qi(Pi + P2 + P3) Z

i=1 (Yi + Yi) (9)
'y = adiabatic coefficient, = 1.4
V0 = static volume
can be interpreted as two- or three-dimensional transfer
Po = static pressure, functions for the voice-coil displacement. The terms
For a closed-box system, driver and air stiffness are a, b, c, d, e, f, ¥i, and Yi are given in the Appendix.

d. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December 945

/
KLIPPEL PAPERS

Bi q](P])ql(P2) + q](Pl)q](P3) + q](P2)q](P3)

=
1.1.2 Solution for Current Drive ri ql(Pl)q2(P2,P3)
= + ql(P2)q2(Pl,P3)
For the current drive the displacement is described + ql(P3)q2(P], P2)
by the linear response Di = ql(Pl)ql(P2)ql(P3)
Ei = ql(P]) + q](P2) + ql(P3).
Blo
q](Pt) - j(p) (10) 1.1.3 Resulting Sound Pressure
From the displacement transfer functions the sound
by the second-order response pressure at a distant point is derived. The linear response
is
-q](P] + P2)
q2(Pl, P2) = {b_[qi(p]) + ql(P2)]
= C p_ q](P0
Bio Hi(pi) p2 + SB/mB + plSB/Z_- ' (13)
-- 2siql(pi)qi(P2) + ll} (11)
The second-order response is

C(p] + p2)4 q2(Pl, P2)

H2(p], P2) =
2[(pi + p2)2 + sB/mB + (Pl + p2)SB/Z_-] ' (14)

The third-order response is

C(p1 + P2 + p3)4q3(Pl, P2, P3)

H3(pl, P2, P3) =
6[(pi + P2 + P3)2 + sB/mB + (p_ + P2 + p3)SB/ZB -] · (15)

and by the third-order response In Eqs. [13]-[15] the constant C accounts for the ra-
diation conditions (diaphragm area, distance) are
ql(Pl + P2 + P3) specified here. The second- and third-order responses
q3(P], P2, P3) = (blAi + 2b2Bi
B lo H2(pl, P2) and H3(Pl, P2, P3) incorporate many second-
and third-order distortion components. For exponential
- 2SlCi - 6s2Di + 212Ei) (12) input,

with u(t) = Uleplt + u2eplt + u3eplt . (16)

Ai = q2(Pl, P2) + q2(Pl, P3) + q2(P2, P3) The following spectral components in the sound pressure
can be calculated in phase and magnitude:

p(t) = Hi(Pi)_i eplt

+ Hl(Pl)_l ep3t
ep2t _ fundamentals

+ H2(Pl, pl)_le 2pit 1

+ H2(P3,
H2(P2, p3)_2e
p2)u2e2p2t
2p3t I second-order harmonics

+ 2H2(pi, p2)ulu2e(pl + p2)t ']

2H2(pi, p3)u2u3e(p2
+ 2H2(P2, p3)ulu3e (pl + p3)t ._ second-order intermodulations

+ H3(Pl, Pl, Pl)_I e3plt '_

+ H3(P3,
H3(P2, P3,
P2, P3)_3 e3p3t
P2)_2e3p2t I third-order harmonics

+ 3H3(p], PI, p2)_2 e(2pl + P2)t

+ 3H3(Pl, Pi, P3)ft2u3e(2pl + p3)t

+ 6H3(pi,
+ · ·· P2, p3)uif_2ft3e(pl + p2 + p3)t J . third-orderintermodulations (17)

946 J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.38,No.12,1990December
PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER NONLINEAR PARAMETERS

The nonlinear responses H2(Pl, P2) and H3(Pl, P2, P3) In measuring driver stiffness, creep and hysteresis
of a real loudspeaker can be calculated or measured effects may be found that spoil the accuracy of the
directly by an expanded intermodulation method. In measurements. There are indications of systematic
general, a sum of three sinusoids must be supplied to discrepancies between statically and dynamically
the loudspeaker. By changing their frequencies in all measured parameters; Kaizer [1] observed a difference
possible combinations and measuring the magnitude of up to one order of magnitude. For this reason it is
and phase of all distortion components, the responses necessary to look for a dynamic technique more closely
can be detailed completely [8]. This measurement yields related to normal loudspeaker use and more easily han-
a large amount of data whose manipulation and inter- dled than a static method.
pretation are difficult, and therefore only a selection
of the data is usually dealt with. The conventional 2.2 Dynamic Measurement of Nonlinear
methods, limited to one or two excitation tones with Parameters
partly fixed frequencies, require a relatively simple 2.2.1 Measurement Setup
measuring setup. The loudspeaker is excited by a two-tone signal,
The simplest is the harmonic distortion measurement
using a sweep-frequency tone as the excitation signal, i(t) = I0 cos (tOot) + l0 cos (5.5to0t) (18)
Individual harmonics or the harmonic total are measured
and related to the output signal. The difference-fre- produced by a constant-current source (I0 being con-
quency measurement uses two sweep tones with a con- stant). The frequency of the first tone equals the driver
stant frequency difference Af = f2 -fl. The difference resonance frequency fo in order to produce maximum
tone amplitude is measured and expressed relative to voice-coil displacement. A relatively small current is
the total output signal as a ratio or percentage. The sufficient for extreme displacements, and overheating
customary intermodulation measurement also uses two can be avoided. By choosing the second frequency equal
tones. The first frequency is constant, commonly about to 5.5 times the first, the harmonic and intermodulation
100 Hz, while the second is swept over the frequency products are separated in the frequency band, and there
band. The amplitude of the sum-frequency or difference- is a minimum of mutual influence that might cause
frequency component, relative to the total output signal, beating or cancellation. Individual components are
is expressed as an intermodulation factor, identified with a narrow-band analyzer (Fig. 2).
These methods are well known, but their adequacy In measuring the sound-pressure levels, it is sufficient
to use levels relative to that of the fundamental Lp(to0),

AL 2 = Lp(2to0) - Lp(to0) second-order harmonic

AL 3 = Lp(3to0) - Lp(tO0) third-order harmonic
AL3.5 = Lp(3.5tO0) - Lp(tO0) third-order intermodulation
AL4.5 = Lp(4.5to0) - Lp(to0) second-order intermodulation
ALs.5 = Lp(5.5tO0) - Lp(tO0) difference between fundamentals
ALl0 = Lp(10tO0) - Lp(tO0) third-order intermodulation
AL1] = Lp(llto0) - Lp(tO0) second-order harmonic .

Sound pressures can be measured in the near field of

the loudspeaker with the driver mounted in a closed
for loudspeaker measurements is still questioned. In box, in a sufficiently large baffle, or even (for rough
Sec. 4.2 we discuss which method is to be preferred estimates) close to the free-standing driver without an
as giving the most useful information, enclosure. With a compact box the additional enclosure
stiffness must be taken into account and then subse-
2 MEASUREMENT OF THE NONLINEAR quently subtracted from the total values So, si, and s2.
PARAMETERS
2.2.2 Quantitative Determination of Nonlinear
Practical application of the mathematical model re- Parameters
quires the nonlinear parameters bi, b2, ll, 12, ST1, and The parameter values can be estimated from Table
sT2 to be determined. There are two possible methods. 1 on the basis of the distortion components and the
linear parameters
2.1 Static Measurement of Nonlinear
Parameters Bl0 = constant part of B [(x)
The simplest method is to measure the lumped pa- Qm = Q factor of mechanical system
rameters BI(x), L(x), and sB(x) as the voice coil is to0 = driver resonance angular frequency
displaced statically. Coefficients of the power series [0 = rms value of supply current of both tones
can then be found from least-squares curve fitting of m -- moving mass.
the measured data. This method is well suited for the
inductance parameters. Calculations should be performed in the prescribed

d. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December 947
KLIPPEL PAPERS

order to reveal whether a parameter is dominant or
negligible. The signs of the symmetrical parameters
12, b2, and s2 can be postulated a priori by information
derived from physical properties of the structure,
12 = --I/21 symmetrical by decreasing
tance L(x)
s2 = Is21 progressive stiffness s(x)
b2 = -- lb21 symmetrical by decreasing
Signs of the asymmetrical parameters must be decided
by an optimal match between measured and calculated
second-order harmonic frequency responses. The
asymmetrical parameter ll of many loudspeakers is
negligible, and the problem becomes a determination
of the relation between the signs of bi and si (depending
on whether the nonlinearities in B l(x) and s(x) augment
or compensate each other).
2.2.3 Qualitative Determination of the Dominant
Causes of Distortion
Quantitative determination of the parameters is pre-
requisite to computer-assisted simulation of the transfer
response. In practice, it is sometimes sufficient to
identify the dominant causes of distortion in order to
focus on their diminution or removal. Such identifi-
cations can be made simply by interpreting the level
differences between the distortion components accord-
ing to Fig. 3.
Fig. 4, for example, shows the spectrum of a loud-
speaker with dominant B 1 distortions revealed by the
small difference between harmonics and intermodu-
lations of the same order. A loudspeaker with dominant
stiffness distortion is shown in Fig. 5. In both examples
the nonlinear parameters l_ and 12were not measurable,
indue- and therefore the inductance nonlinearities in these
loudspeakers can be regarded as negligible.
BI(x) . 3 AGREEMENT BETWEEN MATHEMATICAL
MODEL AND MEASUREMENT
In checking agreement, the measured and calculated
second- and third-harmonic responses of 20 different
loudspeakers were compared. Included in this sample
were wide-band loudspeakers and woofers for home
and commercial use, with different designs and materials
(such as paper, rubber, or foam-rubber suspensions).
The drivers were mounted in a closed box, a vented
box, and a baffle. The linear driver and enclosure pa-
rameters were measured as shown by Small [9], the
nonlinear parameters by the method presented here.
With the derived second- and third-order responses
and the measured parameters, the calculated funda-
mental, second-, and third-order harmonics were corn-
pared with the measurements. Generally, good agree-
ment was found.
Figs. 6 and 7 show two examples. Only for vented
boxes at very low frequencies (below 30 Hz) are the
calculated harmonics significantly greater than the
measured ones. The vented-box system, with extreme

l(t) ......................... F

Se L,x, Ii zm T(x)
"B<x'}
u(t) z_
X t

I
1

FFFF

Fig. 1. Electromechanical equivalent circuit of a nonlinear vented-box loudspeaker based on lumped-parameter model.

fl=fo

wa ve

microphone
amplifier

oscillators I current
narrow-band
turnable

f2=5.5fo filter l

level meter O

Pig. 2. [nstrumentation for dynamic measurement of nonlinear loudspeaker parameters.

948 J.Audio Eng. Soc.,Vol.38, No. 12, 1990 December

PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC
LOUDSPEAKER
NONLINEAR
PARAMETERS

voice-coil displacement in this frequency band, is not
characterized accurately by the parameters measured
at smaller displacements,
If the parameters are measured with greater drive
and increased displacement, better agreement below
30 Hz will be found, but then at higher frequencies
greater differences occur. Dependence of the parameters
on an optimal level of drive signal shows the limited
usefulness of a simple Volterra series expansion trun-
cated after the third term. The inadequacies of the model
are also revealed in verifying the dependence of har-
monic level on input level. The second- and third-order
transfer functions describe this output-input relation
in a second- and third-order power function. Doubling
the input voltage (6 dB) yields an increase of 12 dB
for second-order distortions and 18 dB for third-order
distortions. These theoretical values can be measured
on real loudspeakers, but at small displacements only.
At greater drive, the increase in the second- and third-
order harmonics becomes smaller and begins to stagnate,
Upper harmonics become more dominant, and they ab-
sorb the increased input power. However, in a certain
drive range, the second- and third-order Volterra kernels
describe the distortions nearly exactly, provided the
linear and nonlinear parameters are measured dynam-
ically using the appropriate displacement or drive.
4 INTERPRETATION OF THE NONLINEAR
PARAMETERS
Parameters si, s2, bi, b2, Ii, and 12 specify different
causes of distortion. To rank their importance and find
implications for design improvement, it is necessary
to interpret the parameters in detail.
4.1 Dependence of the Parameters on Voice-
Coil Displacement
Bl(x), s(x), sT(x), and L(x) are shown as function[
of displacement in Fig. 8. The graphs can be used to
compare the symmetrical part with the asymmetrical
part (such as b2 with bi) of the same parameter, but
they are not useful for ranking parameter importance.

Table 1. Quantitative determination of nonlinear parameters.

Asymmetrical parameters

Il determination I/il = i0
0 ,
2.83BloQm 10aLii/20 , otherwise
for AL2 -- ALii < 32 dB - ALs.5
l] dominance, AL2 -- ALll -'_2.3 dB (bi, si negligible)
V_co2m
-- %/10aL4.5/10 -- 10(aLll + 6 dn)/t0 , for AL2 -- AL4.5 < 25 dB - ALs.5
bidetermination Ibll = io
0, otherwise

bi dominance, AL 2 -- AL4. 5 _- 2 dB (si negligible)

v_o,4m2
si determination isll = -- V_10(aL2 - 2.5 dB)/10 -- 10AL4.5/10
BIoQmio

Symmetrical parameters

If AL3 < 2AL2 - 13.5 dB, then b2, s2, 12are negligible. Asymmetrical parameters cause dominant third-order distortion.

2(°2m 10 aL10/2° , for AL3 - ALlo < 24 dB - ALs.5

12determination il21 = i2
0 , otherwise

12 dominance, AL3 - ALlo _ 0.8 dB (bi, si negligible)

4°_4m2 aV/i0(AL3.5-6.S dB)/10 -- 10aLl0/10 , for AL 3 -- AL3.5 < 20 dB - ALs.5

b2 determination lb21 = )02BloQm

0, otherwise

b2 dominance, AL3 - AL3.5_ 0 dB (s2 negligible)

2c°°6m3 V'lO(aL3-1 dB)/10 -- 10(AL35-0.8 dB)/10

s2 determination Is2l (BloQm_o)2

J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December 949
KLIPPEL PAPERS

two-tone signal with fixed frequency fl = 35 Hz and

4.2 Effects on the Nonlinear Transfer Response swept frequency f2 = f.
The computer-assisted simulation makes possible the Above the resonance frequency the second- and third-
separation of nonlinear effects. Each cause can then order intermodulations fall at 12 dB per octave, the
be examined for its influence on the overall response second harmonic falls at 24 dB per octave, and the
and to identify the dominant parameter. Fig. 9 shows third harmonic at 36 dB per octave. As the variable
the portion of harmonic and intermodulation distortion stiffness produces distortion components only in the
of the loudspeaker of Fig. 7 caused solely by the variable low-frequency range, the harmonic measurement seems
stiffness. Other parameters (bi, b2, Ii, /2) were dis- simple and adequate.
regarded. The curves im + 2 and im + 3 stand for the Fig. 10 shows the harmonic and intermodulation
second-order component at frequency fl + f2 and the distortion produced by the force factor parameters b_
third-order component at 2f_ + f2 for excitation by a and b2 alone. The second-harmonic curve falls at 12

dominant
criterion ! causes of

I distortion

.a.j i
ii aL,, - zL2= - 2.3 dB iI ........ > '_
yes
I
, no I
I I
/ gL4-5 - _L2 = - 2 dB I ........ > bi
t I

no yes

I _L4. 5 - _L 2 g -25 dB + _L5. 5 ........ > s 1

l yes

* I
] _Ls_ no> 2'$L2 -13.5 dB [
[ t
- _ ........ 12
i yes

i I
i ........ yes

no 1 I
!i _L_._ - 1_3 = -_ dB + _._ iJ ......... yes > 5 2

Fig. 3. Qualitative identification of dominant nonlinear parameters.

60
60 , , ,
.._ [dBl
[dBl _--
Lo 50 _o
50 _
Lp

Lp 40
40 _o

30 _o
30 "2 m

20 ;'_ 20

10

10 ' 1
0
0 ' 10 50 100 500 [Hz]
10 50 100 f 500 [Hz]

Fig. 5. Spectrum of distorted two-tone signal radiated by

Fig. 4. Spectrum of distorted two-tone signal radiated by loudspeaker with dominant stiffness nonlinearities. [0 = 200
loudspeaker with dominant Bl nonlinearities. 10 = 200 mA. mA.
950 J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December
PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER NONLINEAR PARAMETERS

dB per octave and the third harmonic at 24 dB per (Fig. 11). Parameters bi, b2, Il, and 12 mainly produce
octave, but the intermodulations remain at the same intermodulation, and therefore a measurement of har-

order of magnitude at higher frequencies· Intermodu- monies alone is insufficient. The two-tone intermod-
lation caused by the variable self-inductance even in- ulation measurement seems to be adequate. This method
creases at 6 dB per octave above the resonance frequency should be preferred appropriate for determining the

50 : .... . . . . : .... 50 . . . : .... : . . : ....

[dB] ,,..,_:
· . :j_.;__:.'--:?-- . . : ....... [dB]
: .... :
..............
. : ....
.,.!."'::::[ : : : : '"-" ' · · : .... : : : i ....
40 'r' ................ .''':' '-........... 40 ..... :'": '):_*.":"_"':'i...... :" _"_ '_
,,': : ::: : ::: .;/__..'?'_
.'_.: .... .,,,.,.:.
......... :..'..i.;Z... : t . ..: % · ' · : : : ::
30 _r. ,,,, ._: · ;''.'",,, ; ; : .... 30 ...... _':.... !q'!"':";'";'?:'?
' 2' -_ '.,' .. _, . . .... ,"t ..": _._ .: :. :: ....
t '_' 'l: ):i:: 'l. · . : .... ,_ ' / ' - ' '_-'' .'k · · ' ' ''
20 .,_...h.. .1.11 .......: ......... :'"'':';':':':' ' /' ' : ' ' "_.i. ' "'-' ' ' ....
' ' ''
,¢ ?' L _,,,_..- -,,. . - ... 20 _, ::
t _' _,_r ( : . . . : · .. ..:'_, : :_-(, : ....
r .... t' . - ,i :_: · _ · -- f· .' ,' ,' :' ......
, .,.: __: ' . ._:.....
........
10 ,/ .
,_ . :. :#.
ia..'_.
· ._.: ' .x
: _-:. . . . 10 ?,- ...-..''.' : .... : _ . : , _:_ ....
....

o10/
"....: : : 50
:"':_=
ii :":'T',,
': _,:"
:_ :: o10
; !! i iiii _: :
; '_f
_.... 100
'""
," '
100 500
[Hz] 50 500
[Hz]

(a) (a)

i i! ;ii!iiiii!!i! ii!iiiiii
40 ..... "''
....' '._. _'-!.:.:.:.-'_":_:.!
...... ..........!......... 40 .........: :_'"ii::"
;' .................
:'__'
·" '/' '" ' '1 ' : : .... .... ........... !

20 I './/'
I · /- '_"_",_'"_
,.. '-: ...... '-"_::
% -_ -! .... ! i::::
· -_: · -'- .:-;
V._. -:-:-:-
. ' : ___ 20 ............ _'.'_ ,, ;_ :.

rTi/iiiii :? iiii'<iiiilililili
..........
0 10 /i i ! 5()
ii :i i:i:ii100 '?i
f _'i500
i! i[Hz]
i :il 0 10 50 100 f 5[;O[Hz]
(b) (b)

Fig. 6. Sound-pressure response of closed-box loudspeaker Fig. 7. Sound-pressure respopse of vented-box loudspeak-
excited by voltage supply U = 5 V (corresponding to 12% er excited by voltage supply U = 2 V (corresponding to 2%
of maximum power rating Pmax).(a) Calculated. (b) Measured. of maximum power rating Pm_' (a) Calculated. (b) Measured.
__ fundamental; --- second-order harmonic distortion __ fundamental; --- second-order harmonic distortion;
_. third-order harmonic distortion. Harmonics are raised by _ third-order harmonic distortion. Harmonics are raised by
20dB. 20dB.

_ooo- -_((_-T------]4
;,.

2000-

3000-
[N/ml _ L(__ ...i'';_'' '"

1000. : :

0 ' I ; ;
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x [mm] 4

Fig. 8. Force factor BI(x), suspension stiffness ST(X), total stiffness s(x), and inductance L(x)as functions of voice-coil
displacement x resulting from dynamic parameter determination·

d. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December 951
KLIPPEL PAPERS

distortion generated by nonlinear displacement, stiffness parameters si and s2 are dominant, they may
Comparing the responses calculated separately with be reduced by changing the material or the shape of
the total distortions calculated for all parameters (Fig. the suspension. The symmetrical decay of the force
12) reveals the dominant causes for the vented-box factor BI(x), caused by voice-coil exit from the gap,
loudspeaker used in this example. Distortion below 50 cannot be reduced without fundamental changes in de-
Hz is caused mainly by the variable suspension stiffness, sign· Such an improvement in b2 is restricted by con-
Above 100 Hz, intermodulation distortion caused by straints of efficiency, box volume, acoustic power, cut-
the variable factor BI(x) is dominant, off frequency, mass, and cost of the loudspeaker.

4.3 Localization of Causes in Design

5 CONCLUSION
Causes of dominant parameters are listed in Table
2. An asymmetric force factor BI(x), inductance L(x), The model based on the truncated Volterra-series
or drive stiffness ST(X) (shown by a dominant parameter expansion is suitable for disclosing essential aspects
bi, st, or l] and producing primarily second-order dis- of electrodynamic loudspeaker behavior at low fre-
tortion) can and should be avoided by an improved quency. Reasonable agreement between measured and
design or adjustment. A dominant inductance parameter calculated responses can be achieved using a dynamic
can be diminished by reducing the .total inductance, method for measuring the nonlinear parameters. The
obtained by avoiding an overhung coil or applying a method is easy to use, provides recognition of the
shorted-circuited turn within the m'agnetic field. The dominant causes of distortion, and assists in suggesting
conductive ring or cap should be positioned at a place improvements in design.
where the variable inductance has a .maximum. If the Because most causes of distortion can be eliminated
J

50 · - : .... : Z, : _ i :]:_ 50

[d l '-' . ' '--.--· tdB .-?:--i

, , ...... .... "- ! !i!iii
' _,' : ;",'
u': i ......:.....-:---:---:-.!.:-.:...:-
: .22 - · · : ' ':' ,' '"" . ....
· ......;', /.., s ....
. ,.. i :':::i "':':':
_ ..... i iii ...... :' ' ' _': ':': 'ii:........
:::
; · [- _.L :._"",,': I' · ' i : ::: 30 , _' ......
· '., ' _'_, ....; :t. . . : .... : : / _":,,_"-'/": '_ ' ' · : ::::
, $, _- , , '1 ¢... ,: ,,_ . . . ; ....
20 _r...... .e.... _'':' ...... '"_'''_!_"'''"'"'':'; _':':' 20 .i ..... _.........
,... :.'.'.'. _,' ' · ..
- J · i ....... j' · · . .. , ._.
" ' _! ........
-"_.:" J:_ : : : : '': Jr /' "'5: : .... i :_ ' ' : ....
,.. . , _...,_ _ // .... /': : _i '':,_ ' "' ' : ::::
10 ...,..:..., i,,' - , -,,,.. ., t..'...'...'. : .... ¢· - 4, · ' '£'% ' _, ' : ....
." . . V. .... _ _ - .... ' ......... 10 ...J .......... ' '..'.'.'.'. ..... '..-: .'..' ..
/ . .
,.' : : .... :' ;_.
:- :· ::::.
' '"
,.:'.: .....:
/' : ! : : ::i _
.: .:":!,:....
....
-_: ....
0 ? ' . ; i ; ::;?il ',_: : : i : ::: 0 : '_ .... : ' ' ' ;'-
10 50 100 f 500 [Hz] 10 50 10'0 f 500 [Hz]
(a) : (a)

50 : :· ': : :.,_,-_-.__
:::: ':___.' I'
:. : ....
.... 50 : : i : :::: · · - : ....
IdB1 : . · i '.'-2::! ,: : :'-_".'5-_.-;,. [dB] ! _ :"-_'-J--:2:

:.;_;.:-!
..... /;..:._;. ; ::: 40 ..... :.... :"/'i' "'"-'"? ",'- ";-'-";": .... :':':'
:- :. ./R,,i,....,.i
'_'"t.,,_'_._"_ }I.· ·· /-· :: ....
.... .· .. ?,.'..
.... ,._ "': :'" " 't'.'-
· , . ,,,:
.
.,,,,,.
....
· '! ."_. ' ''"_, /' ' ' : : :: _.,_, ,,,' , ' '/': : : ....

............ .... : .....

(':' ": ": 'i' ':':' :':'
'N_,.'4_- ' : ....
................
30 ..._. ,,,,,,../:
: /.-T'-,4.i. 7":. : : : ! ::::
20 ..... :/ :
"/......... : i::::i
i'':':':':.i ..... N,_; : : i::::
!&.'_.,-.:--!-.:-:-:.:. :,/
/ : ."_:t:::
',.t.--: :· :· :· :: ....
....
r?
· :. :. :! ....
..... [:%"L.
_. _,_, .: :: ....
: :: 20 ..... _;,,........ i,_,¢.
: ....:. :- :.i......
: :''':'':'i'':':':':'
. . . : ....
........ . !.._' ,,.. : [. : : : .... : ........
10 /' · ' i : :::i / _": : ::: t ' ' · : .... : ' ' ' ! : '''
",,;'; ':'". :'. ':'.':'i::
?:i"
'"" ":............
: : _,<:::
:',........... lO .-./.:; .... :-.:..:.!..:.:-:.:.!
........ ...... ;...:..; .!.:.:-!.!.:.
....
,/ : : : i :;_:i : : :N_,; ::: / : : : : ..... : : : i ::::
o " ' ' ' '_' .n.: . !\v... 0 '/ : : : i ::::i ' ' ' :::::
10 50 _100 f 500[Hz] 10 50 100 f 5[)0[Hz]

(l_ (b)
Fig. 9. Sound-pressure response of vented-box loudspeaker Fig. 10. Sound-pressure response of vented-box loudspeaker
of Fig. 7 calculated by considering variable stiffness only of Fig. 7 calculated by considering only variable force factor
(bt = b2 = 1] = 12 = 0). (a) S_cond-order d2(f) and third- Bl(x) only (s_ = s2 = l_ = 12 = 0). (a) Second-order d2
order d3(f) harmonics and (b)/_econd-order intermodulation (f) and third-order d3(f) harmonics and (b) second-order
im + 2(f + 35 Hz) and third-order intermodulation im + intermodulation im + 2(f + 35 Hz) and third-order inter-
3(f + 2 x 35 Hz) as functions of frequency f of swept ex- modulation im + 3(f + 2 x 35 Hz) as functions of frequency
citation tone (Ur = 035 Hz =,' 2 V). Linear response (thin fof swept excitation tone (Of: U35Hz: 2V). Linear response
line). Second-order (dashed lifie) and third-order (heavy line) (thin line). Second-order (dashed line) and third-order (heavy
distortions are raised by 20 dB.
It line) distortions are raised by 20 dB.

952 't J. Audio Eng. Soc., Vol. 38, No. 12, 1990 December
,!
PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER NONLINEAR PARAMETERS

without great expense, unnecessary distortion ought Response of an Electrodynamic Loudspeaker by a Vol-
to be avoided. Third-order intermodulation distortion terra Series Expansion," J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 35,
produced by symmetrical force-factor decay (parameter pp. 421-433 (1987 June).
b2) cannot be removed completely. It can be reduced [2] R. H. Small, "Vented-Box Loudspeaker Systems,
by suitable compromise between the subjectively ac- Part II: Large-Signal Analysis," J. Audio Eng. Soc.,
ceptable level of b2 distortion and other measures of vol. 21, pp. 438-444 (1973 July/Aug.).
quality. Because this distortion cannot be determined [3] R. H. Small, "Closed-Box Loudspeaker Systems,
by harmonic measurement, an adequate intermodulation Part I: Analysis," J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 20, pp.
method is preferred and should be included in loud- 798-808 (1972 Dec.).
speaker recommendations and standards. [4] W. J. Cunningham, "Non-Linear Distortion in
There are open questions in the subjective evaluation Dynamic Loudspeakers Due to Magnetic Effects," J.
of nonlinear distortion in loudspeakers. The audibility Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 21, pp. 202-207 (1949).
of the different kinds of distortion should be investigated [5] M. R. Gander, "Dynamic Linearity and Power
systematically in reproducing natural and synthetic Compression in Moving-Coil Loudspeakers,"J. Audio
sounds and specified by audibility thresholds. Such Eng. Soc., vol. 34, pp. 627-646 (1986 Sept.).
results can form an adequate basis for requirements of [6] M. Fliess, "An Algebraic Approach to Non-Lin-
loudspeaker quality, ear Functional Expansions," IEEE Trans. Circuits. Sys.,
vol. CAS-30, p. 554 (1983 Aug.).
6 REFERENCES [7] R. H. Flake, "Volterra Series Representation of
Nonlinear Systems," IEEE Trans. Appl. Ind., vol. 81,
[1] A. J. M. Kaizer, "Modeling of the Nonlinear pp. 330-335 (1963).
[8] St. Boyd et al., "Measuring Volterra Kernels,"
s0j - - : : .... : : : i : ::: IEEETrans. Circuits Sys., vol. CAS-30, p. 571(1983
[dB]/ :· · ' ../!
! :5-_--_
: ::! : _--_. · .... :.%' Aug.).
404...... :..... /" ':' _"' i ...... i.. -:...- .......... [9] R. H. Small, "Direct-Radiator Loudspeaker
i 7"i ! ::::- : ii ii 383-395 (1972 June).
30 ..... ::.. ¢..:-
: e: .}.:.
: ....;.:.:.!......
: .:... .:...:..!.;
. : .....:..... System Analysis," J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 20, pp.
· /' ' : : ::_'"'='_"'_.k ' ' ! : :::
: /: ..4.,,i"_6/,-.: , .... · . ...
20 .
,,_.,t · ::..:i
' ..' ; ..... .'.: .....
:'...'.""';_ : :: ....
....
APPENDIX
': .... : . . · :,,.... DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
i' . . ' : .... : ' ' - N.' ''

i,¢;t,il/_ i::::_ j: ij,. .....:...;.:

': :"5_';_.':': ' TERMS IN SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR
lo ,: - . -V::_:i'N, : : : i ':-4.,I blRe
j,,' . . . : .... : · . . : ', Bi 2
0" .... i : '_:; _' . . : .... I
10 50 100 f 500 [Hz]

(a) IiBIo - blLo

b - Blo2
50 .... . . - .: .....
......... ' ' ,i";' ....
[dBl : : :.:,i.)--t-.7....-I--.:_,;·
..... -, -
· - /...... _,,a · . : I . . . : ....

· · _' · ..... ' '' [dB] _ : :-"-" ": ' ' "_'-_"-_'
: :/: i ::::?' ' ' i : ::: - .. /. ...... . . · .
30 : { _T.-.._=;,.?':i ........ ·
40 ,-_'......... -"_d..:
_......,,-...:
,- , -_.,,_._. ....
- · -_'-,_-. ...............

f
'" ' ':::::: ·
' ' ':
' '
....
.
' 20 .......
!' .... !:iiii!/
i' '.' .': -I' !
_:i. · ·
: '....· ' ':
: . . . : ..... ::: ?'
. . . .... :_r-..,.-..:..:---:.:.:
10 ' ' ' _' i ' ' '.' ': ': '.'.': ::' ..... :"':": ':''.': :: ,,'
/ : : : .... ! : : : :::: ,_. ! ii::::i¥...... .... ' ::::....
'..... ' ''" ........ 10 " · _.:...:..:
' .: .....::: ...... ' .... ' .... ' :' .:--:
.,' :.,, :. :. _
: .: :.::
:1:: ·. .. .. :: :....::: 30 ...... [" .....
[ . . . : .... :
010 50 100 f 500[Hz] ,, ......... · . : : ::
(b) 0 .,_ ' ' ' i_: :::! ' ' .= i' '.
10 50 100 f 500[Hz]
Fig. 11. Sound-pressure response of vented-box loudspeaker
of Fig. 7 calculated by considering variable inductance L (x) Fig. 12. Sound-pressure response of vented-box loudspeaker
only (bi = b2 = si = s2 = 0). (a) Second-order d2(f) and of Fig. 7 calculated by considering all nonlinear parameters
third-order d3(f harmonics and (b) second-order intermod- (bi, b2, si, s2, Ii, /2). Second-order intermodulation im +
ulation im + 2(f + 35 Hz) and third-order intermodulation 2(f + 35 Hz) and third-order intermodulation im + 3(f +
im + 3(f + 2 x 35 Hz)_as functions of frequencyfof swept 2 x 35 Hz)_as functions of frequency f of swept excitation
excitation tone (Uf = U3sHz= 2 V). Linear response (thin tone (Ur = U3sHz= 2 V). Linear response (thin line). Second-
line). Second-order (dashed line) and third-order (heavy line) order (dashed line) and third-order (heavy line) intermodu-
distortionsare raisedby 40 dB. lations are raised by 20 dB.

J. Audio
Eng.Soc.,Vol.38,No.12,1990December 953
KLIPPEL PAPERS

blLo+ llBlo Y3 = c{[J(pOpl + J(P2 + P3)(P2 + P3)]

c - Bi 2 × ql(Pl)q2(P2, P3)
+ [J(P2)P2 + J(Pl + P3)(Pl + P3)]
X ql(P2)q2(Pl, P3)
2slRe + [J(P3)P3 + J(Pl + P2)(Pl + P2)]
d-
Blo X ql(P3)q2(Pl, P2)}

Y4 = d{ql(Pl)q2(P2, P3) + ql(P2)q2(Pl, P3)

(2siLo + 3blBlo) + ql(P3)q2(Pt, P2)}
e =
Blo
Y5 = e(pl + P2 + P3){ql(POq2(P2, P3)
+ ql(P2)q2(Pl, P3)
--2bi + ql(P3)q2(Pl, P2)}
f- Blo
Y6 = f{q2(Pl, P2) + q2(Pl, P3) + q2(P2, P3)}

Yl = a{[J(pO + J(P2 + P3)]ql(Pl)q2(P2, P3) A - b2Re

+ [J(P2) + J(Pl + P3)]ql(P2)q2(Pl, P3) Bio2
+ [J(P3) + J(Pl + P2)]ql(P3)q2(Pl, P2)}

12Blo - b2Lo
B=
Y2 = b{[J(pO(p2 + P3) + J(P2 + P3)Pl] BI2
× ql(Pl)q2(P2, P3)
+ [J(P2)(Pl + P3) + J(Pl + P3)P2] b2Lo + 12Blo + bill
X ql(P2)q2(Pl,P3) C = B/02
+ [J(P3)(Pl + P2) + J(Pl + P2)P3]
× ql(P3)q2(Pl, P2)}
s2ReBlo + blSlRe
D = Bl02

3s2LoBlo + 3b2Bl 2 + 3slllBlo + blslLo + 3b2Blo

E -- Bl 2

Table 2. Identification of physical causes of nonlinear distortions and means for their improvement.

Dominant nonlinear parameter Physical causes in design Measures for improvement

Ii, asymmetry of L(x) curve Approach of voice coil to soft Decreasing total inductance (number
magnetic material causes of turns, short-circuited turn)
increase of inductance Decreasing asymmetry of L(x)
curve (optimum positioning of
short-circuited turn at a place
where L(x) is maximum)
12, symmetry of L(x) curve Decrease of inductance by Decreasing total inductance (number
withdrawing voice coil of turns, short-circuited turn)
from pole plates
b_, asymmetry of BI(x) curve Asymmetry of magnetic field Improving magnetic field
outside gap distribution by changing form of
Rest position of voice coil pole plates
outside gap Improving adjustment of rest
position of voice coil in maximum
of Bl(x)
b2, symmetry of Bl(x) curve Decrease of magnetic flux Reducing voice-coil excursion
outside gap Increasing length of gap or voice
coil
si, asymmetry of s(x) curve Asymmetry in geometry of Changing geometrical configuration
grooves of spider or
diaphragm
s2, symmetry of s(x) curve Increase of stiffness by Increasing groove size
unfolding grooves Increasing number of grooves
Changing properties of Changing material of suspension
suspension material by
remodeling, straining,
bending

954 J.Audio
Eng.Soc.,
Vol.38,No.12,1990
December
PAPERS ELECTRODYNAMIC
LOUDSPEAKER
NONLINEAR
PARAMETERS

= b2 + 2Blob2 Y3 = 2C[J(pl)pl + J(P2)P2

F
Blo2 + J(P3)P3]ql(Pt)ql(P2)ql(P3)

Y4 = 6Dql(p])q](p2)ql(p3)
Yi = 2A[J(Pl) + J(P2) + J(P3)]ql(P])q](P2)qi(P3)
175 = 2E(pl + P2 + P3)q](P])ql(P2)ql(P3)

Y2 = 2B[J(P1)P2 + J(Pl)P3 + J(P2)P3 + piJ(p2) Y6 = 2F{qi(pi)qi(p2) + q](Pl)ql(P3)

+ PlJ(P3) + P2J(P3)]ql(Pl)ql(P2)ql(P3) + ql(P2)ql(P3)}

THE AUTHOR

Wolfgang Klippel was born in Halle, GDR, in 1957. 1987, he received a M.Sc. degree from the Dresden
He received a B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering University of Technology. His thesis was titled "Mul-
from the University of Technology of Dresden in 1982. tidimensional Relationship between Subjective Lis-
After graduating, he joined the loudspeaker research tening Impression and Objective Loudspeaker Param-
group of VEB Nachrichtenelektronik Leipzig in 1983 eters." His recent research has been focused on the
and where he was engaged in research of subjective generation, measurement, and audibility of nonlinear
and objective quality assessment of loudspeakers. In distortions.

J. AudioEng.Soc.,Vol.38, No. 12, 1990December 955