HSSRPTR - +1 Phy Focus Kamil Notes

CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE
(Not in focus area)

PHYSICAL WORLD
Name Range Operates
among
Gravitational Infinite ( Long All objects in
Focus Area force Ranged) the universe
1.2 scope and excitement of physics
Very short, Some
Weak nuclear Sub-nuclear elementary
INTRODUCTION
force size particles,partic
ularly electron
Science
and neutrino
The word “Science” originates from the
Latin word “scientia” which means to know. Electromagnetic Infinite ( Long Charged
Physics force Ranged) particle
The word “physics” originates from the
Strong nuclear Short, nuclear Nucleons,heav
Greek word ' φῠῠσῐς ' (pronounced as“Fusis” ) force size ier elementary
meaning nature. physics is the study of the basic particles
laws of nature and their manifestations.
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
1. Classical physics 2. Modern physics
1. Classical Physics
physics that was recognized and developed
before the beginning of the 20 th century.
Branch Major focus
The study of forces acting
Classical mechanics on bodies whether at rest
or in motion
The study of the
Thermodynamics relationship between heat
and other forms of energy
Optics The study of light
The study of electricity and
Electricity and magnetism and their
magnetism mutual relationship
2.Modern Physics
Refers to the concepts in physics that have
surfaced since the beginning of the 20 th century.
Branch Major focus
The study of the discrete
Quantum nature of phenomena at the
mechanics atomic and subatomic levels
The branch of physics which
Atomic physics deals with the structure and
properties of the atom
The branch of physics which
Nuclear physics deals with the structure,
properties and reaction of the
nuclei of atoms.
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL @ SOHSS AREEKODE 1
Dowloaded from HSS Reporter

CHAPTER 2 NOTE : These two quantities have units but no
dimension.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS DESCRIPTION OF PLANE ANGLE (dθ)
The Radian (rad): One radian is the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
Focus Area length equal to the radius of the circle.
2.2 The international system of units
2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
A complete set of units for all physical
DESCRIPTION OF SOLID ANGLE (dΩ)
quantities with particular basic units is called a
The Steradian (sr): One steradian is the
system of units.
solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere
The commonly used unit systems are:
by a surface of the sphere, which is equal in
(a) The FPS system
area, to the square of radius of the sphere .
It is the British Engineering system of units,
which uses foot, pound and second as the three
basic units for measuring length, mass and time
respectively.
(b) The CGS system
Which uses centimetre, gram and second as
the three basic units for measuring length, mass
Advantages of SI units
and time respectively.
1) It is comprehensive.
(c) The MKS system
2) It is coherent-a system based on certain
Which uses metre, kilogram and second as
fundamental units.
the three basic units for measuring length, mass
3) It is internationally accepted.
and time respectively.
4) It is a metric system- ie, multiples and sub
multiples of the system can be expressed as
(d) SI units(Metric System)
powers of ten.
In 1960, International Committee for Weights
Measures adopted a system of units for all
DIMENSION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
fundamental physical quantities and is called
All physical quantities can be expressed in
International system of units or SI units.
terms of the seven fundamental quantities. We
In SI system, there are seven Fundamental
call these fundamental quantities as the seven
(basic) units and two Supplementary units.
dimension of the physical world.
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR
powers to which the fundamental quantities be
UNITS IN SI SYSTEM
raised in order to represent that quantity.
Eg:
Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol
Displacement [L]
Mass kilogram kg
Velocity= = =[ M 0 L T −1]
time [T ]
Length metre m Hence the dimensions of velocity is 0 in
mass, 1 in length and -1 in time.
Time second s More Examples
Temperature kelvin K Δ V [L T −1]
Acceleration , a= = =[ M 0 L T −2 ]
Electric current ampere A t [T ]
Luminous intensity candela cd Force , F=m a=[ M ][ LT −2 ]=[ML T −2 ]
1 2 −1 2 2 −2
Amount of substance mole mol KE= m v =[M ][L T ] =[ M L T ]
2
SUPPLEMENTARY QUANTITIES AND THEIR
UNITS Problem: ( Do yourself)
Find the dimensional formula of the following
physical quantities.
Plane Angle radian rad
(a) Momentum (b) Potential energy (c) Mass per
Solid angle steradian sr unit length

DIMENSIONAL FORMULA AND EQUATION Solution
Dimensional formula is an expression The dependence of time period T on the
which shows how and which of the fundamental quantities l, g and m as a product may be written
units are required to represent the unit of a as :
physical quantity.
T α l x g y mz => T =k l x g y m z
Eg: [M 0 LT −2 ] is the dimensional formula of
where k is dimensionless constant and x, y and
acceleration.
z are the exponents.
When the dimensional formula of a physical
By considering dimensions on both sides, we
quantity is expressed in the form of an equation,
have
such an equation is known as the dimensional o o 1 1 x 1 –2 y 1 z
equation. [M L T ]=[ L ] [ L T ] [M ]
x+ y – 2 y z
➢ Eg: Acceleration = [M 0 LT −2 ]. = L T M
On equating the dimensions on both sides,
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions we have
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions x+ y=0 ; – 2 y=1 ; and z=0
states that the dimensions of all the terms in a 1 −1
So x= , y= , z=0
physical expression should be the same. 2 2
Eg: v 2 = u 2 +2as , the dimensions of v 2 , u 2 and
2as have the same dimension [L 2 T −2 ]. Then, T =k l
1/ 2
g
−1 /2
=> T =k
√ l
g
APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1.To check the correctness of an equation

Actually, k =2 π => T =2 π
√ l
g
Here we use the principle of homogeneity to
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.
check the correctness of the equation.
1) This method gives us no information about
Problem: dimensionless constants.
1 ➢ Eg: 1,2, π , etc .
Let us consider an equation m v 2=mgh
2 2) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may
,where m is the mass of the body, v its velocity, g not be unique because many physical quantities
is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the have same dimensions.
height. Check whether this equation is ➢ Eg: if the dimensional formula of a
dimensionally correct. 1 2
physical quantity is [ML T− ]it may be
Solution work or energy or torque.
1 2 3) The method of dimension can’t be used to
The dimension of m v = [M][LT-1]2 derive relations other than product of power
2
= [M L2 T-2] functions.
The dimension of mgh = [M][LT-2][L] 1
➢ Eg: s=ut + a t 2 can’t be derived by
= [M L2 T-2] 2
Since both term has the same dimension , the using this theory. However, the
given equation is dimensionally correct. dimensional correctness of these can be
checked.
Eg: Do Example 2.16 NCERT
2.To establish the relation among various

physical quantities
Problem
Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob
attached to a string, that oscillates under the
action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the
period of oscillation of the simple pendulum
depends on its length (l), mass of the bob (m)
and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the
expression for its time period using method of
dimensions.

CHAPTER 3 Problem 1
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE A point P is the contact point of a wheel on
ground which rolls on ground without slipping.
What is the displacement of the point P when
wheel completes half of rotation (if radius of
Focus Area wheels is 1m)
3.2 Position, path length and displacement Solution
3.3 Average velocity and average speed
3.5 Acceleration
3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly
accelerated motion
POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND

DISPLACEMENT
Displacement,S= √( π R)2 +( 2 R)2

√
= R π +4
2
Since R=1 m, S= √ π2 + 4 m
Position
To specify position we fix a origin (O).
MOTION
Positions to the right of O are taken as positive
If a body changes its position with time ,
and to the left of O, as negative ( convention)
then the body is said to be in motion.
Thus the position co ordinates of P ,Q , R
are +360 m , +240 m , -120 m respectively.
SPEED AND VELOCITY
Average speed
Path length (Distance)
The average speed is defined as the ratio of the
It is the total distance covered.
total path length covered by the particle to the
Suppose a car moves from O to P and then
total time taken
moves back from P to Q , then the total path
length (distance) covered = OP+PQ = 360 m+120 total path length
Average speed=
m= 480 m Total time interval
NOTE
Displacement (Δx) ➢ If a particle travels distances S 1 , S2 , S 3
It is the shortest distance between the final
with speeds v 1 , v 2 , v 3 respectively in
and initial positions
Suppose a car moves from O to P and then same direction . Then,
moves back from P to Q , then Δx = x Q-xP = + 240 Total distance travelled=S1 +S 2 +S 3 ,
m S S S
If a car moves from O to P and then moves Total time taken= 1 + 2 + 3
v 1 v 2 v3
back from P to R , then Δx = xR-xO = -120 m
Therefore ,
If a car moves from O to P and then moves
back from P to O , then Δx = xO-xO = 0 S 1+ S 2+ S3
The average speed =
S1 S 2 S 3
NOTE + +
v1 v2 v3
➢ Distance is a scalar quantity ( only
magnitude , no direction) while
displacement is a vector quantity ( it has ➢ If a particle travels with speeds
both magnitude and direction) v 1 , v 2 , v 3 during the time interval
➢ Distance can only have positive values t 1 , t 2 , t 3 respectively.
while Displacement can be positive, Then,
negative and even zero. Total distance travelled=v1 t 1 + v 2 t 2+ v 3 t 3
➢ The magnitude of displacement may or Total time taken=t 1+ t 2 +t 3
may not be equal to the path length
Therefore ,
traversed by an object.

v 1 t 1 +v 2 t 2+ v 3 t 3 Problem 2
The average speed = Given a v-t graph. Find the displacement
t 1+t 2 +t 3
covered between 6 s and 12 s
Average velocity
It is the ratio of displacement to the time
taken
Δ x x 2−x 1
The average velocity= =
Δ t t 2−t 1
Uniform motion (Uniform velocity)

If a body covers equal displacement in equal
Solution
interval of time , then the body is said to be in
Area under the velocity - time graph is equal to
uniform motion. During uniform motion magnitude
the displacement of the particle.
and direction of the velocity remains constant.
Non uniform velocity

If a body covers unequal displacements in
equal interval of time or equal displacements in
unequal interval of time, then the body is said to
be in non uniform motion. During non uniform
motion either magnitude or direction of the
velocity changes.
Therefore the displacement covered by the
particle between 6s and 12s is 40 x 6 = 240m
3.4 Position – time graph
Problem 3
Starting from rest, a car moves with uniform
acceleration and attains a velocity of 10 m/s in
10 s. It is then moves with uniform speed of 15 s
and is then brought to rest in 12 s under uniform
retardation. Find the total distance covered
using velocity-time graph.
Solution
NOTE First draw the v-t graph and find the area of
The slope of position time graph (Δx/Δt) thegraph
gives the velocity. In Fig
( x 2−x 1)
(a) Slope= =0
(t 2−t 1)
(x 2−x 1)
(b) Slope= =+Ve
(t 2−t 1)
(x 2−x 1)
(c) Slope= =−Ve
(t 2−t 1) The total distance = Area of the graph
Velocity - time graph for uniform motion 1 1

( x 10 x 10)+(15 x 10)+( x 12 x 10)=260 m
2 2
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity of an object is
called acceleration.
⃗ ( t 2 )−⃗
V V (t 1) V −u
⃗a = (or) a=
Note t 2−t 1 t
The area of velocity – time graph gives Uniform acceleration
displacement If the velocity of an object changes by equal

amounts in equal intervals of time (however small
the intervals may be) , then the body is in uniform First Equation Of Motion
acceleration.
Eg: A freely falling stone has an acceleration
9.8 m/s2 means velocity of the stone increases
9.8m/s in each second.
Position-time graph for uniformly accelerated

motion
Acceleration = Slope of velocity-time graph

v−u
=> a=
t
=> v −u=at
=> v =u+a t .................... (1)
This is the first equation of motion.
Second Equation Of Motion
Velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated

motion
Displacement = Area under the velocity-time

graph
=> S= Area of Δ ABC + Area of □ ACOt
1
=> S= (v−u) t+ ut ..............(2)
2
Substitute v= u+at in (2)
(2 => S=ut +1/2(u+at−u) t
1 2
=> S=ut + 2 a t .. . .............(3)
1
(OR) S= (u+v )t
2
This is the second equation of motion
Third equation of motion

From (1) v =u+a t
NOTE Squaring both sides , we get
➢ The slope of velocity time graph gives v 2=(u+ at )2=u2 +2u at +(a t)2
acceleration
➢ Area under the velocity time graph gives 2 1 2
= u +2 a(ut + a t )
the displacement 2
2 2
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY => v =u + 2 aS ............(4)
ACCELERATED MOTION This is the third equation of motion
Let u- Initial velocity
v- Final velocity after time t Summary
s- displacement covered in time t 1 2
a- Uniform acceleration v =u+a t S=ut + a t
2

2 2 1 => (40−x)=20 t+ 4.9t
2
.............(2)
v =u + 2 aS S= (u+v )t
2
40
(1)+(2) => 40=40 t => t= =1 s .......(3)
Stopping distance of vehicles 40
When brakes are applied to a moving Substitute (3) in (1)
vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is 2
called stopping distance. It is an important factor => x=20 x 1−4.9 x 1 =15.1 m
for road safety and depends on the initial velocity Hence the two balls will collide after 1 s at a
(u) and the braking capacity, or deceleration, –a height of 15.1 m from the ground.
that is caused by the braking.
Expression for stopping distance

Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
before it stops be d s .
2 2
Then, using equation of motion v =u + 2 aS
and noting that v = 0, S= d s ,
2
then the equation becomes, 0=u + 2 a d s
=> −u 2=+2 a d s
−u2
ie, the stopping distance d s =
2a
Thus, the stopping distance is proportional
to the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the
initial velocity increases the stopping distance by
a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).
Problem 5
Two balls are thrown simultaneously, 'A'
vertically upwards with a speed of 20 m/s from
the ground, and 'B' vertically downwards from
a height of 40m with the same speed and along
the same line of motion. At what point do the
two balls collide? Take g= 9.8 m/s2
Solution
Suppose the two balls meet at a height of 'x'
metre from the ground after time 't' second
from the start.
For upward motion of ball A
u = 20 m/s g = -9.8 m/s2
1
s=ut + g t 2
2
1 2
s=20 t− x 9.8 t
2
2
x=20 t−4.9 t .............(1)
For downward motion of ball B
u = - 20 m/s g = -9.8 m/s2
1 2 2
−(40−x)=−20 t− x 9.8 t =−20 t −4.9 t
2

CHAPTER 4
2.Collinear vectors: Those vectors which act
MOTION IN A PLANE along the same line. The angle between them can
be 0° or 180°.
Focus Area 3.Parallel Vectors: If two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗ B

4.2 Scalars and vectors act in the same direction along the same line or
4.10 Projectile motion on parallel lines( the angle between them is 00)
ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF VECTOR

ALGEBRA
Scalar quantity and vector quantity 4.Anti–parallel vectors: Two vectors ⃗ A and
Scalar quantity: A quantity with magnitude ⃗
B are said to be anti–parallel when they are in
only. It is specified completely by a single number, opposite directions along the same line or on
along with the proper unit. parallel lines (the angle between them is 180 0)
Eg : mass, temperature , distance
The rules for combining scalars are the rules
of ordinary algebra.
Vector quantity: A quantity that has both
magnitude and direction and obeys vector 5.Unit vector: A vector divided by its magnitude
algebra . It is specified by giving its magnitude by is a unit vector. The unit vector for ⃗
A is denoted
a number and its direction. by Â ( A cap). It has a magnitude equal to unity or
Eg: displacement, velocity, acceleration , force one.
⃗
Since, ^ A , we can write ⃗
A= A = A A^
Representation of vectors A
A vector can be represented either 6.Orthogonal unit vectors:
1. Geometrical (Graphical ) representation î , ^j , k^ be three unit vectors which
Let
2. Analytical representation
specify the directions along
positive x–axis, positive y–
Geometrical representation of vectors
axis and positive z–axis
A vector represented by an arrow. Length of
respectively. These three
the arrow indicates its magnitude and arrow head
unit vectors are directed
indicates its direction. See Fig. below
perpendicular to each other.
These three vectors are
orthogonal unit vectors.
⃗
A and resultant vectors after multiplying it by a
negative number –1 and –1.5.
The given vector is towards east direction
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORM
ACCELERATION FOR MOTION IN A PLANE
(Not in Focus area)
Along x direction
V x =ux +a x t .................(1)
1 2
S x =x=u x t+ ax t ...............(2)
(Note that ⃗ v 1 ≠2 ⃗
v 2 but the magnitude of v1
⃗ 2
is equal to 2 x magnitude of ⃗ v2 ) 2 2
V x =ux +2 a x S x ................(3)
Along y direction
TYPES OF VECTORS
V y =u y + a y t ..............(4)
1.Equal vectors: Two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗ B are
said to be equal when they have equal magnitude 1 2
S y = y =u y t+ a y t ................(5)
and same direction and represent the same 2
physical quantity. 2 2
V y =u y +2a y S y .................(6)

PROJECTILE MOTION 1 2
When an object is thrown in the air with From (5) y=u y t + a y t
2
some initial velocity (NOT just upwards), and then
For projectile u y =u sinθ and a=−g
allowed to move under the action of gravity alone,
the object is known as a projectile. Therefore,
The path followed by the particle is called its 1 2
y=usin θ t− g t ..............(12)
trajectory . 2
Motion of a projectile is an example for Substitute (11) in (12)
motion in a plane with constant acceleration . usinθ x g x2
=> y= −
Fig. shows Motion of an object projected with ucos θ 2u 2 cos 2 θ
velocity u at angle θ . g 2
=> y=tanθ x− 2 2
x
2 u cos θ
2
This is of the form y=a x +b x , in which
a and b are constants. This is the equation of a
parabola, i.e. the path of the projectile is a
parabola.
Time of maximum height (tm )

We know V y =u sin θ−g t (From eqn 10)
At maximum height V y =0
Therefore ,
After the object has been projected, the (10) => 0=u sinθ−g t m
acceleration acting on it is acceleration due to
gravity alone , which is directed vertically => g t m =u sinθ
downward. u sinθ
Ie, a x =0 , a y =−g ..............(7) => t m= ................(13)
g
The components of initial velocity are
Time of flight (TF )
u x =u cosθ , u y =u sinθ ...........(8) Th e total time taken by the projectile
from the point of projection till it hits the
The components of velocity at any time t can be horizontal plane is called time of flight.
obtained using Eq (1) , (4) , (7) and (8) T F =2t m
ie, V x =ux +a x t 2 usinθ
T F= ..............(14)
g
V x =ucos θ+0 x t
V x =u cosθ ..............(9) Maximum height of a projectile (hm)
Similarly V y =u y + a y t The maximum vertical distance travelled
by the projectile during its journey is called
V y =u sin θ−g t ............(10) maximum height.
NOTE: 2 2
We know V y =u y + 2a y S y [ From (6)]
1) x-component of velocity remains constant
throughout the motion , only the y- component of
When the projectile is at maximum height
velocity changes
2) At maximum height vy =0
S y =hm , V y =0
3) The velocity at any instant is given by the Therefore the above equation becomes
2
√ 2
relation V = V x +V y
2 0=(usinθ ) −2 g h m
4) At maximum height V=v x=ucosθ since vy=0 at => 2 g h m=u2 sin2 θ
maximum height u2 sin2 θ
=> hm = ................(15)
4.6.1 Equation of path of a projectile 2g
From (8) x=u x t=ucosθ t
Horizontal range of a projectile (R)
x It is the horizontal distance travelled by a
=> t= .............(11)
u cos θ projectile during its time of flight.

Therefore R=V x X T F
2 usinθ
=> R=(u cosθ)
g
2
u 2sin θ cos θ
=> R=
g
2
u sin 2θ
=> R=
g
NOTE
Horizontal range is maximum when 2θ=90o . ie,
θ=45o for a particular 'u'
u2
ie, Rmax =
g
Problem 5 (Example 4.7 NCERT )

Galileo, in his book Two new sciences, stated
that “for elevations which exceed or fall short of
45° by equal amounts, the ranges are equal”.
Prove this statement.
Solution
For a projectile launched with velocity 'u' at
an angle 'θ' , the range is given by
u2
R= sin 2 θ
g
Now, for angles, (45 ° +α ) and
(45 ° – α ) , 2θ is (90 ° +2 α ) and
(90 ° – 2 α ) , respectively. The values of sin
(90° + 2 α ) and sin (90 ° – 2 α ) are the same,
equal to that of cos2α . Therefore, ranges are
equal for elevations which exceed or fall short of
45° by equal amounts α .
problem 6 (Example 4.9 NCERT )

A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 m/s in a
direction 30° above the horizontal. Calculate
(a) The maximum height
(b) The time taken by the ball to return to the
same level
(c)The distance from the thrower to the point
where the ball returns to the same level.
Solution
u2 sin2 θ 282 sin 2 30
(a) hm = = =10 m
2g 2 x 9.8
2 usinθ 2 x 28 x sin 30
(b) T F = = =2.9 s
g 9.8
2
u2 sin 2θ 28 sin(60)
(c) R= = =69 m
g 9.8

CHAPTER 5 here m=0.04 kg u=90 m/s v =0
LAWS OF MOTION −2
S=60 x 10 m
Therefore The retardation ‘a’ of the bullet
−u2 −902
a= = =−6750 m/s2
Focus Area 2 S 2 x 60 x 10−2
5.5 Newton’s second law of motion The retarding force, by the second law of
5.7 Conservation of momentum motion, is F=m a=0.04 x−6750=−270 N
5.9.1 Friction
5.10 Circular motion IMPULSIVE FORCE
The force which acts for a very short interval
Momentum (p) of time is called impulsive force.
Momentum of a body is the product of its mass m Eg: - (i) The force on a ball when hit with a bat. (ii)
and velocity, v ⃗
P=m ⃗v Force exerted on a bullet when fired from a gun.
Newton’s second Law IMPULSE (I)

The force acting on an object is equal to the rate Impulse of a force is the product of the force
of change of its momentum and the time for which the force acts on the body.
⃗
dP d (m ⃗v ) d ⃗v Impulse is a measure of the total effect of
⃗
F= => ⃗
F= =m =m a⃗
dt dt dt force.i.e,
=> ⃗
F =m ⃗a Impulse , I =force x time=Change in momentum
i.e, I =F dt =dp where dt is the time for which
Unit of Force: newton
the force F acts.
Thus One newton is defined as the force
which acts on 1 kg of mass to give an Problem 3
acceleration 1 ms−2 in the direction of the force. Show that Impulse = Change in momentum
NOTE using Newton's second law
Newton’s laws are vector laws. The equation Solution
⃗F =m ⃗a is a vector equation and essentially it ⃗
dP
⃗
F=
According to second law,
is equal to three scalar equations. dt
F x î + F y ^j+ F z k^ =m a x î + ma y ^j+ ma z k^ ⃗
d P
Now ⃗I =⃗
F dt= dt=⃗
dP ie, ⃗I =⃗
dP
dt
By comparing both sides, the three scalar
equations are NOTE
F x =m a x , The acceleration along the x
direction depends only on the component of force
acting along the x-direction. And
F y =m a y , .The acceleration along the y
direction depends only on the component of force
acting along the y-direction. Similarly
F z=ma z
The graphical representation of constant force
From the above equations, we can infer that
impulse and variable force impulse shown below (
the force acting along y direction cannot alter the
Area under the graph give impulse
acceleration along x direction. In the same way, F
z cannot affect a y and a x .
Problem 4 (Example 5.4 NCERT)
A batsman hits back a ball straight in the
Problem 2 (Example 5.2 NCERT )
direction of the bowler without changing its initial
A bullet of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed of
speed of 12 m/s . If the mass of the ball is 0.15
90 m/s enters a heavy wooden block and is
kg, determine the impulse imparted to the ball.
stopped after a distance of 60 cm. What is the
(Assume linear motion of the ball)
average resistive force exerted by the block on
Solution
the bullet?
Change in momentum = 0.15 × 12–(–0.15×12)
Solution
2 2 = 3.6 N s,
we know v =u + 2 as

Impulse = 3.6 N s,in the direction from the System = Gun and bullet
batsman to the bowler.
M – Mass of Gun , m – Mass of bullet
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES U – Initial velocity of gun ,
u – Initial velocity of bullet
Let momentum of the gun before
firing , ⃗p1=M U ⃗ =0
momentum of the bullet before
p2=m ⃗u=0
firing , ⃗
Total momentum of the system before
firing = ⃗p1 + ⃗
p 2=0
When the net external force on the particle is
zero , then the body is in equilibrium. ie, Even After firing bullet moves with a velocity,
under action of forces the object will be at rest . If ⃗v forward. According to the law of conservation
the lines of forces are acting at a common point , of linear momentum, total linear momentum has
then the collection of forces is said to be to be zero after the firing also.
concurrent forces Ie, ⃗
pι1+ ⃗
pι2=0
=> ⃗pι1+ m v=0
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM => ⃗
pι1=−m v is the recoil momentum
If there are no external forces acting on the
system, then the total linear momentum of the => M V =−mv
system (p tot) is always a constant vector. In other −mv
words, the total linear momentum of the system is => V= is the recoil velocity.
M
conserved in time. Here the word ‘conserve’
means that ⃗ p1 and ⃗ p2 can vary, in such a The - ve sign shows that the gun is recoiling.
way that ⃗ p1 + ⃗
p 2 is a constant vector. Example 2 : Rocket Propulsion
When two particles interact with each other, In case of rocket, a fuel burnt in the
they exert equal and opposite forces on each combustion chamber produces hot gas, which is
other. allowed to escape through a nozzle at the back of
Let ⃗F21 → Force acting on 2 by 1 the rocket. This produces a backward momentum
⃗
F12 → Force acting on 1 by 2 on the gas and the rocket acquires an equal
forward momentum. Thus the rocket moves
Then by Newton's third law
⃗ forward
F21=−⃗
F 12 ......................(1)
Problem 6
In terms of momentum of particles, the force A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gun of
on each particle (Newton’s second law) mass 100 kg. If the muzzle speed of the shell is
can be written as 80 m/s, what is the recoil speed of the gun?
d⃗
P1 d⃗P2 Solution
⃗
F12= and ⃗ F21= ..............(2)
dt dt Mass of shell, m= 0.020 kg
d⃗ P1 −d ⃗ P2 Mass of gun , M = 100 kg
(1)=> = speed of the shell , v = 80 m/s
dt dt recoil speed of the gun,
d⃗ P1 d ⃗P2 −m v −0.020 x 80
=> + =0 V= = =0.016 m/ s
dt dt M 100
d ⃗ ⃗
=> ( P + P )=0
dt 1 2 FRICTION
ie, p1+ p 2=constant vector (always). Frictional force is the force which always
opposes the relative motion between an object
Example 1 : Recoil of gun. and the surface where it is placed.
Frictional force always acts on the object
parallel to the surface on which the object is
placed. There are two kinds of friction namely 1)
Static friction 2) Kinetic friction.
Static friction (fs)

Static friction is the force which opposes the

initiation of motion of an object on the surface. Let the angle which this plane makes with
If some external force F is applied on an the horizontal be θ. For small angles of θ , the
object parallel to the surface on which the object object may not slide down. As θ is increased, for
is at rest, the surface exerts exactly an equal and a particular value of θ , the object begins to slide
opposite force on the object to resist its motion down. This value is called angle of repose or
and tries to keep the object at rest . But if the angle of friction.
external force is increased, after a particular limit, Expression
the surface cannot provide sufficient opposing From the above Fig. Since the body is in
frictional force to balance the external force on equilibrium
the object, then the object starts to slide. The N=m g cos θ ............(1)
maximum value of frictional force before the body f s (max)=μ s N =μ s mg cos θ ............(2)
just slides over the surface of another body is
f s (max)=mgsin θ ............ (3)
called limiting friction or maximum static friction
Equating the right hand side of equations (2) and
f s (max) .
(3), we get
Experimentally, it is found that the μ s m g cos θ=m g sin θ
magnitude of the maximum static friction
f s (max) α Normal force , N sin θ
ie, μ s= (Or) μ s=tan θ
cos θ
OR f s (max)=μ s N
Problem 7
where μ s coefficient of static friction A mass of 4 kg rests on a horizontal plane. The
plane is gradually inclined until at an angle θ =
Law of static friction 15° with the horizontal, the mass just begins to
The static friction does not depend upon the slide. What is the coefficient of static friction
area of contact. And f s≤μ s N between the block and the surface ?
Kinetic Friction Solution
When an object slides, the surface exerts a μ s=tan θ=tan 15=0.27
frictional force called kinetic friction fk (also called
sliding friction or dynamic friction). Rolling Friction
Experimentally it is found that In rolling motion when a wheel moves on a
f k =μ k N surface, the point of contact with surface is
NOTE: always at rest. Since the point of contact is at
Since μk < μ s starting of a motion is more rest, there is no relative motion between the
wheel and surface. Hence the frictional force is
difficult than maintaining it.
very less.
However , Due to the elastic nature of the
surface at the point of contact there will be some
deformation on the object at the point on the
wheel or surface. Due to this deformation, there
will be minimal friction between wheel and
surface. It is called ‘rolling friction’. In fact, ‘rolling
friction’ is much smaller than kinetic friction.
When relative motion has begun, the
acceleration of the body according to the second Problem 8 ( Example 5.7 NCERT)
law is ( F – fk )/m. For a body moving with Determine the maximum acceleration of the train
constant velocity, F = fk .If the applied force on the in which a box lying on its floor will remain
body is removed, its acceleration is – f k /m and it stationary, given that the co-efficient of static
eventually comes to a stop. friction between the box and the train's floor is
0.15.
Angle of Friction OR Angle of repose Solution
Since the acceleration of the box is due to the
static friction,
ma=f s ≤ μ s N =μs m g
i.e. a ≤ μ s g
2 2
∴ amax =μ s g=0.15 x 10 m/s =1.5 m/s
Consider an inclined plane on which an
object is placed, as shown in Figure.

DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION R, there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the car possible, namely
CENTRIPETAL FORCE v max =√ (μ s R g)
The centripetal acceleration of a particle in
v2 Note: v max is independent of mass of the car.
the circular motion is given by , a=
r
From Newton's second law the centripetal MOTION OF A CAR ON A BANKED ROAD
mv 2
force is given by F c=ma c =
r
Note that , to execute circular motion
centripetal force is essential.
The origin of the centripetal force can be
gravitational force, tension in the string, frictional
force, Coulomb force etc. Any of these forces can Consider a vehicle of mass m moving on a
act as a centripetal force. banked curve. Then various forces acting on the
1)In the case of whirling motion of a stone car are
tied to a string, the centripetal force on the 1) The gravitational force (weight) mg
particle is provided by the tensional force on the downward
string. 2) Normal force N normal to the road
2) In motion of satellites around the 3) Frictional force f s , acting parallel to the
Earth,the centripetal force is given by Earth’s road.
gravitational force on the satellites. Since there is no acceleration along the vertical
3)When a car is moving on a circular track the direction, the net force along this direction must
centripetal force is given by the frictional force be zero. Hence,
between the road and the tyres. N cos θ=mg+ f sin θ ............(1)
MOTION OF A CAR ON A LEVEL ROAD The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
components of N and f.
m v2
N sinθ +f cos θ= .............(2)
R
But f ≤μ s N
Thus to obtain v max we put f =μ s N
Then Eqn (1) and (2) become
(1)=> N cos θ=mg+μ s N sin θ ...........(3)
Fig. Forces acting on the vehicle on a levelled circular
road
N cos θ−μ s N sinθ=mg
There are three forces acting on the vehicle => N (cos θ−μ s sin θ)=mg
when it moves as shown in the Figure mg
1.Gravitational force (mg) acting downwards => N= ...............(4)
cos θ−μ s sin θ
2.Normal force (mg) acting upwards
3. Frictional force (fs ) acting horizontally m v 2max
inwards along the road (2)=> N sin θ+μ s N cos θ= ..........(5)
As there is no acceleration in the vertical R
direction N=mg ..............(1) m v 2max
=> N (sin θ+μ s cos θ)= .............(6)
The centripetal force is provided by the force R
of static friction fs between the tyre and surface of Substituting value of N (Eq 4) in Eq. (6), we get
the road. ie, Static friction opposes the impending
motion of the car moving away from the circle.
m g(sin θ+μ s cos θ) mv2max
=
mv
2 (cos θ−μ s sin θ) R
Ie, f= ≤μ s N dividing Numerator and denominator of LHS by
R
cosθ
μ RN
v 2≤ s =μ s R g g( tan θ+μ s) v max
2
m => =
[Since N=mg ] (1−μ s tan θ) R
This shows that for a given value of μ s and

1/ 2
R g(μ s + tanθ)
(Or) v max =
(1−μ s tan θ ) ............(7)
ie, maximum possible speed of a car on a

banked road is greater than that on a flat road.
1 /2
For μs =0 , v 0 =( R g tanθ) ..........(8)
At this speed, frictional force is not needed
at all to provide the necessary centripetal force.
Driving at this speed on a banked road will cause
little wear and tear of the tyres.

A cyclist speeding at 18 km/h on a level road
takes a sharp circular turn of radius 3 m without
reducing the speed. The co-efficient of static
friction between the tyres and the road is 0.1.
Will the cyclist slip while taking the turn?
Solution
On an unbanked road, frictional force alone can
provide the centripetal force needed to keep the
cyclist moving on a circular turn without
slipping. If the speed is too large, or if the turn is
too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius) or both, the
frictional force is not sufficient to provide the
necessary centripetal force, and the cyclist
slips. The condition for the cyclist not to slip is
given by Eq. v 2≤μ s R g
v =18 km/h=5 m/s => v 2=25 m2 / s2
μ s R g=2.94 m2 / s 2
2
Since v >μ s R g , cyclist will slip while taking
the circular turn.

CHAPTER 6 ie, A|=A= √( A 2x + A 2y + A 2z )
|⃗
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Problem 1
Given two vectors ⃗A=2 î+ 4 ^j+ 5 k^ and
Focus Area ^ ^ ^
B = i+ 3 j+6 k , Find the product ⃗
⃗ A .⃗B and
6.3 work the magnitudes of ⃗ A and ⃗ B . What is the
6.4 kinetic energy angle between them.
6.7 the concept of potential energy Solution
6.8 the conservation of mechanical ⃗A .⃗
B =2+12+ 30=44
energy
6.11 power Magnitude, A= √ (4 +16+25)= √ 45 units
Magnitude, B=√ (1+9+36)=√ 46 units
⃗
A.⃗
INTRODUCTION
In physics work means mechanical work.
Work is said to be done by a force, when the
θ=cos−1
AB
B
[ ]
force applied on a body displaces it.
work is also defined as ‘the product of
displacement and the component of force in the
=> θ=cos
−1 44
[
√(45 x 46)
−1
= cos
−1
] 44
45.49
0
[ ]
=> θ=cos (0.967) = 15
direction of displacement.
Energy is the capacity to do work. So it has
the same unit and dimension of work. NOTE: Geometrical interpretation of dot product
Power is the rate of change of work done.
SCALAR PRODUCT ( DOT PRODUCT)

(Not in Focus area)
If there are two vectors ⃗A and ⃗ B having
an angle θ between them, then their scalar
product is defined as ⃗ A ⋅⃗
B = ABcosθ . Here, Fig(a) : The scalar product of two vectors A and B
A and B are magnitudes of ⃗ A and ⃗ B . is a scalar : ⃗A ⋅⃗
B = AB cosθ
Properties
1.The product quantity ⃗ A ⋅⃗
B is always a scalar. Fig(b) : B cos θ is the projection of B onto A
2.The scalar product is commutative. ie,
⃗
A ⋅⃗
B =⃗
B.⃗
A Fig(c) : A cos θ is the projection of A onto B.
3.The vectors obey distributive law . ie,
⃗ B +⃗
A .( ⃗ C)=( ⃗
A.⃗
B )+( ⃗ ⃗
A . C) ie. ⃗A .⃗B =AB cos θ => magnitude of ⃗
A x
3.The angle between the vectors projection of ⃗
B onto ⃗
A
⃗
A.⃗
θ=cos−1
[ ]
AB
B ⃗
B.⃗A=B A cos θ => magnitude of
projection of ⃗
A onto ⃗
B
⃗
B x
4. ⃗
A ⋅⃗B = AB , if θ=00
⃗
A ⋅⃗B =0 , if θ=900 WORK
The work done by the force is defined to be
A . B=−AB , if θ=180 0 the product of component of the force in the
5. For unit vectors direction of the displacement and the magnitude
î . î= ^j . ^j=k^ . k^ =1 of this displacement.
î . ^j= ^j . k^ =k^ . î=0
6. In terms of components the scalar product of A
and B can be written as
⃗ B =( A x î + A y ^j+ A z k^ ).(B x î +B y ^j+ B z k^ )
A .⃗
= A x Bx + A y B y + A z B z
ie, W =Fcosθ x d
7. The magnitude of vector A is given by
⃗
A .⃗
A= A x A x + A y A y + A z A z =AA= A2 NOTE
Work done is zero in the following cases.

➢ When the force is zero (F = 0). During this process, the force on the cycle due
to the road is 200 N and is directly opposed to
➢ When the displacement is zero (d = 0). the motion.
Eg : when force is applied on a rigid wall it does (a) How much work does the road do on the
not produce any displacement. cycle ?
(b) How much work does the cycle do on the
➢ When the force and displacement are road ?
perpendicular (θ = 90 o ) to each other. Solution
Eg:when a body moves on a horizontal direction, (a) Work done on the cycle by the road = Force
the gravitational force (mg) does no work on the acting on the cycle by the road X Displacement
body, since it acts at right angles to the of the cycle X cos(Angle between F and d)
displacement
W c r =Fd cos θ=200 ×10 ×cos π =– 2000 J
(b) Work done on the road by the cycle = Force

acting on the road by the cycle X Displacement
of the road X cos(Angle between F and d)
W r c =Fd cos θ=0

In circular motion the centripetal force does not Since displacement of the road = 0 here
do work on the object moving on a circle as it is
always perpendicular to the displacement. ie, Though the force on a body A exerted by the
body B is always equal and opposite to that on B
by A (Newton’s Third Law); the work done on A
by B is not necessarily equal and opposite to the
work done on B by A.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
The energy possessed by a body by virtue
Problem 2 of its position( in a field ) or configuration ( in a
A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a state of strain) is called potential energy.
displacement of 15 m. If the angle between the Potential energy of an object at a point P is
force and displacement is 30 o , find the work defined as the amount of work done by an
done by the force. external force in moving the object at constant
[Ans : 324.76 J] velocity from the point O (initial location) to the
point P (final location). At initial point O potential
Problem 3 energy can be taken as zero.
Find the angle between force F=( 3i+4j-5k ) unit
and displacement d= ( 5i+4j+3k ) unit We have various types of potential energies.
[ Ans : cos-10.32] 1. Gravitational potential energy: The energy
possessed by the body due to gravitational force
KINETIC ENERGY gives rise to gravitational potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a 2. Elastic potential energy :The energy due to
body by virtue of its motion. All moving objects spring force and other similar forces give rise to
have kinetic energy. elastic potential energy.
3. Electrostatic potential energy: The energy
1 2
due to electrostatic force on charges gives rise to
K= m v
2 electrostatic potential energy.( Next year)
Relation between Momentum and Kinetic
Energy Gravitational Potential energy near the
P 2 surface of the Earth
K= (Or) p=√(2m K ) The gravitational potential energy (U) at
2m some height h is equal to the amount of work
required to take the object from ground to that
height h with constant velocity.
Problem 5 (Example 6.3 NCERT) The gravitational potential energy (U) at
A cyclist comes to a skidding stop in 10 m. some height h is equal to the amount of work

required to take the object from the ground to that Variation of KE and PE of a freely falling body
height h at constant velocity.
POWER
Power is a measure of how fast or slow a
work is done. Power is defined as the rate of work
F g=−mg ^j (downward) done or energy delivered.
Work done (W )
F a=mg ^j (upward) Power( P)=
Time taken(t)
d=h ^j (upward)
U= F a . d = mg ^j .h ^j=mgh
⃗ ⃗ Average power Instantaneous power
(Or) U=mghcos 0=mg h W dW
P= Pinst =
(Or) U=mgh t dt
Units
CONSERVATIVE FORCE SI Unit : watt 1 W = 1 J /s
A force is said to be a conservative force if 1 hp = 746 w 1 kW = 1000 W
the work done by the force in moving the body
depends only on the initial and final positions of Note: kWh is the unit of energy not of power
the body and not on the nature of the path 1 kWh= 3.6×10 6 J
followed between the initial and final positions.
There will be a potential energy associate Relation between Power and velocity
with a conservative force. dW
Total mechanical energy remains constant in P=
dt
a conservative force field.
The work dW done by a force F for a
Eg :Elastic spring force, Electrostatic force,
displacement dr is dW = F.dr
Magnetic force, Gravitational force, etc. ⃗
dr ⃗
Therefore P= ⃗
F. = F . ⃗v
NON CONSERVATIVE FORCE dt
A force is said to be non-conservative if the
work done by or against the force in moving a Problem 7 (Example 6.11NCERT)
body depends upon the path between the initial An elevator can carry a maximum load of 1800
and final positions. kg (elevator + passengers) is moving up with a
Eg: Frictional forces, The force due to air constant speed of 2 m/s . The frictional force
resistance, viscous force , etc. opposing the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
minimum power delivered by the motor to the
THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL elevator in watts as well as in horse power.
ENERGY (IN CASE OF A FREELY FALLING Solution
BODY) The downward force on the elevator is
F=m g+ F f = (1800 ×10)+ 4000
= 22000 N
The motor must supply enough power to
balance this force. Hence,
P= ⃗
F . ⃗v =22000 ×2=44000 W =59 hp
DO YOURSELF
1. The sign of work done by a force on a body is

important to understand. State carefully if the
following quantities are positive or negative:

Work +Ve (or) Soln) a)
- Ve
(a) work done by a man in lifting a
bucket out of a well by means of a
rope tied to the bucket.
(b) work done by gravitational force
in the above case,
b)
(c) work done by friction on a body
sliding down an inclined plane,
(d) work done by an applied force on
a body moving on a rough horizontal
plane with uniform
velocity,
(e) work done by the resistive force
of air on a vibrating pendulum in
bringing it to rest
2. A man of mass 60 kg carries a stone of

mass 20 kg to the top of a multi-storey
building of height 50m. Calculate the total energy
spent by him? (9.8m/s2 ) [March 2016]
3. From the table given below: [March 2016]
Force(N) 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement(m) 1 2 3 4 5
a) Draw the force –displacement graph.
b) How can you find the work done from
the above graph?
4. A body is pushed with a force of 3 N for 2 s

along a frictionless track. The graph shows the
velocity of the body against time. How much work
is done by the force? [March 2014]
5.A pump on the ground floor of a building can

3
pump up water to fill a tank of volume 30 m in
15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, and
the efficiency of the pump is 30%, how much
electric power is consumed by the pump ?
6 . Ramesh lifts a body of mass ‘m’ to a height ‘h’

near the surface of the earth in a time ‘t’.
a) Draw the force-displacement graph.
b) If ‘A’ is the area of the graph, what
quantity does ( At ) indicate? [March 2011]

| |
CHAPTER 7 î ^j k^
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND Then ⃗ ⃗
A x B= A x A y A z
ROTATIONAL MOTION Bx B y Bz
(Or)
Focus Area ⃗ B= î ( A y Bz −A z B y )− ^j( A x B z −A z B x )
A x⃗
7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear
velocity + k^ ( A x B y − A y B x )
7.7 Torque and angular momentum
7.9 Moment of inertia TORQUE ( τ )
7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel The torque or moment of force about a point
axes is the turning effect of force about that point and
is measured as the product of force and the
perpendicular distance between the point and the
ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION
line of action of the force.
WITH LINEAR VELOCITY
Consider a particle P, whose position vector with
We know the average angular velocity= Δ θ respect to origin O is r .
Δt
dθ
The instantaneous angular velocity ω=
dt
The magnitude of linear velocity of a particle
moving in a circle relates with angular velocity,
V =ωr
In vector form ⃗
V =⃗
ω xr
Direction of Angular velocity (ω) Let a force F act on the particle in a direction
Angular velocity is a vector quantity, whose making an angle θ with the direction of r .
direction is obtained by right hand hold rule.
Hold right hand in the direction of rotation, Then the torque about the point O ,
direction of thumb indicates the direction of ω τ =F x ON =F x r sinθ
' r sinθ ' is called moment arm of the force
ie τ =F( r sinθ)
(or) ⃗τ =⃗r X ⃗
F
NOTE
➢ Torque is the rotational analogue of force
ANGULAR ACCELERATION AND ITS ➢ The direction of torque is perpendicular to
RELATION WITH LINEAR ACCELERATION both r and F
dω ➢ If Στ =0, then the body is in rotational
The angular acceleration , α = equilibrium
dt
dV dω ➢ If ΣF=0 along with Στ =0,then the body is
Also =r since V =ωr in mechanical equilibrium.
dt dt ➢ A pair of equal and opposite forces with
(if the particle moves in a constant radius)
different lines of action is known as a
ie, a=r α couple.
➢ A couple produces rotation without
VECTOR PRODUCT (CROSS PRODUCT) translation.
(Not in focus area) Problem 1
If ⃗ A and ⃗ B are two vectors, θ be the Find the torque of a force ⃗ F =î− ^j+ k^ about
angle between them . Then the vector product
⃗ the origin. The force acts on a particle whose
A x⃗B is defined as
⃗ position vector is ⃗r =7 î +3 ^j−5 k^
A x⃗
B= A Bsinθ n^
Solution
Where n ^ is the unit vector perpendicular to Given F =î− ^j + k^ and
⃗
both ⃗ A and ⃗ B ⃗r =7 î +3 ^j−5 k^
⃗
A= A x î+ A y ^j+ A z k^ ,
In analytical form, ⃗ We know ⃗τ =⃗r X F
B =Bx î+ B y ^j+ B z k^
⃗

= 0+ τ
| |
î ^j k^
⃗r x ⃗
F = 7 3 −5 d⃗
L
ie, =⃗τ
1 −1 1 dt
F =î (3 x 1−−5 x−1)− ^j(7 x 1−−5 x 1)
⃗r x ⃗ Thus the time rate of change of angular
+ k^ (7 x −1−3 x 1) momentum of a particle is equal to the torque
=> ⃗r x ⃗ F =î (3−5)− ^j(7+5)+ k^ (−7−3) acting on it.
ie ⃗τ =⃗r X ⃗ F =−2 î−12 ^j−10 k^ Torque and angular acceleration
d⃗L
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE ( L ) We know ⃗τ =
dt
It is the rotational analogue of linear
momentum. It could also be referred to as d⃗L d dω
=> ⃗τ = = (I ω)=I =I α
moment of linear momentum. dt dt dt
Consider a particle of mass 'm' and linear ie, ⃗τ =I α
⃗
momentum 'p' at a position r relative to the origin where α is the angular acceleration.
O .The angular momentum is defined to be
⃗L=⃗r X ⃗
P Conservation of angular momentum
dL
If τ =0 , =0
Angular momentum of a rotating body dt
The sum of the moments of linear ie, L= a constant
momentum of all the particles of the body about Thus if the total external torque on a system of
the axis of rotation is called its angular particles is zero, then the total angular
momentum about that axis. momentum of the system is conserved.
Consider a body rotating about an axis. This
body is made up of a large number of particles. Example for conservation of Angular
Let one such particle of mass mi be situated momentum
at a distance r i from the axis. When there is no external torque acting ,
angular momentum will remain conserve.
Thenlinear velocity of particle , v i =r i ω Fig(a): When the dancer
Linear momentum of particle=mi v i=mi r i ω stretches out her hands,
moment of inertia
increases and angular
Moment of linear momentum of the particle about velocity decreases.
2
the axis = m i r i ω r i=mi r i ω
Therefore Total moment of momentum of the Fig(b): when the diver wants
to do a triple tuck under 2
whole body about the axis = ∑
mi r 2i ω=I ω seconds ,she can’t change
ie, Angular momentum, L=Iω the angular momentum, but
she can reduce the moment
of inertia by pulling the legs
Where, I --> Moment of inertia of the body and arms closer to the point
of rotation. So angular
and ∑
I = mi r i 2
velocity increase
( Moment of inertia will be discussed later in
detail)
MOMENT OF INERTIA (I)
Relation between angular momentum and ➢ What is the analogue of mass(measure of
torque inertia ) in rotational motion?
We know ⃗ L=⃗r x ⃗p ➢ Inertia in linear motion is the inability of a
differentiate with respect to time body to change its state of rest or of
d⃗
L d uniform motion in a straight line, without
= ( r⃗ x ⃗ P)
dt dt the help of an external force.
d r⃗ ⃗ d⃗P ➢ A corresponding property of the body in
= x P + r⃗ x
dt dt rotational motion is known as moment
= ⃗v x m ⃗v + r⃗ x ⃗
F of inertia.

➢ We know that for a body rotating about a Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder MR
2
fixed axis, each particle of the body radius R

2
moves in a circle with linear velocity v
given by the eqn v =r ω Solid sphere, Diameter 2 M R2
➢ For a particle p at a distance r i from radius R
5
the axis, the linear velocity is v i=r i ω
➢ The kinetic energy of motion of this
Thin rod, Perpendicular to M L2
length L rod, at mid point
particle is 12
1 2 1 2 2
K i= mi v i = mi r i ω THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA
2 2
➢ Therefore the total kinetic energy of the 1) Perpendicular axes theorem
body
1 2 2
K=∑ K i=∑ m i r i ω
2
➢ Note ω is the same for all particles.

Hence, taking ω out of the sum, It states that the moment of inertia of a plane
1 2 1 2 lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is
K= ω ∑ m i r i equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about
2 2
We define a new parameter characterising the two mutually perpendicular axes lying in its plane
rigid body, called the moment of inertia I , given and intersecting each other at the point where the
by perpendicular axis passes through the lamina.
If I X and I Y are the moments of inertia
I =∑ m i r 2i
of the lamina about perpendicular axes OX and
1 2 OY in the plane of lamina, then moment of inertia
Therefore K= I ω
2 of lamina about Z axis (OZ) ,
Thus “ The moment of inertia of a body about a I Z =I X + I Y
given axis is defined as the property of the body 2) Parallel axes theorem
by virtue of which it is unable to change its
position of rest or of uniform rotational motion
without the help of external torque”.
Note
➢ I is independent of the magnitude of the
angular velocity
➢ It depends on two factors: 1) mass of the
body. 2) distribution of mass about the It states that Moment of inertia of a body about
axis of rotation any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis through its
THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME RIGID centre of mass and the product its mass and
BODIES square of the distance between the two axes.
Body Axis I If ICM is the moment of inertia of the body
about an axis passing through the centre of mass,
Thin circular Perpendicular to MR
2
then the moment of inertia of the body about a
ring, radius R plane, at centre parallel axis distant a from the axis through centre
Thin circular Diameter M R2 of mass,
ring, radius R I =I CM + M a 2
2
Circular disc, perpendicular to 2 where M is the mass of the body
MR
radius R disc , at centre Problem (Example 7.10 NCERT)
2 What is the moment of inertia of a disc about
Circular disc, Diameter M R2 one of its diameters?
radius R
4
Hollow cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R2
radius R

Solution Force F = Ma Torque τ = I α
I z=I x + I y Work dW = F ds Work dW = τ d θ
Here I x =I y and I z=2 I x
2
Kinetic energy , K Kinetic energy , K
MR 1 1
But I z= K= M V
2
K= I ω
2
2 2 2
So finally,
I z MR 2 Power , P Power , P
I x= = P=F v P=τω
2 4
Linear momentum , p Angular momentum , L
P=mV L=I ω
Problem(Example 7.11 NCERT)[Imp 2019]
What is the moment of inertia of a rod of mass
M, length l about an axis perpendicular to it
through one end? DO YOURSELF
Solution 1. A ring rolls along a plane surface . Show that
For the rod of mass M and length l, the ratio between linear KE and the rotational KE
of the ring is 1 : 1
M l2 1 1
I CM = 2 2
12 KE lin 2 mv 2
mv
1
l Soln) = = =
Using the parallel axes theorem, with a= KErot 1 2 1 v 2
1
2 Iω m R2 2
we get, 2 2 R
I '=I CM + Ma2
2. A coin is rolling on a plane surface. What
M l2 l 2 M l2 fraction of its kinetic energy is rotational?
I '= +M ( ) =
12 2 3 [march 2015]
Soln)
Problem (Example 7.12 NCERT) Total KE=Translational KE+ Rotational KE
What is the moment of inertia of a ring about a 1 2 1 2
= mv + I ω
tangent to the circle of the ring? 2 2
Solution 1 1 mR 2 v 2
= m v 2+
2 2 2 R2
1 2 1 2 3 2
= m v + mv = mv
2 4 4
1 2
mv
Rotational KE 4 1
M R2 3 ∴ = =
2
I tang =I dia + M R =
2
+M R = M R
2
Total KE 3 3
2 2 m v2
4
3. Find the torque about the origin when a force of

COMPARISON OF TRANSLATIONAL AND 3 ^j N acts on a particle whose position vector
ROTATIONAL MOTION
is 2 k^ m : [NEET 2020]
Translational motion Rotational motion
about a fixed axis (1) 6 k^ Nm (2) 6 î Nm
(3) 6 ^j Nm (4) −6 î Nm
Displacement , x Angular displacement θ
Velocity ,v Angular velocity , ω 6. Match the following
dx dθ A B
V= ω=
dt dt Torque (⃗τ ) Perpendicular to
Acceleration, a Angular acceleration α ⃗r and ⃗p
dV dω Angular momentum ( ⃗
a=
dt
α=
dt
L) ∑ ⃗F =0
Rotational equilibrium ω x r⃗
⃗
Mass , M Moment of inertia , I

Linear velocity (⃗v ) ⃗r X ⃗
F
∑ ⃗τ =0
8. a) Classical dancers bring their hands closer
to their body to rotate faster. Name the
principle employed by them.
b) The rotational analogue of force is
....................
c) A solid sphere is rotating about a diameter
at an angular velocity ω. If it cools so that
the radius reduces to 1/n of its original
value, its angular velocity becomes............
Soln)a)Law of conservation of angular

momentum
b) Torque
2
c) n ω
9. Moments of inertia of a ring about an axis

passing through the centre is MR2 . The moment
of inertia about a diameter can be found using the
perpendicular axis theorem.
a) State the perpendicular axis theorem.
b) Obtain the expression for the moment of inertia
of a ring about its diameter.

CHAPTER 8 F=mg ............(2)
GRAVITATION Mm
comparing (1) and (2) G =m g
R2
GM
Therefore g= 2
8.3 Universal law of gravitation R
8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth
8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above NOTE : The mass of the earth can be calculated
the surface of earth using the values of acceleration due to gravity, G
and radius of earth. That is why the statement
UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION “Cavendish weighed the earth”.
Every body in the universe attracts every
other body with a force which is directly VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO
proportional to the product of their masses and GRAVITY
inversely proportional to the square of the The value of acceleration due to gravity (g)
distance between them. varies as we go above or below the surface of
the earth. It also varies from place to place on
m1 x m2 the surface of the earth.
F1=F 2=G
r2 1. Variation of 'g' with altitude (height)
The acceleration due to
Where the G is the Universal gravitational gravity at the surface of the earth
constant, G=6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2/kg2 given by
Definition of G
If m 1=m 2=1 Kg and r=1 m GM
Then F=G . g=
R2
ie, Universal gravitational constant is numerically
equal to the force of attraction between two unit
masses kept at a distance of 1 m apart The acceleration due to gravity at a height 'h'
Problem1 above earth's surface is given by
Calculate the exerted by the earth on the moon . GM
24
Mass of the earth is 6 x 10 kg .Mass of the gh= 2
..............(3)
22
(R+ h)
moon is 7.4 x 10 kg . Distance of the moon
5
GM
from the earth is 3.84 x 10 km .Given
(3) g h (R+ h)2 gh R2
G=6.67 x 10−11 N m2 kg−2 => = => =
Solution (2) g GM g (R +h)2
G Me Mm (R)2
F=
r2 gh R2 gh 1
=> = => =
6.67 x 10−11 x 6 x 1024 x 7.4 x 10 22 g 2 h 2 g h 2
=> F = R (1+ ) (1+ )
(3.84 x 108)2 R R
=> F=20.2 x 10 N
19
gh h
−2
=> =(1+ )
g R
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF gh 2h
EARTH
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface
If h<< R,
g
= 1− (R )
The gravitational force acting on a body on the 2h
surface of earth is
Mm
=> gh=g 1− ( R ) ............(4)
F=G 2 ...........(1) ie, As h↑ 2 h/ R↑ (1- 2h/R)↓ gh ↓

R
M- Mass of Earth Thus as we go above the surface of the
m – Mass of body earth acceleration due to gravity decreases.
R – Radius of earth
The weight experience by the body

2. Variation of 'g' with depth Variation of 'g' with depth and height from the
surface of the earth
The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of

the earth given by
GM
g= 2
.............(5) Problem1
R Calculate the value of g if a mango of mass 1⁄2
If 'ρ' is the density of the earth, then kg falls from a tree from a height of 15 meters,
M what is the acceleration due to gravity when it
ρ= .............(6) begins to fall? Given radius of the earth
V
R=6400 km
where M −mass of earth Solution
V – Volume of earth h=15 m 6
R=6.4 X 10 m
4 2h 2 x 15
( ) ( )
3
Therefore M =ρ V But V= πR gh=g 1− =g 1−
3 R 6.4 x 106
4 3
gh ≈ g
Therefore M= π R ρ ............(7)
3
Substitute (7) in (5) we will get ' g ' at the surface
of the earth in terms of density of the earth. Ie , Problem 2
At what height above Earth’s surface is the
G 4 3
g= x πR ρ value of acceleration due to gravity half of its
R 3
2
value of the Earth’s surface? (RE=6400km)
4 Solution
=> g= π R ρG ..............(8)
3 g
Given gh= h=?
2
Now, consider a point mass m at a depth d 2h
below the surface of the earth which is at a
distance (R – d ) from centre of the earth.
Here (
gh=g 1−
R ) can not be used, since
'h' is not very much smaller than 'R' .
The outer spherical shell, whose thickness g h 2 g
We can use gh= 2
=> (1+ )=
is d, will not exert any force on the body . h R gh
Let M ' be the mass of the earth of portion of (1+ )
R
radius (R−d) then. 2
h g h 2
G M' => (1+ ) = => (1+ ) =2
gd = R g /2 R
(R−d)2 h h
4
=> 1+ = √ 2 => = √2−1
But, M '= π ( R−d) ρ
3 R R
3 => h=R ( √ 2−1)=2650 km
G 4 3
Therefore gd = x π( R−d ) ρ
( R−d) 3
2
Problem 3 [NEET 2020]
4 A body weighs 72 N on the surface of the earth.
=> gd = π(R−d )ρG ..............(9) What is the gravitational force on it, at a height
3 equal to half the radius of the earth?
(9) g d ( R−d) d
(8)
=>
g
=
R
= 1−
R ( ) Solution
(A) 24 N
(C) 32 N
(B) 48 N
(D) 30 N
d
=> gd =g 1−( R ) .............(10) Weight on the surface of the earth
w s=m g s=72 N
d d
ie, As d↑ ↑ 1− ↓ gd ↓
R R

gs 72
w h=m 2
= 2
=32 N
h R/2
( 1+ ) (1+ )
R R
Problem 4
a) At what height above the earth's surface the
value of g is same in a mine of 100km deep?
b) What is the value of g at the centre of the
earth?
Solution
2h d
a) g 1−(
R
=g 1− ) ( )
R
=> 2 h=d
h 100 km
=> d= = =50 km
2 2
b) 0

CHAPTER 9 change in the shape of the body
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS
9.3 Stress and strain

3.Normal stress or hydraulic stress
9.4 Hooke’s law
9.5 Stress-strain curve
Solids
➢ In solids, atoms or molecules are tightly
fixed. This stress is developed in the body, when
➢ Solids have a definite shape and size. the applied force produces a change in the
Deforming force volume of the body.
When suitable forces are applied on a body ,
it undergoes a change in length, volume or STRAIN
shape( The body deforms) Strain measures how much an object is
Restoring force stretched or deformed when a force is applied.
When a body is subjected to a deforming Change i n dimension
Strain=
force, a restoring force is developed in the body. Original dimension
Elasticity ➢ Unit : Nil Dimension: Nil
If a body regains its original shape and size
after the removal of deforming force, it is said to
TYPES OF STRAIN
be elastic and the property is called elasticity.
The deformation caused is known as Elastic
1. Longitudinal strain
deformation.
➢ Eg : Rubber, metals, steel ropes, etc.
Plasticity
If a body does not regain its original shape
and size after removal of the deforming force, it is
said to be a plastic body and the property is
called plasticity.
➢ Eg : Glass , clay ,etc.
STRESS If the deforming force produces a change in
When a body is subjected to a deforming length, the strain so produced in the body is
force, a restoring force is developed in the body. called longitudinal strain.
This restoring force is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the applied force. Changei n length
* Stress is the restoring force per unit area. Longitudinal strain=
F Original length
Stress , σ = ΔL
A Longitudinal strain=
L
Unit : N m−2 Dimension : M L−1 T −2
TYPES OF STRESS 2. Shearing Strain

1.Longitudinal stress or linear stress
This stress developed, when the applied
force produces a change in the length of the
body. The change in length may be
elongation( tensile stress ) or compression
(compressive stress) If the deforming force produces a change in
shape of the body without changing volume, the
strain produced is called shearing strain.
Δx
Shearing strain= =tan θ ≈θ
L
2.Shearing stress or tangential stress
This stress is developed when there is a

3) Volume strain dimension.
In the portion of the curve between C and D,
if the load is increased, strain increases rapidly
even for a small change in the stress. When the
load is removed at some point, say at C between
B and D, the body doesn’t regain its original
dimension. The material is said to have a
If the deforming permanent set. The deformation is said to be
force produces a change in volume, the strain plastic deformation.
produced in the body is called volume strain. Beyond the point D, additional strain is
produced even by a reduced applied force. And
Change in volume fracture occurs at E.
Volume strain= NOTE
Original volume
If the ultimate strength and fracture points D
ΔV and E are close, the material is to be brittle.
Volume strain=
V (Fig A)
If D and E are far apart, the material is said
HOOKE'S LAW to be ductile. (Fig B)
For small deformations the stress is directly
proportional to strain.
stress ∝ strain
stress=K × strain
where , K is the proportionality constant and is
known as modulus of elasticity.
Note
➢ Modulus of elasticity depends on, nature
of the material of the body and Stress-strain curve for the elastic tissue of
temperature. Aorta
➢ Unit : N m−2 , Dimension: M L−1 T −2
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
A graph drawn with strain along x-axis and
stress along y-axis.
➢ Elastic region is very large

➢ The material does not obey Hooke’s law
over most of the region.
➢ There is no well defined plastic region.
➢ Substances like tissue of aorta, rubber
etc. which can be stretched to cause large
strains are called elastomers.
Point A – Proportional limit

Point B – Elasticlimit or yield point and
corresponding stress – Yield Stress , σ y
Point D – The stress corresponding to D is
Ultimate tensile strength , σu
Point E – Fracture point
Region O A – Hook ' s law is valid
Region AB, stress and strain are not

proportional. Still the body returns to its original
dimension when the load is removed.
If the load is increased further (beyond
elastic limit) the body cannot regain its original

CHAPTER 10 piston of larger area. A large force acts on the
piston and is pushed down expanding the brake
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FLUIDS shoes against brake lining. In this way, a small
force on the pedal produces a large retarding
force on the wheel
Focus Area
10.2.1 Pascal’s law
10.2.4 Hydraulic machines
10.4 Bernoulli’s principle(10.4.1 to 10.4.4 not
necessary)
PASCAL'S LAW & APPLICATIONS

The pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at
all points if they are at the same height. Do Example 10.5 , 10.6 NCERT
Pascal's law for pressure transmission
If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a Problem 3 (Example 10.5 NCERT)
particular point, the change is transmitted to the Two syringes of different cross-sections (without
entire liquid without being diminished in needles) filled with water are connected with a
magnitude. tightly fitted rubber tube filled with water.
Diameters of the smaller piston and larger piston
Application 1 – Hydraulic lift are 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. (a) Find the
force exerted on the larger piston when a force
of 10 N is applied to the smaller piston. (b) If the
smaller piston is pushed in through 6.0 cm, how
much does the larger piston move out?
Solution
(a)
A 1 , A 2 – The cross sectional areas of the cylinder
A2 π x (3 /2 x 10−2)2
( A1 < A2 ) F2 = x F1 = x 10=90 N
Suppose a downward force F1 is applied
A1 π x(1/2 x 10−2)2
on the smaller piston, the pressure of the liquid
(b) Since water is incompressible ,volume
under this piston increases to P
covered by the movement of smaller piston
F1 inwards is equal to volume moved outwards due
where P=
A1 to the larger piston.
According to Pascal’s law this pressure is Ie, L1 A1 =L2 A2
transmitted throughout the liquid. Then the A1 π x (1/2 x 10−2 )2
upward force on the second piston, L2= x L1= −2 2
x 6 x 10−2
F1 A2 π x (3 /2 x 10 )
F2 =P x A 2= xA −2
= 0.67 x 10 m=0.67 cm
A1 2
A2
=> F2 = x F1 Equation of continuity
A1 (Not in focus area)
Thus the applied force has been increased
A2
by a factor of is called mechanical
A1
advantage
NOTE : hydraulic lift is a force multiplying device

not energy multiplying.
Consider a pipe of varying cross sectional area
A 1 , A 2 such that A 1 > A2 .A non-viscous and
Application 2 – hydraulic brake
When we apply a small force on the pedal incompressible liquid with density 'ρ' flows
with our foot the master piston moves inside the steadily through the pipe, with velocities
master cylinder, and the pressure caused is v 1 and v 2 in area A 1 and A2 respectively as
transmitted through the brake oil to act on a shown in Figure.

The volume of the liquid going through the cross Total Work done on part of the liquid just
sectional area A 1 in a time interval 'Δt' considered
= A 1 v 1 Δt The Forces acting on this part of the liquid are
The mass of the fluid crossing the area A 1 , 1) P1 A1 , by the liquid on the left
M 1=A 1 v 1 Δt ρ ..........(1) 2) P2 A 2 , by he liquid on the right
Similarly The volume of the liquid going out 3) Δm g , Gravitational force (weight) of the
of the cross sectional area A 2 in a time interval liquid considered
'Δt' = A 2 v 2 Δt 4) N , Normal force by the walls of the tube.
The mass of the fluid crossing the area A2 ,
In time Δt the point of application of P1 A1 is
M 2=A 2 v 2 Δt ρ ...........(2)
displaced by BC=v 1 Δt . Thus the work done
Since the liquid is incompressible we must have
A 1 v 1 Δt ρ= A2 v 2 Δt ρ ............(3) by P1 A1 in time Δt is
OR A 1 v 1= A 2 v 2 ...........(4) W 1=( P1 A 1)( v 1 Δt )=P1 ( Δρm ) ...........(3)
ie, Av =a constant ...........(5)
This is the equation of continuity. Similarly the the work done by P2A2 in time Δt is
1
(5) => vα
A
. ie, at narrower portions of W 2=(− P2 A 2 )(v 2 Δt )=− P2 ( Δρm ) ..........(4)
the pipe the velocity increases and vice versa
The work done by the gravity,
Note: Equation of continuity is a statement of W 3= − ve change in potential energy
conservation of mass, in the flow of
incompressible fluid. W 3=−( Δ m g h2 − Δm g h1 )
W 3=( Δ m g h1 − Δ m g h 2) ...........(5)
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
According to this principle, the sum of The contact force does no work because it is
pressure , kinetic energy per unit volume and perpendicular to the velocity.
potential energy per unit volume of an
incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamlined Therefore, W 4 =0 ...........(6)
flow remains a constant. Mathematically,
1 2 The total work done on the liquid considered
P+ ρ v +ρ gh=a constant
2 , in the time interval Δt is ,
It is just the application of work energy
theorem in the case of fluid flow. W =W 1+ W 2 +W 3 +W 4
Proof
W =P 1 ( Δρm ) − P ( Δρm )+ Δm(g h − g h )
2 1 2
Fig: - The flow of ...........(7)

an ideal fluid of
density 'ρ' in a pipe The change in kinetic energy of the same
of varying cross liquid in time Δt (ΔKE)
section.
1 2 1 2
ΔKE= Δ m v 2− Δ mv 1 ..........(8)
2 2
By the work energy theorem , the total work done
Consider the flow at the two regions BC and DE. on the system is equal to change in kinetic energy
In a very small interval of time Δ t, the fluid at B of the system.
moves to C at the same time fluid at D moves to Ie, (7) = (8)
E.
The volume between B and C = A 1 v 1 Δt => P1 ( Δρm ) − P ( Δρm ) + Δm(g h − g h )
2 1 2
The volume between D and E = A 2 v 2 Δt 1 2 1 2

By the equation of continuity , =Δ m v 2− Δ m v 1
2 2
A 1 v 1 Δt= A2 v 2 Δt . .........(1) P1 P2 1 2 1 2
The mass of this volume of liquid is , => ρ − ρ + g h1−g h 2 = 2 v 2− 2 v 1
Δm= A 1 v 1 Δt ρ=A 2 v 2 Δt ρ ..........(2)
Rearranging

P1 1 2 P2 1 2
=> ρ + g h1 + 2 v 1= ρ + g h2 + 2 v 2 ........(9)
Multiply throughout by ρ
1 2 1 2
(9)=> P1+ρ g h1+ ρ v 1=P2 +ρ g h2 + ρ v 2
2 2
1 2
=> P+ρ g h+ ρ v =A constant
2
Hence the proof
Special Case ( Whenh1=h2 )

ie, the Flow is through a horizontal pipe.
1 2 1 2
So P1+ ρ v 1=P2 ρ v 2
2 2
1 2
ie , P+ ρ v = A constant
2

CHAPTER 11 Problem 3 (Example 11.2 NCERT)
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the
wooden wheel of a horse cart. The diameter of
MATTER the rim and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231
m, respectively at 27 °C. To what temperature
Focus Area should the ring be heated so as to fit the rim of
11.5 THERMAL EXPANSION the wheel? Given α L =1.20× 10 K
–5 –1
11.8 CHANGE OF STATE Solution

ΔL
THERMAL EXPANSION We know = αL Δ T
L
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter
to change in length, area, and volume due to a L−L0
=> =α L (T −T 0 )
change in temperature L
1 . Linear Expansion L−L0 L−L0
When temperature increases, length of a => (T −T 0)= => T =T 0 +
αL L αL L
solid (rod like structure) increases. This is called
linear expansion. 5.243−5.231 0
=> T =27+ −5
=218 C
ΔL 1.20 x 10 x 5.231
= αL Δ T
L
Problem 4 ( Do yourself – imp 2010)
Where α L −Coefficient of Linear expansion . Railway lines are laid with gaps to allow for
expansion. If the gap between steel rails 66m
2 . Area Expansion long is 3.63 cm at 100C, then at what
When temperature increases area of a solid temperature will the lines just touch? Coefficient
substance increases. This is called area of linear expansion for steel is 11x10 -6 / 0 C
expansion. 3.63 cm
[Hint : Δ L=3.63 cm , not ]
2
ΔA
=α A Δ T
A
Do Example 11.1 NCERT
Where,
Relation connecting and α L and α A
α A−Coefficient of Area expansion.
ΔL
We know = αL Δ T
3. Volume Expansion L
When temperature increases, the volume of a ΔL
Or α L= ............... (3)
substance (solid, liquid or gas) increases. This LΔT
called volume expansion. ΔA
ΔV Similarly =α A Δ T
=αV Δ T A
V ΔA
Where Or αA = ................(4)
A ΔT
α V −Coefficient of volume expansion . Δ A=(L+ Δ L)2−L2 =
2 2 2
L +2 L Δ L+Δ L −L
Problem 2 => Δ A=2 L Δ L
2
( Δ L is very small)
Eiffel tower is made up of iron and its height is 2LΔ L 2Δ L
roughly 300 m. During winter season (January) Therefore (4) => α A = 2 = =2 α L
in France the temperature is 2°C and in hot L ΔT LΔT
summer its average temperature 25°C. ie , α A =2 α L
Calculate the change in height of Eiffel tower Relation connecting and α L and α V
between summer and winter.
αV =3 α L
Given αL of iron = 10 ×10 −6 per °C
Solution Problem 5
ΔL Show that the coefficient of volume expansion at
= α L Δ T or Δ L= α L L ΔT .ie, constant pressure of an ideal gas is the
L
ΔL=10 ×10 −6 ×300 × 23=0.69 m=69 cm reciprocal of temperature ie,
1
αV =
T
Solution

The ideal Gas Equation is P V = μ R T .........(1) ➢ During change of state, the two different
At constant pressure, P ΔV = μ R ΔT .........(2) state coexist in thermal equilibrium and
μR temperature remains constant until the
Or ΔV = ΔT completion of change of state.
P
V ΔV ΔT
=> ΔV = Δ T => =
T V T
ΔV 1
=> =α V =
V ΔT T
Problem
Invar is used for making pendulum of clocks.
Why? Melting point
Solution ➢ The temperature at which solid and liquid
Invar is an alloy which has a small coefficient of coexist in thermal equilibrium with each
linear expansion. The length of a pendulum other is called melting point.
made of invar does not change with temperature ➢ The melting point decreases with
and hence the time period of oscillation remains
pressure.
the same. Hence the time shown by the clock is
Boiling point.
accurate.
➢ The temperature at which liquid and
vapour state of substance coexist in
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER thermal equilibrium with each other is
➢ Liquids expand on heating and contract called boiling point.
on cooling at moderate temperatures. ➢ The boiling point increases with pressure .
➢ Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour. It Regelation
contracts on heating between 0 C and 4 When pressure is applied, ice melts at low
C then it expands. temperature. If pressure is removed, water
➢ This means that the water has a refreezes. This refreezing is called regelation.
maximum density at 4 C .
specific heat capacity ( s )

It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1kg substance by 1 0 C or 1K .
Important environmental effect of anomalous ΔQ
expansion of water. s=
mΔT
In cold countries during the winter season,
Lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first. As a lake ➢ Unit : J kg -1 K -1
cools towards 40 C, water near the surface
become denser and sinks; the warmer, less Heat capacity (S)
dense water near the bottom rises. However, It is the amount of heat required to raise the
once the colder water on top reaches a temperature of a substance by 1 0 C or 1K.
temperature below 40 C, it becomes less dense S=ms
and remains at the surface itself. So a water body ΔQ
will not freeze from top to bottom. If water did not
Or S=
ΔT
have this property, lakes and ponds would freeze ➢ Unit : J/K
from bottom to top.
Latent heat capacity ( L )
CHANGE OF STATE There are two latent heat capacity
➢ All matter exists normally in three states
as solids, liquids or gases. Matter can be (i) Latent heat of fusion ( L f )
changed from one state to another either The amount of heat energy required to
by heating or cooling. change a unit mass solid substance at its melting

point completely into liquid in the same
temperature.
Q
Lf = Unit : J/kg
m
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation ( L v )

The amount of heat energy required to
change a unit mass liquid substance at its boiling
point completely into gas in the same
temperature.
Q
LV = Unit : J/kg
m
Temperature versus heat for water
DO YOURSELF
1) a) Match the following using the above graph.
Graph Process State

(i) B a) Melting Water
(ii) D b) Sublimation Ice
c) Regelation Partially Solid
and liquid
d) Vapourisation Partially liquid
and vapour
b) The slopes of A and C are different. Why?
c) Which part of the graph shows a greatest
amount of energy is required to change the phase
?

CHAPTER 12 Problem 1 :
THERMODYNAMICS Jogging every day is good for health. Assume
that when you jog a work of 500 kJ is done and
230 kJ of heat is given off . What is the change
in internal energy of your body?
Solution
Focus Area Work done by the system (body),
12.5 First law of thermodynamics W = +500 kJ
12.8 Thermodynamic processes Heat released from the system (body),
12.9 Heat engines Q = –230 kJ
The change in internal energy of a body,
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics Δ U =Δ Q−Δ W =– 230 kJ – 500 kJ =– 730 kJ
which describes the laws governing the process
of conversion of work into heat and conversion of
heat into work.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Thermodynamic system
(1) QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
➢ Part of the universe under study
➢ It is a collection of large number of
particles (atoms or
molecules)
➢ The system may exist in solid, liquid and
gaseous state. ( In this chapter we take a
gas inside a cylinder attached with a
piston as system for the demonstrational
convenience)
Surrounding It is a process in which a thermodynamic
➢ The remaining part of the universe except system proceeds extremely slowly such that at
system. every instant of time, the temperature and
➢ The system and surrounding are pressure are the same in all parts of the system.
separated by a wall ( not a physical wall). Example: Consider a container of gas with
➢ Diathermic wall - A conducting wall that volume V, pressure P and temperature T. If we
allows heat flow through it add sand particles one by one slowly on the top
➢ Adiabatic wall- An insulating wall that of the piston, the piston will move inward very
slowly. This can be taken as almost a quasi-static
does not allow flow of heat.
process. It is shown in the figure
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(2) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
➢ It states that the amount of heat given to a
A process in which the temperature
system is equal to the sum of the increase remains constant but the pressure and volume
in the internal energy of the system and of the thermodynamic system will change.
the external work done
The ideal gas equation is PV =μRT
Δ Q=Δ U +Δ W Examples:
➢ At constant pressure ΔW = PΔV 1) When water is heated, at the boiling point,
➢ Now Δ Q=Δ U +P Δ V even when heat flows to water, the
➢ The first law of thermodynamics is a temperature will not increase unless the
water completely evaporates. Similarly, at
statement of law of conservation of
the freezing point, when the ice melts to
energy.
water, the temperature of ice will not
➢ We adopt the following sign convention
increase even when heat is supplied to
ice.
System gains heat Q is positive 2) All biological processes occur at constant
System loses heat Q is negative body temperature (37°C).
Work done on the system W is negative Equation of state for isothermal process
Work done by the system W is positive PV =Constant .............(1)
So for an isothermal change P1 V 1=P 2 V 2

PV Diagram for isothermal process (3) ADIABATIC PROCESS
➢ A process in which no heat flows into or
out of the system (ΔQ=0).
➢ The system is insulated with an adiabatic
wall or if the process occurs so quickly
that there is no time to exchange heat
with surroundings even though there is no
thermal insulation.
Examples:
Work done during isothermal process ➢ (i)When the tyre bursts the air expands so
Consider an ideal gas which is allowed to quickly that there is no time to exchange
expand isothermally at constant temperature, T heat with the surroundings.
from initial state (P1,V1) to the final state (P2 ,V2). ➢ (ii)propagation of sound through air.
Then the work done, dW =PdV
V2 Equation of state for adiabatic process
The total work done , W =∫ P dV .......(2) PV γ =Constant .............(5)
V1 CP
μ RT where γ=
But we know PV =μ R T (or) P= CV
V γ−1
Substitute this in(1) , (or) TV =Constant .............(6)
V2 V2 1−γ γ
μ RT 1 (or) P T =Constant ............(7)
(2) => W =∫ ( ) dV =μ RT ∫ ( )dV
V
V V
V
1
V
1
Work done during an adiabatic process
=> W =μ RT [lnV ]V 21 =μ RT (ln V 2−lnV 1 ) V2
V2 W =∫ P dV .................(8)
=> W =μ RT ln( ) .............(3) V1
V1 For an adiabatic process PV γ =Constant=K
For an isothermal process , K
V 2 P1 (Or) P= .................(9)
P1 V 1=P 2 V 2 => = Vγ
V 1 P2 V2
K
So
P
W =μ RT ln( 1 ) .............(4)
Sub (9) in (8) => W = ∫ ( V γ )dV
V1
P2 V2 −γ+1 V 2
Problem 2 V
1
=> W =K ∫ ( γ )dV =K
V 1
V
−γ +1 V [ ] 1
A 0.5 mole of gas at temperature 300K expands K −γ+1 −γ+1

=> W = [V −V 1 ] ..............(10)
isothermally from an initial volume of 2 L to 6 L. 1−γ 2
(Given The value of gas constant, γ γ
But we know K=constant=P1 V 1 =P 2 V 2
R = 8.31 J mol -1K-1)
(i) What is the fi nal pressure of the gas? Therefore(10)=>
(ii) What is the work done by the gas? 1 γ −γ+1 γ −γ+1
W= [P2 V 2 V 2 −P 1 V 1 V 1 ]
Solution 1−γ
(i)For an isothermal process 1
P1 V 1=P 2 V 2=μ R T => W= [P V −P1 V 1]
1−γ 2 2
μ RT 0.5 x 8.31 x 300
Therefore P2= = 1
V2 6 x 10−3 => W= [μ RT 2 −μ RT 1 ]
1−γ
=207.75 kPa
μR
V2 => W= [T −T 1 ]
(ii) W =μ RT ln( ) 1−γ 2
V1
μR
6 x 10
−3 => W= [T −T 2 ]
W =0.5 x 8.31 x 300 ln ( ) γ−1 1
−3
2 x 10
= 1.369 kJ Problem3: Draw the indicator diagrams for
isothermal and adiabatic processes.

Solution (5) CYCLIC PROCESS
➢ A process in which the system returns to
its initial state after undergoing a series of
changes.
➢ Therefore Δ U =0 for a cyclic process.
Then by first law Δ Q=Δ W (see
second law and problem 3)
PV diagram for a cyclic process ( Example)
Note:that adiabatic curve is steeper than

isothermal curve. Th is is because γ>1
always.
(3)ISOBARIC PROCESS
➢ A process in which pressure remains
constant.
Equation of state for an isobaric process The P - V diagram for cyclic process will be
closed loop and area of this loop gives work done
P=Constant
or heat absorbed by system.
From the ideal gas equation, we have
PV =μ R T Problem 4
One mole of an ideal gas initially kept in a
μR cylinder at pressure 1 MPa and temperature
Or V= T or V αT
P 27°C is made to expand until its volume is
ie, In an isobaric process the temperature is doubled.
directly proportional to volume. ( Take γ=5 /3 and R=8.3 J mol K
−1 −1
)
(a) How much work is done if the expansion is
Work done during an an isobaric process (i) adiabatic (ii) isobaric (iii) isothermal?
V2 V2
(b) Name the processes in which the heat
W =∫ P dV => W =P ∫ dV transfer is maximum and minimum.
V1 V1
V2
(c) Show each process on a PV diagram
=> W =P [V ] V! => W =P [V 2−V 1 ] Solution
(a) (i) Work done during an adiabatic process
μR
W= [T −T 2 ]
γ−1 1
To find the final temperature T2 , we can use
adiabatic equation of state,
γ−1
TV =Constant
T 2 V γ−1
1
(4) ISOCHORIC PROCESS ie, T 1 V γ−1 γ−1
1 =T 2 V 2 => =
➢ In an isochoric process, V is constant. T 1 V γ−1
2
➢ Thus work done on or by the system is γ−1 5 2
V1
( ) 1
() 1
()
−1
zero. => T 2 =T 1 =300 3
=300 3
➢ The heat absorbed by the gas goes V2 2 2

entirely to change its internal energy and => T 2 =300 x 0.693=189.8 K
its temperature
μR 1 x 8.3
W= [T 1−T 2 ]= [300−189.8]
γ−1 2
3
=> W adia = 1.37 kJ
(ii) Work done during an isobaric process

W =P [V 2−V 1 ]=P[2 V 1−V 1 ]=2 P V 1 converts the heat supplied into work.
The working substance absorb Q H heat
To find V 1 , ideal gas law P1 V 1=R T 1 from the source ( temperature T H ) and reject Q L
RT 1 8.3 x 300 heat to the sink ( temperature T L) after doing
=> V 1= = 6
=24.9 x 10−4 m3 work W.
P1 10 A simple example of a heat engine is a
6 −4
Therefore W =2 P V 1=2 x 10 x 24.9 x 10 steam engine. The working substance in these is
=> W isobar =4.9 kJ water which absorbs heat from the burning of
coal. The heat converts the water into steam. This
steam is does work by rotating the wheels of the
(iii) Work done during an isobaric process train
3. Cold reservoir (or) Sink:
V2 5 2V1
W =μ RT ln ( )= x 8.3 x 300 ln
V1 3 V1( ) The heat engine ejects some amount of heat
(Q L) into cold reservoir after it doing work. It is
always maintained at a low temperature T L .
5 For example, in the automobile engine, the
=> W isotherm = x 8.3 x 300 ln 2=1.7 kJ cold reservoir is the surroundings at room
3
temperature. The automobile ejects heat to these
(b)In an adiabatic process no heat enters into
surroundings through a silencer.
the system or leaves from the system. In an
isobaric process the work done is more so heat
Efficiency of heat engine (η)
supplied should be more compared to an
isothermal process. output W Q H −Q L Q
η= = = =1− L
input Q H QH QH
(c) Q
ie, η=1− L
QH
HEAT PUMPS
The device used to pump heat into a portion
of space (to warm-up room) is called heat pump.
HEAT ENGINE DO YOURSELF

Heat engine is a device which takes heat as
input and converts this heat in to work by 1. Three moles of an ideal gas kept at a
undergoing a cyclic process. constant temperature of 300 K are
A heat engine has three parts: compressed from the volume of 10 litre to
1. Hot reservoir 5 litre. [imp 2012]
2. Working substance (a) Which thermodynamic process is
3. Cold reservoir involved in this process?
(b) Calculate the work done required to
Schematic diagram compress this gas.
4. A thermodynamic system is taken from an

original state to an intermediate state by the
linear process shown in Fig. Its volume is
then reduced to the original value from E to
F by an isobaric process. Calculate the
total work done by the gas from D to E to F
1. Hot reservoir (or) Source:

It supplies heat to the engine. It is always
maintained at a high temperature T H Soln) [Hint: Area of DEF]
2. Working substance:
It is a substance like gas or water, which

CHAPTER THIRTEEN molecule moves with uniform velocity.
8. The molecules do not exert any force of
KINETIC THEORY attraction or repulsion on each other
except during collision. The molecules do
not possess any potential energy and the
energy is wholly kinetic.
Focus Area
9. The collisions are instantaneous. The
13.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas
time spent by a molecule in each collision
is very small compared to the time
INTRODUCTION elapsed between two consecutive
➢ Developed by – Maxwell , Boltzman and collisions.
others in 19th century. 10. These molecules obey Newton’s laws of
➢ Kinetic theory relates pressure and motion even though they move randomly.
temperature to molecular motion of
sample of a gas . PRESSURE EXERTED BY A GAS
➢ It is a bridge between Newtonian ( KINETIC INTERPRETATION)
mechanics and thermodynamics. Consider a monatomic gas of N molecules
each having a mass m inside a cubical container
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES of side L .
➢ Gases at low pressure and high
temperature approximately satisfy the
relation PV = NKBT = µRT. Such gases
are ideal gases.
(P- Pressure, V- Volume, N-Total no of molecules
in the sample, KB- Boltzman constant , T-
Temperature in kelvin , µ – no of moles, R-
Universal gas constant. The molecules of the gas are in random
KB= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1). motion. They collide with each other and also with
Fig 1; A real gas approaches ideal gas at high the walls of the container. The molecules of the
temperature and low pressure. gas exert pressure on the walls of the container
due to collision on it. During each collision, the
molecules impart certain momentum to the wall.
Due to transfer of momentum, the walls
experience a continuous force. The force
experienced per unit area of the walls of the
container determines the pressure exerted by the
gas.
A molecule of mass m moving with a velocity
v having components (vx , vy ,vz ) hits the right
POSTULATES OF KINETIC THEORY OF side wall. Since we have assumed that the
GASES collision is elastic, the particle rebounds with
1. All the molecules of a gas are identical, same speed and its x-component is reversed.
elastic spheres. This is shown in the Figure. The components of
2. The molecules of different gases are velocity of the molecule after collision are (-vx ,
different. vy , vz ).
3. The number of molecules in a gas is very
large and the average separation The change in momentum of the molecule=
between them is larger than size of the –mvx – (mvx ) = – 2mvx
gas molecules.
4. The molecules of a gas are in a state of According to law of conservation of linear
continuous random motion. momentum, the change in momentum of the wall
5. The molecules collide with one another = 2mvx
and also with the walls of the container.
6. These collisions are perfectly elastic so In a small time interval Δt, a molecule with x-
that there is no loss of kinetic energy component of velocity vx will hit the wall if it is
during collisions. within the distance vx Δt from the wall. (see fig
7. Between two successive collisions, a below)

larger mass will have larger momentum for a fixed
speed. As a result the pressure will increase.
3.Mean square speed : For a fixed mass if we
increase the speed, the average speed will also
increase. As a result the pressure will increase.
4. Pressure of a Mixture Of Non- reactive
Gases: For a mixture of non-reactive ideal gases,
the total pressure gets contribution from each gas
in the mixture. Ie, P=P1 + P2 + P3 ...............
Therefore, the maximum number of molecules KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF
that will hit the right side wall in a time interval ∆t TEMPERATURE
= nA v x Δt where n= N/V 1 2
P= n m v
3
But, on the average, half of these are moving 1N 2
towards the wall and the other half away from the (or) P= mv ..............(2)
wall. (ie, nAvxΔt /2 molecules only hit the wall) 3V
The total momentum transferred to the wall 1 2
ie, PV = N m v ..............(3)
by these molecules in time Δt is 3
n Comparing (3) with ideal gas equation
Δ P= A v x Δ t (2 m v x )=A v 2x mn Δ t PV =N k B T ,
2
The force exerted by the molecules on the 1 2 1 2
wall (Newton's second law) is (3)=> N k B T = N m v => k B T = mv
3 3
ΔP 2 Multiply the above equation by 3/2 on both sides
F= =n m A v x
Δt 3 1 2
Therefore pressure , P is => k T= mv
2 B 2
F 2
This is the average kinetic energy of a single
P= =n m v x
A molecule (ε).
Since all the molecules are moving 3
completely in random manner, they do not have ie, KE=ϵ= k B T
2 2
same speed. So we can replace the term v x by
By multiplying the total number of gas
v 2x molecules with average kinetic energy of each
Therefore pressure P is P=n m v x
2 molecule, the internal energy of the gas is
obtained.
That is the Internal energy of ideal gas ,
Since the gas is assumed to move in
random direction, it has no preferred direction of 1 2
U=N ( m v )
motion. It implies that the molecule has same 2
average speed in all the three direction. So 3
v 2x =v2y =v 2z (or) U= N k B T
2
Therefore The mean square speed is written as
3
v 2=v 2x + v 2y +v 2z=3 v 2x (or) U= μ RT
2
Hence pressure P is
1 2 1N 2 NOTE
P= n m v or P= mv .............(1)
3 3V The average kinetic energy of each
molecule depends only on temperature of the gas
as (n= NV ) not on mass of the molecule. In other words, if the
temperature of an ideal gas is measured using
NOTE thermometer, the average kinetic energy of each
1.Number density( n) : It implies that if the molecule can be calculated without seeing the
number density increases then pressure will molecule through naked eye.
increase. For example when we pump air inside
the cycle tyre or car tyre essentially the number
density increases and as a result the pressure
increases.
2.Mass of the molecule : Since the pressure
arises due to momentum transfer to the wall,

CHAPTER 14 Solution
OSCILLATIONS 75 75
Frequency ν= = =1.25 s−1
1 minute 60 s
= 1.25 Hz
Focus Area SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

14.3 Simple harmonic motion Simple harmonic motion is a special type of
14.8.2 The simple pendulum oscillatory motion in which there is a restoring
force acting on the particle which is directly
PERIODIC MOTION proportional to its displacement from a fixed point
Any motion, which repeats itself in regular interval and is always directed towards that fixed point.
of time, is called a periodic motion.
Examples
➢ Hands in pendulum clock
➢ Swing of a cradle
➢ The revolution of the Earth around the
Sun
➢ Waxing and waning of Moon, etc.
➢ Vibration of tuning fork
Types of periodic motion
1) Rotatory motion particle vibrating back and forth about theorigin of x-axis,
Particle completes the rotation in regular interval between the limits +A and A.
of time
➢ Example : The revolution of the Earth CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM
around the Sun 1) Displacement in SHM (x)
2) Oscillatory motion Displacement of a particle vibrating in SHM
The particle moves to and fro with less frequency. at any instant is defined as its distance from the
➢ Example : Swing of a cradle mean position at that instant.
3) Vibratory motion x= A sin(ωt +ϕ)
the particle moves to and fro with large frequency.
➢ Example : Vibration of tuning fork Where x – Displacement
Note A – Amplitude
All oscillatory motion are periodic whereas all 2π
periodic motions are need not be oscillatory. ω= - The angular frequency
T
ϕ - Initial phase
Period ( T )
x= A sin(ωt +ϕ) - Phase of the motion
The smallest interval of time after which the
motion is repeated is called its period.
Unit : second If the initial phase , ϕ=0 , the displacement
Frequency ( υ ) x= A sin ω t
1
Number of repetitions per second υ= Maximum displacement
T
Unit : hertz (Hz)
x max=± A .................(9)
Angular frequency ( ω )
2π
ω= or ω=2 π υ
T

On an average, a human heart is found to beat
75 times in a minute. Calculate its frequency and
period. Displacement as a continuous function of time for simple
harmonic motion.

ie, T =2 π
√ L
g
................(30)
Frequency
Note
υ=
1 g
2π L √
................(31)
➢ Time period is independent of Mass of

Displacement as a continuous function of time for simple
the bob (m) , Amplitude of oscillations(θ)
harmonic motion. depends only on length of the
pendulum(L) and acceleration due to
gravity(g)
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
➢ Seconds pendulum
1) Simple pendulum A pendulum whose period is 2s.
➢ Length of the second pendulum
We know T =2 π
T g
2
√ L
g
Therefore L= 2
4π
22 x 9.8
For seconds pendulum L= =1 m
4 π2
From the diagram T =mg cosθ DO YOURSELF

(ie, mg cosθ cancel with the tension T in the
string.) 1) A girl is swinging on a swing in the sitting
Mg sinθ acts as the restoring force. position. How will the period of swing be affected
Therefore the restoring torque, if she stands up?
τ =−mg sinθ x L ................(25)
The negative sign shows that force acts to reduce
θ.
We know τ =I α ...............(26)
Comparing (25) and (26)
I α =− mg L sinθ .................(27)
If θ is small, sinθ ≈ θ (θ in radian)
Therefore (25) => I α =− mg L θ
−mgL
=> α= θ ................(28)
I
2
But the moment of inertia of the bob is, I =mL
−mgL
Therefore α= 2
θ
mL
−g
Or α= θ ..............(29)
L
That is, the angular acceleration of the pendulum
is proportional to the angular displacement θ but
opposite in sign. Thus the motion of a simple
pendulum swinging through small angles is SHM.
Period of simple pendulum

2 −g
Comparing a=−ω x with α= θ
L
we get ω2=
g
L
=> ω=
√ g
L
=>
2π
T
=
g
L √

CHAPTER 15 ϕ Is the initial phase which gives displacement
WAVES at x=0 at time t=0
Wave length (λ)
It is the distance between two consecutive
crest or trough.
Focus Area Period (T)
15.3 Displacement relation in a progressive it is the time taken by a particle for one
wave complete oscillations
15.4 The speed of a travelling wave Frequency (ν)
It is the number of oscillations per second
Propagation constant or angular wave
WAVE MOTION number(k)
The propagation of disturbance which 2π
carries energy and momentum from one point in k= λ
space to another point in space without the
➢ Unit: rad/m
transfer of the medium is known as a wave
Angular frequency(ω)
motion.
2π
ω=
PROGRESSIVE WAVES ( TRAVELLING T
WAVES) ➢ Unit: rad/s
A wave which travels from one point of the Graphical representation of the wave
medium to another is called a progressive wave Let us graphically represent the two forms of the
or travelling wave. wave variation
[See the appendix before proceeding further] (a) Space (or Spatial )variation graph
(b) Time (or Temporal) variation graph
DISPLACEMENT RELATION IN A
PROGRESSIVE WAVE (a) Space (or Spatial )variation graph
A transverse wave travelling in the positive
x direction can be represented as:
y ( x ,t )=A sin(kx – ωt +ϕ) .........(1)
Similarly A transverse wave travelling in the
negative x direction can be represented as:
y (x ,t )=A sin(kx+ ωt+ ϕ) .........(2) Fig: Graph of sinusoidal function y = A sin(kx)
Note: The displacement , y (x,t) is a function of x By keeping the time fixed, the change in
and t . displacement with respect to x is plotted.
From the graph ,
y= A sin(kx)=A sin(k (x+ λ))
= A sin (kx +k λ) ..........(3)
The sine function is a periodic function with period
2π. Hence,
y= A sin( kx +2 π )= A sin (kx) ..........(4)
From (3) and (4) k λ=2 π
2π 2π 2π
Where, ω= and k= λ Or k = λ rad /m ...........(5)
T
Displacement( y(x,t) (b) Time variation graph

It is the displacement from the mean position
of a particle in the medium at a point in a
particular time
Amplitude
It is the magnitude of the maximum
displacement
Phase Fig: Graph of sinusoidal function y =A sin(ωt)
It describes the state of motion of a particle
in the medium as the waves travel through. By keeping the position fixed, the change in

displacement with respect to time is plotted. 200 N. The length of the stretched string is 20.0
2π m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of
Time period is given by T= ω s the string, how long does the disturbance take to
reach the other end?
THE SPEED OF A TRAVELLING WAVE [Do yourself] [Ans: v =40 m/s ,t=0.5 s ]

A wave travelling along a string is described by,
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t), in which the
numerical constants are in SI units (0.005 m,
80.0 rad m –1 , and 3.0 rad s –1 ). Calculate (a)
The displacement of the wave at an instant t is the amplitude, (b) the wavelength, and (c) the
y (x ,t )=A sin(k x −ω t ) ..............(6) period and frequency of the wave. Also,
calculate (d) the displacement y of the wave at a
At the next instant of time tʹ = t + ∆t then position
distance x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?
of the point P is xʹ = x + ∆x. Hence, the
Solution
displacement of the wave at this instant is
On comparing this displacement equation with
y ( xʹ, tʹ)=A sin[k (x + ∆ x )−ω (t+ ∆ t)] ......(7)
y ( x ,t )=a sin( kx – ω t) ,
Since the shape of the wave remains the same
(i.e., the y- displacement of the point is a (a) Amplitude, a=0.005 m=5 mm
constant), the phase of the wave remains 2π 2π
(b) Wave length, λ= = =7.85 cm
constant. k 80
Ie, y (x ' ,t ' )= y (x ,t ) , => 2 π 2π
(c) Period, T = ω = =2.09 s
k (x + ∆ x )− ω(t+ ∆t )=k x − ω t=constant 3
=> d (k x − ω t)=d (constant ) 1
Frequency, ν= =0.48 Hz
=> d (k x − ω t)=0 => k dx – ω dt=0 T
dx (d) The displacement y at x = 30.0 cm and time
=> k dx=ω dt => =v= ω .....(8) t = 20 s is given by
dt k
y=(0.005 m) sin(80.0× 0.3 – 3.0 ×20)=5 mm
2 π /T λ
Or v= = =υ λ ..........(9)
2 π/λ T Speed of a Longitudinal Wave
(Speed of Sound)
Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched The general formula for velocity of longitudinal
string waves in a medium is given by
T
v= μ √
Where, T – Tension in the string
...........(10)
√B
v= ρ ...............(11)
mass of the string The speed of longitudinal waves in a solid bar is

μ=
length of the string
This relation can be derived using dimensional
analysis( Do yourself)
given by √Y
v= ρ ...............(12)
Problem 1 (Example 15.3 NCERT) Note:

A steel wire 0.72 m long has a mass of Liquids and Solids have higher mass densities
5.0 ×10 – 3 kg . If the wire is under a tension of ( ρ ) than gases. But the corresponding increase
60 N, what is the speed of transverse waves on in the bulk modulus (B)of solids and liquids is
the wire ? much higher. This is the reason why the sound
Solution waves travel faster in solids and liquids
−3
m 5.0 x 10 Medium Speed (m/s)
μ= = =6.9 x 10−3 m/s
l 0.72 Air ( 0 0C) 331
√T
v= μ =
√
60
6.9 x 10−3
=93 m/ s Air ( 20 0C)
Water ( 20 C) 0
343
1482
Sea water 1522
Problem 2 (Exercise 15.1 NCERT)
A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of Steel 5941

Aluminium 6420
APPENDIX
Speed of sound in a gas
1. Newton’s formula Problem 1
Newton assumed that when sound Sketch y = x −a for different values of a.
propagates in air, the formation of compression Solution
and rarefaction takes place in a very slow manner
so that the process is isothermal in nature.
For an isothermal process
PV =constant => d ( P V )=0
=> P dV +V dP=0 => P dV =− V dP
−VdP −dP This implies, when increasing the value of a, the
=> P= => P= =B
dV dV /V line shifts towards positive
ie, P=B , thebulk modulus x- direction.
Therefore velocity of sound is given by
Note : if y = x – vt and v= 1 m/s , then y = x – t
P
v= ρ√
This is Newton's formula .
...............(13)
This implies, when increasing the value of 't'
When we calculate the velocity of sound in (t=1s , 2s, 3s.......) the line shifts towards positive
air at STP using the above formula, the obtained x- direction with a velocity 1m/s.
value is 280m/s, which is about 15% smaller as
compared to the experimental value of 331 m/s. Problem 2
Laplace corrected this problem How does the wave y = sin(x − a) for a = 0,
3π
Laplace formula ( Laplace correction) a= π , a= π , a= , a=π look
4 2 4
Laplace assumed that the process is like? Sketch the waves
adiabatic. Solution
For an adiabatic process
PV γ =constant => d (P V γ )=0
γ γ
=> Pd V +V dP=0
γ−1
=> P γ V dV + V γ dP=0
γ−1 γ
=> P γ V dV =−V dP
−V γ dP −V γ dP
=> P γ= = γ =B
V dV V dV /V
γ−1
ie, γ p=B , the bulk modulus

Therefore velocity of sound is given by
v= √ γP
ρ ................(14)
For air γ = 7/5. Now using (14) to estimate the
speed of sound in air at STP, we get a value
331.3 m/s , which agrees with the measured
speed.
DO YOURSELF From the above picture we observe that the

1)A transverse harmonic wave on a string is function y = sin (x−a) shifts towards positive x-
described by direction for those values of 'a' .
y ( x ,t )=3.0 sin(36 t +0.018 x+ π /4) π , and
Where 'x' and 'y' are in centimetres and t in Further, we can take a = vt and v =
4
seconds. The positive direction of 'x' is from left to
sketching for different times t = 0s, t = 1s, t = 2s
right
etc., we once again observe that y = sin(x−vt)
(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave?
moves towards the positive x-direction. Hence,
(b)If it is travelling, what is the speed and
y = sin(x−vt) is a travelling wave moving towards
direction of its propagation
the positive x direction. If y = sin(x+vt) then the
(c) What is its amplitude and frequency?
travelling wave moves towards the negative x-
(d) What is the initial phase at the origin?

direction.
Thus, any arbitrary function of type y = f(x−vt)

characterising the wave must move towards
positive x -direction and similarly, any arbitrary
function of type y = f(x+vt) characterizing the
wave must move towards negative x-direction.
Problem 3
Check the dimension of the wave y = sin(x−vt). If
it is dimensionally wrong, write the above
equation in the correct form.
Solution
we know that (x−vt) must be a dimensionless
quantity, but x−vt has dimension.
The correct equation is y = sin (k x−ωt), where k
and ω have the dimensions of inverse of length
and inverse of time respectively.
KAMIL KATIL VEETIL

HSST PHYSICS
SOHSS AREEKODE
MALAPPURAM (DT)
PH: 96 33 87 55 43

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CHAPTER 1 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE

(Not in focus area)

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1.To check the correctness of an equation

2.To establish the relation among various

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POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND

Displacement,S= √( π R)2 +( 2 R)2

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Uniform motion (Uniform velocity)

Non uniform velocity

Velocity - time graph for uniform motion 1 1

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Position-time graph for uniformly accelerated

Acceleration = Slope of velocity-time graph

Velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated

Displacement = Area under the velocity-time

Third equation of motion

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Expression for stopping distance

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Focus Area 3.Parallel Vectors: If two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗ B

ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF VECTOR

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Time of maximum height (tm )

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Problem 5 (Example 4.7 NCERT )

problem 6 (Example 4.9 NCERT )

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Newton’s second Law IMPULSE (I)

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Static friction (fs)

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This shows that for a given value of μ s and

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ie, maximum possible speed of a car on a

Problem 9 (Example 5.10 NCERT)

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SCALAR PRODUCT ( DOT PRODUCT)

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(b) Work done on the road by the cycle = Force

W r c =Fd cos θ=0

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