Inspire Teacher's Resource Book

3 Solutions
Chapter 1: The Nature of History –

The Historian
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
Checkpoint 1.1 (page 2)
1. History: the study of the past. Prehistory: the period of time before writing was used.
2. History comes from the Greek word historia, meaning ‘knowledge from investigation’.
3. Source: anything that gives us information or evidence about a person, place or thing in
the past.
4. Clothes, coins, pottery, weapons, remains of buildings, documents, etc.
5. Archaeology: the study of the remains left by people in the past.

1. Historian: someone who is an expert in, or a student of, history.
2. Students in schools, historians and archaeologists.
3. To recognise patterns of change, to understand how human experience has shaped society
and the world, to avoid mistakes from the past, etc.
4. Historical consciousness: being able to place ourselves in past human experience, linking
the past, the present and the future.

1. Libraries, archives, museums, the Internet, etc.
2. Cross-checking: when more than one source is used to make sure the information is
correct. Artefact: any human-made object.
3. Examples of primary sources: artefacts, photographs, letters, diaries, etc. Examples of
secondary sources: movies, TV/film and radio documentaries, websites, etc.
4. [Collaborative group discussion on reliability of sources]

1. Primary source: a source from the time of the event; a first-hand account of what happened.
Secondary source: a source from a later date, after the time of the event.
2. Bias: when an account is not balanced, but unfairly favours one side. Sometimes it is
unconscious; sometimes it is deliberate, to influence others.
Propaganda: information that has been designed to influence the attitudes of the general
public. It is generally biased, often appeals to the emotions (fear, anger, loyalty) and may
even be made up.
3. Diaries, emails, letters, government records, biographies, autobiographies, etc.
96
JUNIOR CYCLE HISTORY
4. Any source that can be touched, including all artefacts (tools, weapons, clothing, furniture,
buildings, etc.), handling boxes and so forth.
5. Historians must consider: the accuracy of the source, whether or not it contains
exaggeration and whether or not it contains bias.
Working with the Evidence (page 8)

1. Primary sources, both visual.
2. To keep information ‘under your hat’ (secret) so that it would not reach the enemy and
endanger British soldiers.
3. To work for Germany. Hard times bring with them hard duties and demand hard hearts.
The poster encourages people to be strong and appeals to their sense of duty.
4. They contain bias and exaggeration. As propaganda, the posters are designed to
manipulate emotions and any statements or information they contain cannot be trusted.
5. They show how people were encouraged to think at the time, what events were
3
happening and sometimes depict common fears of the time. They also indicate how
people dressed, show artistic styles of the time, etc.
Solutions
6. Films and documentaries, in newspapers, on radio and television, etc.

1. Chronology: putting events into the sequence in which they happened.
2. Historians put events in order by: dividing time into hours, days, weeks, months and years
and grouping years into decades (10 years), centuries (100 years) and millennia (1,000
years); organising events using a common feature or theme from a period of history; using
timelines, etc.
3. (a) The eleventh century; (b) the sixth century.
4. 41 BC.
5. Reinterpretation: seeing something in a different light.
Understanding History questions (page 12)

1. Missing words: past; evidence; sources; information; prehistory; archaeology; people.
2. To recognise patterns of change, to understand how human experience has shaped society
and the world, to avoid mistakes from the past, etc.
3. A historian studies history (since the written word), whereas an archaeologist studies tactile
remains from the past, including but not only those from prehistoric times.
4. (a) beginning: 1300, end: 1399; (b) beginning: 299 BC, end: 200 BC; (c) beginning: 2000,
end: 2099.
Exploring History questions (pages 12 and 13)

1. [Research task using the online 1911 census records.]
2. To make Mussolini look as though he is in control of the horse himself; to make him look
powerful, like a military hero or general. It is a secondary source.
97
ARTEFACT TEACHER’S RESOURCE BOOK
SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK ANSWERS

Revision and Skill Building
1. Sources Task (page 1)
Primary Secondary
The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank Hitler: The Rise of Evil DVD
Mosaic from Pompeii History textbook
The New York Times Biography of Karl Marx
Email
2. Using a Timeline (page 2)

[Numbered to show their correct order on the timeline, left to right. Check that their distribution is
proportionate.]
1. (a) Newgrange passage tomb at Brú na Bóinne was complete by: 2,500 BC
2. (d) the city of Rome is founded by the twins Romulus and Remus: 753 BC
3. (h) Clonycavan Man is alive in the Irish midlands: about 283 BC
4. (c) the Romans invade Britain: AD 43
5. (j) the invention of the movable type printing press: AD 1450
6. (f) the Aztec Empire falls to Spanish conquistadores: AD 1521
7. (e) the Easter Rising takes place in Ireland: AD 1916
8. (g) all Irish women gain the right to vote: AD 1922
9. (b) World War II comes to an end: AD 1945
10. (i) Ireland joins the European Union (then called the EEC): AD 1973
How many years passed between:

a and h: 2,217 years
c and d: 796 years
e and i: 57 years
f and j: 71 years
b and g: 23 years
3. Centuries Task (page 2)
Century Start Year End Year

3rd century AD AD 200 AD 299
7th century AD AD 600 AD 699
21st century AD AD 2000 AD 2099
98
4. Timeline of Your Life (page 3)

[Check that the student has labelled the axes of the timeline as instructed, and that their ten
Crossword - Chapter 1
important events each have a year and a note and are entered in the correct sequence.]
5. Crossword: The Historian (page 4)

1
P
R
2 3
P H O
4
R C I T E P
5 6 7
S O U R C E S P L A G I A R I S M
8
H T A U G
9
C I O R T A
10
H I S T O R I C A L C O N S C I O U S N E S S
3
R T I H B D
11
O O A A A I A
Solutions
12
N R E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
13
H I S T O R Y O T G
14
L L C E N S U S R
O O F A
15
B I O G R A P H Y G A P
16
I Y Y C R O S S C H E C K I N G
A T Y
S
6. Match the Meanings: The Historian (page 5)

Across 1 2 3 4 5 Down 6 7 8 9
4. To refer
f to evidence g you havea gathered c or d 1. Information
b designed
e to appeal
i to peopleʼs
h
read [CITE] feelings and emotions, so that you can
5. Anything that gives us information or evidence convince them that you are right, or to make
about a person, place
7. Revision Questions (page 5)or thing in the past them think in a particular way
[SOURCE] [PROPAGANDA]
6. Passing off someone elseʼs work or ideas as
1. Archive: a place that catalogues and stores collections of 2. The period
written of time sources,
document before writing
e.g. was in use
oneʼstheown, without citing
National Archives. their real source [PREHISTORY]
[PLAGIARISM] 3. Someone who is an expert in, or a student of,
10. Being able to aplace
2. Museum: place ourselves
that collectsinandpast human
displays history
objects for public [HISTORIAN]
education and appreciation,
experience, linking the
e.g. the National past, the present and
Museum. 7. An account of a personʼs life written by the
the future [HISTORICALCONSCIOUSNESS] person themselves [AUTOBIOGRAPHY]
12. To3. see something
To make in a
sure that new
their or different
evidence lightand accurate.
is reliable 8. The study of the remains left by people in the
[REINTERPRETATION]
4. BC: Before Christ; AD: Anno Domini. BCE: Before Common past Era;
[ARCHAEOLOGY]
CE: Common Era.
13. The study of the past [HISTORY] 9. Putting events into the order in which they
14. An5. official survey
Three valid of a with
sources population [CENSUS]
any of their happened
limitations and benefits given. [CHRONOLOGY]
15. An account of a personʼs life written by 11. Any man-made object, e.g. pottery, a tool or a
someone else [BIOGRAPHY] weapon such as a spear [ARTEFACT]
16. When more than one source is used to make 15. An imbalanced or one-sided version of what
sure the information is correct happened. It is when someone deliberately
[CROSSCHECKING] selects evidence to make their case stronger
than others [BIAS]
99
Working with the Evidence

Source: Diary of the Rising (page 6)
1. Primary written source.
2. The day and date: Easter Monday 22 April 1916. That ‘no trains had run since 1.o’c & that
the “enemy” were in possession of H. [Harcourt] Street Station’. That ‘the Sinn Feinners
had risen & taken the G.P.O., Harcourt St., the Bank of Ireland & were strongly entrenched
in the Green’. ‘Very few soldiers about’, etc.
3. They would compare it with other sources, cross-checking them against each other.
4. Possible bias against the rebels, as the writer was a young, well-off woman living on the
outskirts of Dublin.
100
Chapter 2: The Nature of History –

The Archaeologist
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. Excavate: when archaeologists dig up the ground to find evidence left by people in the past.
2. Aerial photograph: a photograph of the ground taken from an elevated position, e.g. from
a helicopter.
3. Ruins of a building, aerial photography, research archaeology, rescue archaeology, by accident.
4. The extreme heat in a desert, airtight conditions, European peat bogs.
3
1. Test trench: a sample hole dug to judge whether it is worth excavating the whole site.
Solutions
Topsoil: the topmost, most recent layer of soil.
2. Brushes, shovels and trowels.
3. Survey; test trenches; remove topsoil; use shovels and trowels; use brushes to remove dirt
from artefacts; use sieves to catch small items; record everything; catalogue on a computer;
send items to laboratory for tests, etc.
4. To make sure they do not damage anything.

1. Radio-carbon dating: a method of dating based on the steadily dropping levels of
carbon-14 in tissue over time.
2. The Mesolithic period.
3. Hunter-gatherer: someone who hunted animals for food and gathered berries and nuts.
4. Geophysical survey: a survey of what’s underneath the ground, like an x-ray of the ground.
Pollen analysis: the study of pollen remains to tell archaeologists what was growing during
the time period.
5. The middle Stone Age was the Mesolitihic period, between 8,000 and 3,500 BC. Mount
Sandel, Co. Derry.
6. Stratigraphy: a method of dating artefacts and evidence by how deep in the ground they
were when found.
Dendrochronology: a method of dating that uses the unique growth patterns of tree rings
as a guide.

1. To be shown on timeline: the Mesolithic period, the Neolithic period, the Bronze Age,
the Iron Age.
2. The pelvis shows whether the person was male or female. Teeth can give us a rough idea
of a person’s age. Bones can show signs of disease or bad nutrition, or if they are damaged
it could be that the person’s death was violent. The thigh bone is a good indicator of
overall height. Skin or hair can be analysed for information about typical diet.
3. Conservation: when historic objects are protected and preserved so that they do not decay.
4. Documents, maps, photographs.
101

1. A primary source and visual source.
2. A test trench has been dug, small tools, e.g. trowels, are being used and items found have
been recorded and put in labelled bags.
3. Axe, brush, trowel, chisel, etc.
4. Items might be damaged by accident or missed; a site might flood or otherwise be unsafe
due to weather conditions. Other answers welcome.
5. Record the position of every artefact found. Everything is carefully drawn and
photographed. Catalogue the details of each artefact on computers and in the excavation’s
site book. Put artefacts into separate, labelled bags and then boxes, which are numbered
and sent to the laboratory for tests. Bring the artefacts to museums where they can be
displayed for people to learn from.
6. Radio-carbon dating and stratigraphy.
Understanding History (page 24)

1. People; excavating; prehistoric; historians.
2. Archaeology is our only source of information about prehistoric times, so a lot of
archaeology focuses on that era. Archaeologists work alongside historians to build a
complete picture of what life was like for people.
3. Rescue archaeology: before you can get planning permission for a road or new building,
you must make sure there is no evidence on the site that will be lost forever.
Research archaeology: when an old document, map or other records reveal that a building
or structure once existed on the site, archaeologists might then decide to investigate it.
4. Definitions can be found at the end of the chapter.
Exploring History (page 25)

1. [Short paragraph answer.]
2. This plough is a primary source and a tactile source. We can learn what methods and
objects people used for farming.

1. The Archaeologist’s Tools (page 7)
Clockwise from top left: Sieve; shovel; trowel; camera; brush.
2. Timeline: Irish Archaeology (page 8)

[The final order will depend on where the seventh item fits: the artefact each student chose on
page 2 of their Portfolio.]
1. (d) The knife marks on the bear’s bone found in Co. Clare (approx. 10,000 BC)
2. (b) The carbon-dated Mount Sandel hazelnuts (approx. 7,000 BC)
3. (e) The first farmers lived at the Céide Fields (4,000–3,000 BC)
4. (a) The building of Newgrange passage tomb (3,000–2,500 BC)
5. (f) The Brockagh Axe (2,000–500 BC)
6. (c) When Clonycavan Man was alive (approx. 300 BC)
102
3. Matching: Archaeology (page 8)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
g d h f a c b e
4. Crossword: The Archaeologist
1
P
2
O S
3
T O P S O I L T
L R
4 5
E A E R I A L
3
6
X Q U E R N T
Solutions
A C I
G H G
7 8
R C G A R
A O E E A
9
D E N D R O C H R O N O L O G Y P
I S A L H
10
O E X C A V A T I O N O Y
C R I G
11
A V G E O P H Y S I C A L
R A N S
12
B T A R T E F A C T
13
N E O L I T H I C
N O
N
Across Down
3. The topmost, most recent layer of soil 1. What archaeologists analyse to see what was
[TOPSOIL] growing during a particular time period
5. Photographs taken from a height, for example [POLLEN]
by a helicopter or drone [AERIAL] 2. A method of dating objects by how deep in the
6. A stone used for grinding corn by hand ground they were when found
[QUERN] [STRATIGRAPHY]
9. A method of dating using the unique growth 4. When something is represented as better,
patterns of tree rings worse, bigger, etc. than it is in reality
[DENDROCHRONOLOGY] [EXAGGERATION]
10. When archaeologists dig up the ground to look 5. I investigate places and objects left by people in
for evidence or artefacts [EXCAVATION] the past, including the time before written
11. A survey of whatʼs underneath the ground, like records [ARCHAEOLOGIST]
an x-ray [GEOPHYSICAL] 7. A method of dating using the falling levels
103of
12. An object made by a human being carbon 14 in animal or plant tissue
Working with the Evidence!

Source: A Report on A Dig (page 10)
1. Radio-carbon dating, stratigraphy, etc.
2. The thirteenth century.
3. Steps involved in excavating an archaeological site:
• Carry out a survey to see if the site is worth excavating.
• Dig test trenches. Trenches are measured and marked in grids so that the exact position
of anything found there can be recorded.
• Remove the topsoil using a digger or a pick axe.
• Dig very carefully to make sure they do not damage anything. Use trowels and shovels
to do this and remove smaller amounts of soil.
• Use brushes to remove soil delicately from any objects found.
• Use sieves to ensure nothing is thrown away in the soil. A sieve catches even the
smallest pieces of artefacts.
• Record the position of every artefact found. Everything is carefully drawn and photographed.
• Catalogue the details of each artefact on computers and in the excavation’s site book.
• Put artefacts into separate, labelled bags and then boxes, which are numbered and sent
to the laboratory for tests.
4. The site contains burials performed since the eleventh century. The museum might analyse
the DNA, bones, skin or hair of the bodies, make a 3D reconstruction, etc. Radio-carbon
dating and pollen analysis would be possible too, but less useful. Remind the students that
fabric and objects might also be with the bodies.
5. Answer depends on student’s research in their locality.
104
Chapter 3: Ancient Ireland

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. Because all the tools and weapons were made from stone.
2. Hunter-gatherer: people who hunted wild animals and gathered wild berries and nuts
for food.
Nomadic: people who regularly move from place to place.
Grave goods: items (like weapons) that were buried with someone when they died.
3. They made axes, spears, arrows, etc. from stone.
4. Small, circular tent. Animal skins, reeds or turf covered a basket-like structure made from
tree saplings.
3
5. Grave goods suggest that the people believed the deceased might need these items in
the next life.
Solutions
1. Farming was introduced.
2. Crops such as wheat and barley and meat from domesticated animals such as sheep
and pigs.
3. Neolithic houses had poles driven into the ground (post holes) and walls of wattle and
daub. The roof was thatched with straw or rushes. They were much bigger and more
permanent than the houses of the Mesolithic people.
4. (a) Passage tomb: huge mounds built over a central passage which led to a chamber for
the dead.
(b) Court cairn: an open space (court) at the front and a chamber originally covered by
a mound of stones (cairn) for the dead behind.
(c) Portal dolmen: Two or more standing stones and a huge capstone resting across the
top with the remains placed inside.
5. Wattle and daub: wooden sticks woven together like a basket (wattle) and covered with
a mud paste (daub).
Megaliths: large stones

1. Copper and tin are the two metals used to make bronze.
2. Metal was stronger than stone but easier to shape and mould to create tools and weapons.
3. A fulacht fiadh was a pit which was lined with stones and filled with water. Stones were
then heated in a fire and lowered into water to make it boil. The meat was wrapped in
straw and left boiling until ready to eat.
4. Jewellery was made in gold and bronze, for example bracelets, armlets, earrings, necklaces,
torcs and lunulae.
105
5. (a) Similarities between Bronze Age and Neolithic housing: wattle and daub walls,
thatched roofs.
Differences: Neolithic houses were much bigger and circular, enclosed behind wooden
fences and earthen banks
(b) A cist grave was a stone-lined grave in which the body was buried in a crouched or
foetal position with its grave goods.

1. The Celts arrived in Ireland between 500 and 300 BC.
2. The rí (king) was at the top of the tuath, with the aos dána (nobles, judges, poets, doctors,
skilled craftsmen) and warriors under him, then the peasants, and the slaves at the bottom.
3. (a) Crannóg: Human-made islands. Tree trunks were driven down into the bed of a lake
and a platform was built on top.
(b) Ring-fort: Circular enclosures surrounded by a ditch, earth bank and wooden fence.
Some also had an underground passage (souterrain).
4. La Tène style was an artistic style that originated in Switzerland, featuring spirals, florals,
fantasy animals and curved lines.
5. The Celts cremated the bodies of their dead and buried them in pits and cist graves, often
marked by Ogham stones.
6. Ogham was the first written language in Ireland. It is a series of lines and notches along a
vertical line to represent letters.

1. People who lived in Mesolithic Ireland were hunter-gatherers. They moved from place to
place, living in houses made from wooden frames covered with skins or reeds. Their tools
were made from stone and wood.
2. They were nomadic because they had to travel to where there was food. When they had
hunted all the animals in a particular area, they moved on.
3. The introduction of farming allowed them to settle permanently in a single place because
they were now able to grow their own food and were not reliant on hunting for it.
4. (a) Highly organised: building something like Newgrange would have required hundreds of
people working together over a long period of time.
(b) Skilled engineers: Newgrange has lasted over 4,000 years; the corbelled roof has
kept the inside dry and secure; the alignment with the rising sun on the shortest day
of the year.
(c) Religious: the effort they put into building burial structures tells us they had developed
beliefs about death and the afterlife. The sunlight aspect of Newgrange suggests they
might have worshipped the sun.
5. People began to build fences and trenches around their settlements, suggesting that they
feared attacks from other people.
6. Graves became smaller in the Bronze Age because the population grew and it would not
have been possible to give everyone the kind of elaborate burial seen in the Neolithic period.
7. They introduced Celtic culture, which came to define Irish identity. They brought
ironworking skills from central Europe. They were the island’s first highly organised society.
They brought the first written language (Ogham) to Ireland.
8. A great number of warriors’ items like swords, shields and spears have been found. All
Celtic homes had defensive features: fences, ditches. They were built in easily defended
positions like on lakes and on hills.
106

1. Which Era? (page 13)
Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age

Hunter-gatherers Farming Farming Farming
Stone axes Wattle and daub houses Wattle and daub houses Wattle and daub houses
Nomadic people Hunter-gatherers Cist grave Cist grave
Grave goods Portal dolmen Querns Crannóg
Stone axes Lunulae Querns
Stone mattocks Domesticated animals Domesticated animals
3
Domesticated animals Fulacht fiadh Fulacht fiadh
Solutions
Passage graves Tuath
Saddle stone Aos dána
2. Key Terms: Ancient Ireland (page 13)
Key Term Explanation

Prehistoric era Period before writing was invented
Nomadic People who regularly move from place to place
Grave goods Valuable items buried with a body
Wooden sticks woven together like a basket (wattle) and covered with a mud paste (daub),
Wattle and daub
used to make walls of houses
Megalithic Huge stones
Smelting Melting copper and tin at a high temperature, combining them to make bronze
A pit which was lined with stones and filled with water. Stones were then heated in a fire and
Fulacht fiadh lowered into water to make it boil. The meat was wrapped in straw and left boiling until ready
to eat
Post holes Remains of the saplings used to build the frames of stone age homes
Mattock Stone tool used to till the ground
Flint Stone used to make sharp tools and weapons
Tuath Word for kingdom in Celtic Ireland
Artistic style that originated in Switzerland, featuring spirals, florals, fantasy animals and
La Tène style
curved lines
A ring-fort in Celtic Ireland, with several buildings enclosed within an earthen mound, a
Rath
wooden fence and ditch
The first written language in Ireland. It is a series of lines and notches along a vertical line to
Ogham
represent letters
107
3. Ogham Alphabet (page 14)

Encourage the students to get as close to a phonetic version of their name as possible using the
Ogham alphabet.

1. Source: News Report of an Archaeological Discovery from
the Stone Age (page 14)
1. The bones were discovered in a cave high on Knocknarea mountain, Co. Sligo.
2. Radio-carbon dating has shown that the bones are some 5,500 years old.
3. Foot bones and fragments of a skull were found.
4. The adult was aged 30 to 39 and the child was aged 4 to 6 years.
5. There were not enough bones found to establish the gender of either body, especially as
they did not find the pelvises.
6. They were discovered by accident by IT Sligo archaeology graduate Thorsten Kahlert while
he was exploring the caves.
7. ‘Excarnation’ involved a corpse being laid in a cave and, after decomposition, the dry
bones being transferred elsewhere.
2. Source: News Report of an Archaeological Discovery from

the Bronze Age (page 15)
1. A ‘beaker house’ was discovered near Newgrange in 1982 alongside a crematorium and
burial ground.
2. They were discovered by workers when they were preparing to build a new tourist office.
3. They date back to 2,000 BC.
4. Archaeologists learned that people in the Bronze Age cremated the bodies of their dead
right beside the burial place.
5. The crematoria were used to burn the bodies.
6. The discovery of Bronze Age burials at Neolithic Newgrange suggests that people
continued to use it as a burial and worship site in the Bronze Age.
108
Chapter 4: Culture and Society in Early

Christian Ireland
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. The first official source about Christianity in Ireland is dated AD 431, when a bishop named
Palladius was sent to the ‘Irish who believe in Christ’.
2. Monastery: a closed religious community living by the rules of an order.
Beehive hut: an early Christian stone hut, shaped like a beehive, where monks slept.
Monasterboice, Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, etc.
Scriptorium: a room where manuscripts were copied by hand and illustrated.
Refectory: the hall where the monks ate their meals.
3
Oratory: where the monks attended Mass or prayed.
Solutions
Round tower: a bell tower and safe place for people (and treasures) if the monastery came
under attack.
Manuscript: a book written by hand, often in Latin, on sheepskin parchment or vellum (calfskin).

1. Manuscripts, metalwork and stone crosses.
2. Parchment made from sheepskin or vellum made from calfskin. Colours made from berries,
crushed acorns, powdered rocks, metals and beetles. Quills made of goose feathers,
sharpened and dipped in ink.
3. The Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong, etc.
4. Decoration was very beautiful and skilled. Metalwork was decorated in silver with gold,
amber, enamel and coloured glass. The monks also made intricate gold writing, called filigree.
5. High cross: a free-standing stone cross, usually with elaborate carvings showing biblical scenes.
6. Most people at the time could not read or write, so the scenes carved into the high crosses
helped to teach Bible stories.

1. Primary source, tactile source.
2. The sixth century AD.
3. Jewels, bishops, angels, Jesus’ crucifixion, etc.
4. Does not give us the complete artefact; information may be missing; we do not know what
it looks like fully, etc.
5. To show the monastery’s importance, to honour God, to spread the message of the Bible
(particularly the Gospels), etc.

1. A lot of land previously under the control of the Roman Empire was suddenly free to be
conquered, leading to violent conflict and competition over it.
2. The Dark Ages was a period of unrest and war from about AD 500 to 1000.
3. When Irish monks went abroad they built monasteries and spread Christianity.
4. Three of: France, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom and Germany.
109

1. Longphort: a Viking camp by the water, used as a base for raids.
Wattle and daub: a woven wooden mesh plastered with a mixture of mud, dung,
sand and straw.
2. AD 795.
3. Any two: Wood Quay, Christchurch and in the Temple Bar area.
4. Any three: glass beads, necklaces, brooches, remains of hearths and benches, workshops,
posts, wattle, toilets, rubbish pits, etc.
5. It shows that they set up towns in Ireland, building homes and streets, etc. They brought
trade to Ireland, which can be seen in the artefacts found (for example beads and foreign-
style jewellery).

1. The first official source about Christianity in Ireland is dated AD 431, when a bishop named
Palladius was sent to the ‘Irish who believe in Christ’. Between AD 432 and 461, St Patrick
worked, mainly in the north, and founded many churches and missions.
2. Any five pieces of information: Monks lived very strict, simple lives; spent their days praying
(six to eight times a day) and working; farm work included ploughing, milking, harvesting
and grinding corn; monasteries were self-sufficient and centres of learning; monks created
art to honour God and show the wealth of a monastery; monks created illuminated
manuscripts; monks were skilled craftsmen and made beautiful metalwork pieces, etc.
3. Manuscripts: the Cathach of St Columba and the Book of Kells
Metalwork: the Ardagh Chalice and the Cross of Cong
Stone crosses: the Cross of the Scriptures in Clonmacnoise and Muiredach’s Cross in
Monasterboice
4. Rich monasteries were pillaged and burned, longphorts were established and then towns
such as Waterford and Dublin were built.
5. Monasteries were founded. People in Europe were converted to Christianity. Manuscripts
were bound and illuminated.
6. Keyword definitions are at the end of the chapter.

1. Monastery Locations (page 18)
Check against Artefact page 38. To include: Derry, Monasterboice, Kells, Clonard, Tallaght,
Clonmacnoise, Inis Mór, Clonfert, Sceilg Mhichíl, Ardmore, Kildare, Glendalough.
2. The Life of an Early Christian Irish Monk (page 19)

Ideas of words and descriptions to include: monastery, monk, beehive hut, oratory, scriptorium,
manuscript, round tower, refectory, high cross, examples of artwork and monasteries, etc.
110
3. Matching: Early Christian Artefacts (page 20)

See pages 40–42 of Artefact.
Top, left to right: The Cathach of St Columba’s Shrine, the Book of Kells, the Cathach of St Columba.
Middle, left to right: Muirdeach’s Cross, the Bell and Shrine of St Patrick, the Derrynaflan Chalice.
Bottom, left to right: The Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong, the Book of Durrow.
4. Key Terms: Early Christian Ireland (page 21)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f g b a h c d e
3
5. An Early Christian Monastery (page 21)
Solutions
cemetery
oratory/church
round tower
refectory
scriptorium
fields
guesthouses
wall
111
6. Crossword (page 22)
1 2
L M
3
M O N K O
4
N R N
5 6
M G O R A T O R Y
A P U S
7 8
P A G A N H N T D
9
U O D E R H
10
S C R I P T O R I U M I
C T O Y I G
R W D H
I E C
11
P R E F E C T O R Y
T O
S
12
L O N G S H I P
Across Working with the Evidence! Down

3. A man dedicated
Source: to a religious
Analysing order and to life(page 23)
Manuscripts 1. A Viking camp by the water, used as a base fo
in a monastery [MONK] raids [LONGPHORT]
6. Where 1. the monks written
A secondary attended Mass or prayed
source. 2. A closed religious community living by the rule
[ORATORY]
2. A primary written source. of an order [MONASTERY]
7. Someone who worships various gods, often 4. A bell tower and safe place if the monastery
with a3. focus
Monks prepared the parchment with guidelines to ensure the script was evenly spaced
on nature or the earth [PAGAN] came under attack [ROUNDTOWER]
10. A room where manuscripts
within margins. Compasseswere
werecopied
used to by 5. Acircular
create accurate bookdesigns.
written by hand, often on parchment or
hand 4.
and illustrated [SCRIPTORIUM] vellum [MANUSCRIPT]
(a) It was produced at the Abbey of Roscrea, founded by St Cronan in Co. Tipperary.
11. The hall(b) where
In thethe monks
twelfth centuryate
thetheir mealswas encased8.inAa spiritual
manuscript figure
richly decorated similar
book shrine.to a priest in
[REFECTORY] pre-Christian Celtic Ireland [DRUID]
12. A Viking
boat,
(c) capable
According oflegend,
to the crossing stormy
Cronan asked seas 9. ADimma
a scribe called free-standing stone
to produce a cross,
copy of the usually with
but still shallow Gospelsenough
for him, to sail up rivers
demanding it to be ready by the nextelaborate
day. Dimmacarvings
succeededshowing
in this biblical scenes
[LONGSHIP] impossible task, as the sun miraculously did not set [HIGHCROSS]
for the next 40 days.
112
Chapter 5: An Ancient Civilisation:

Rome
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. Any three of: the writings of Romans such as Caesar, Pliny, Virgil; ruins of Roman buildings;
Roman art like wall paintings, mosaics and statues; remains of Roman towns like Pompeii.
2. Romulus and Remus, twin brothers descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas.
3. Any five of: Italy, France; Spain; Portugal; Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia; Libya; Egypt; Israel;
Jordan; Syria; Lebanon; Iraq; Turkey; Greece; Cyprus; Bulgaria; Romania; Serbia, Croatia;
Slovenia; Macedonia; Albania; Kosovo; Hungary; Austria; Germany; Switzerland; Belgium;
Netherlands; England; Wales.
3
4. No definite correct answer. Examples could include: too far from Rome; nothing here
Solutions
worth conquering; the Roman empire was overextended; difficult terrain, etc.

1. Roman towns were built on a grid system, with streets intersecting at right angles to make
rectangular blocks.
2. The large central square, the forum, was the centre of business, political administration
and religious worship.
3. Theatres, baths, amphitheatres.
4. A number of different answers are valid here.
(a) Similarities: highly organised; entertainment venues; main centres for business; piped
water.
(b) Differences: very dirty; no running water for most people, etc.

1. Patrician: wealthy Romans who ruled the city and empire. Plebeian: vast majority of the
population; the ordinary people who worked in trades, the army and as farmers. Toga:
long white robe worn by patricians, draped over the shoulder. Stola: long dress worn by
patrician women. Domus: a wealthy Roman’s house in a town. Insulae: apartment blocks
lived in by plebeians.
2. A domus was much larger and housed a single family and slaves, while an insulae was a
block of apartments that housed many families; a domus was made of stone, an insulae’s
upper floors were made of wood; a domus had a garden, an insulae apartment did not.
3. The entrance hall (atrium) had a pool to collect rainwater (an impluvium) and a shrine to
the family gods (the lararium). The domus’s other rooms included bedrooms (cubiculum),
the kitchen (culina), study (tablinum) and the dining-room (triclinium). Upstairs were the
slave quarters and there was a walled garden (peristylium).
4. The ground floor had shops or workshops. Above them were apartments. The higher ones
were smaller and made of wood. Often entire families had to share a single room. The
poorest Romans lived in these higher floors. There was no running water.
5. The upper floors were made of wood and the residents used stoves for cooking and heating.
113

1. Prisoners of war; children of slaves.
2. Working in mines, on farms, in homes doing housework, cooking or looking after children.
3. (a) Ludus: reading, writing, basic mathematics.
(b) Grammaticus (boys only): history, grammar, geometry, Roman and Greek literature.
(c) Rhetor: public speaking.
4. From the age of 12, girls stayed at home learning from their mothers how to run a
household and manage slaves.
5. For the political or financial benefit of the families involved.
6. Manumission: the freeing of a slave by their master. Conferratio: a Roman wedding
ceremony. Rhetor: teacher of rhetoric/public speaking to boys. Stylus: wooden instrument
that was used to write on wax tablets.

1. It was a good way for Roman leaders to ensure they kept the support of the public.
2. For hygiene (most homes did not have running water); to meet their friends and business
associates; for exercise; they were a free resource for the town.
3. Tepidarium: the medium-hot room at the baths. Caldarium: the very hot room. Frigidarium:
the cold water pool at the baths. Strigil: wooden instrument used to scrape oil and dirt off
the skin. Palaestra: the exercise yard at the baths.
4. The Circus Maximus was a large oval-shaped stadium with seating along the sides for over
250,000 people. There was a central island or spine down the middle that the chariots had
to race around seven times.
5. There were many crashes, and the drivers and horses were often killed.
6. A Roman theatre was a large semicircular building with stone seats for the audience facing
the stage area where actors performed.
7. To allow them to play various different people or to represent gods, monsters, etc.; to
allow men to play women; so they could be seen at the back of the theatre.
8. It was an oval-shaped amphitheatre that could hold over 50,000 spectators in tiered
seating and even had a canopy to protect people from the sun. The seats were strictly
arranged on the basis of social status. The seats closest to the action were reserved for
male patricians, the seats behind them for male plebeians, then male foreigners, then at
the very back women and slaves.
9. Most gladiators were prisoners of war.
10. Their owners spent large sums of money to buy and train them. If they died in the arena,
that investment would be wasted.
11. Animal hunts, executions of criminals, myths acted out for the crowd.
114

1. To conquer, control and defend their empire.
2. A soldier served for 25 years.
3. Sword, shield, helmet, spear, body armour, leg armour.
4. So that they would become strong and would not tire in long battles wielding the real,
lighter weapon.
5. Eight men made up a tent party; 10 tent parties made up a century; 10 centuries made up
a cohort; 10 cohorts made up a legion.
6. Answers should cover topics like weapons, training, marching and building a camp.

1. Most Roman gods and goddesses were versions of Greek gods and goddesses.
2. They worshipped them in temples by making offerings. Many households also had a small
shrine to the gods (a lararium).
3
3. A patrician would be dressed in a toga or stola and carried through the city on a litter.
Solutions
The family would hire musicians and professional mourners to walk behind the litter and
recount the person’s achievements in life. They might even organise gladiatorial fights to
honour the deceased.
4. They refused to worship the official gods of the Roman Empire.
5. The Emperor Constantine lifted the ban on Christianity and became a Christian himself.
Eventually, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

1. Concrete; engineering and mathematical skills gave rise to perfect arches and pillars,
allowing huge domes.
2. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Gradually, the huge empire
became predominantly Christian, making Christianity the most powerful world religion
over the following centuries.
3. French, Italian, Spanish, Romanian.
4. Julius Caesar introduced the 365-day, 12-month calendar that we still use today.

1. (a) The wealthy elite (the patricians) in the Senate held power in the name of the people;
(b) the emperor held total power.
2. The description should include the following features: straight streets; blocks of houses and
apartments; baths; amphitheatre; theatre; forum; temples; aqueducts.
3. Patrician (domus): bigger, large open space in the atrium with a pool to catch rainwater;
two storey; bedrooms; culina (kitchen); triclinium (dining room); elaborate decorations
(painted walls and mosaics on the floors).
Plebian (insulae apartment): smaller; upper floors made of wood; no running water; no
decoration; small number of rooms.
4. Slaves worked on public building projects, domestic chores, farms and in mines, and
educated slaves worked as secretaries to patricians or tutors for patrician children.
5. A detailed description of the main features along with a labelled diagram is required for
this answer.
115
6. (a) Similarities: large crowds; large venues; theatre and plays; sports created excitement.
(b) Differences: violence in the amphitheatre; deaths of animals in amphitheatres and
chariot racing; only male actors in theatre.
7. Legionaries were trained to fight with weapons twice as heavy as those they would use in
battle. They trained all the time to ensure they were battle-ready and were skilled with all
their weapons. They learned complex manoeuvres as group units.
8. The army was highly disciplined, very mobile and well trained.
9. There were shrines to the gods in every home and people made offerings to particular gods
depending on their needs. They built large temples and funerals were major events.
10. Constantine legalised Christianity and moved the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople.
SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK

3. Key Terms: Ancient Rome (page 28)

Patricians the wealthy noble families who ruled Rome
Plebeians the poor, who made up the vast majority of the Roman population
Toga a long white robe draped over the shoulder and down to the feet
Stola a long dress worn by Roman women
Domus a large house of a patrician
Insulae the apartment blocks lived in by plebeians
Dole a payment of free grain given to the plebeians
Forum large town square and centre for business, political activity and worship
Amphitheatres where gladiatorial games were held
Manumission the freeing of a slave by their master after years of service
Conferratio Roman wedding ceremony
Legionaries Roman foot soldiers
Monotheists people who believe in only one god
Polytheists people who believe in many different gods
116
4. Crossword: Ancient Rome (page 29)
1 2
C J
3
T I U
4
U P E R I S T Y L I U M
N C I
5 6 7
C I R O M U L U S R E M U S G
8 9
C O N C R E T E S S L I
10
N T G R A M M A T I C U S A N
F A A A D S
11
E R M X E I U
12
R L E G I O N A R I E S S U L
3
13 14
R U R M B A L L I S T A
Solutions
A S S U R A E
T S T
I I
15
P O L Y T H E I S T S N
Across Down
4. A walled garden in a domus was a 1. Chariot races were held in the
_____________ (10) [PERISTYLIUM] _____________ _____________ (6,7)
1.6.Source:
The mythicalAfounders
Roman Boy’s
of Rome wereEssay
the (page 30) [CIRCUSMAXIMUS]
brothers _____________ and _____________ 2. _____________ _____________ invented the
1. (7,5)
This is[ROMULUSREMUS]
a primary source, as it was written by a boy living at modern calendar
the time, (6,6)
in ancient [JULIUSCAESAR]
Rome.
8. The Romans invented _____________ to 3. Plebeian men wore
2. He puts on his shoes and leg wraps. He then cleans his teeth and puts on his clothes. a _____________ (5)
make their buildings more durable (8) [TUNIC]
3. [CONCRETE] 5. A roman
His ‘school attendant’ or slave, who carries the boy’s writing thingswedding wasbook.
and exercise a _____________ (11)
10. At the age of 12, boys attended a [CONFERRATIO]
4. _____________
Goes to the baths.(11) [GRAMMATICUS] 6. A gladiator who used a net and trident was a
12. Roman foot
5. (a) Slaves soldiers
helped himwere
dress,known as accompanied him _____________
wash and to school and the (8) [RETARIUS]
baths. They
_____________ (11) [LEGIONARIES] 7. A _____________ was a short sword worn by
were constantly was
13. A _____________ with atheir masters
Roman and helped them throughout
artillery the day.
a Roman soldier (7) [GLADIUS]
machine
(b) The boy(8) eats
[BALLISTA]
white bread, olives, cheese, dried figs,9.and
Plebeians
nuts forlived
lunchinand
_____________ (7)
15. As they believed
drinks water. in many different gods, the [INSULAE]
Romans were _____________ (11) 11. The god of war was _____________ (4)
[POLYTHEISTS]
(c) He wears shoes and leg wraps (to protect against the[MARS] cold) and a tunic. He wears a
cloak and scarf while outside. 14. _____________ was the language of the
Roman empire (5) [LATIN]
(d) The boy learns to read and write using wax tablets and also uses a ruler. He shows a
lot of respect to his teacher, greeting him politely, asking permission to return home
for lunch, listening to him while he reads in the afternoon.
117
Chapter 6: Life and Death in Medieval

Times
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. Vassals: nobles who were granted land by the king in return for their loyalty.
Fief: a vassal’s grant of land from the king.
Oath of fealty: the loyalty owed by a vassal to the king or by a peasant to their lord.
2. Diagram should be similar to the one on Artefact page 66. A pyramid with a king/queen
on top and under them the lords, then the knights, then the peasants.

Weapons and armour: swords, shields, helmets, spears, arrows, axes, chainmail.
The Normans, as they have the others surrounded, are attacking from the height of their horses,
the horses make them much quicker and more manoeuvrable.

Students should be able to identify the different stages of plowing, planting, tilling, etc., the
dangers posed by the birds to the seeds, how the farmers deal with them and the various tools
and plows used.

1. Oats – porridge and pottage; wheat – bread; barley – beer.
2. The church and the manor house were usually the only stone buildings because stone was
more expensive to build with and the lord and priest were the only ones who could afford it.
3. Tithe: tax on peasants – a tenth of their income went to the local priest.
Open field system: peasants farmed the land in large open fields divided into strips of crops
for each family.
Fallow: leaving one field of three empty each year to allow it to regain its nutrients.
Commons: large field in the manor used to graze the animals of the peasants.
Bailiff: local man who ensured the lord’s orders were carried out, kept the peace and
collected taxes.
4. Any two: Serfs needed permission to marry, freemen did not; freemen could leave the
manor at will, serfs could not; freemen paid rent to the lord instead of working for free on
his land.
5. A serf lived in a small one-room house with wattle and daub walls, a beaten mud floor and
a thatched roof.
6. A peasant’s clothes were handmade from wool or linen.
7. Male serfs worked in the fields and hunted.
Female serfs looked after the house, cooked, made clothes, looked after their children and
small animals such as chickens and goats.
8. On Sundays and holy days, there would be village games (such as wrestling), drinking,
singing and dancing.
118

1. Lords built castles in the Middle Ages to protect themselves from attacks and to have a
base to run their lands from.
2. A motte was a small artificial hill with a wooden tower or keep at the top. Below this hill
was the bailey, a large enclosed area surrounded by a high wooden fence and a ditch
or moat.
3. The main defensive features of a castle were curtain walls, towers, ramparts, a drawbridge,
a gatehouse and a portcullis.
4. High walls and well-armed soldiers made castles difficult to capture; if they had enough
food stored and access to water, they could hold out against a siege for a long time.

1. The parents of the couple would arrange a marriage to form an alliance between their two
families and following the payment of a dowry (sum of money or land) to the husband.
3
2. A solar was a room for the family/lady of the castle at the top of the keep.
3. The lady of the castle oversaw the castle’s daily life, ordering the servants, supervising
Solutions
the storage and preparation of food and looking after her children’s early education.
She would act in her husband’s place if he were absent from the castle.
4. Running his lands, training his soldiers, hunting.
5. Medieval feasts were held in the Great Hall. The meat served was from their farm animals or
those caught while hunting: beef, pork, mutton, duck, deer, pheasant or rabbit. Forks were
not used; instead people ate from large pieces of hard bread called trenchers. Entertainment
was provided by musicians, called minstrels, and comedy performers, known as jesters.
6. Any two: the size of his castle, the exotic food he served, the spices he used, clothes made
from silk.

1. Any three: Knights wore full body armour; fought on horseback; were nobles; far fewer of
them in an army than foot soldiers.
2. A number of different answers possible here. They were peasants and therefore
expendable to the lord. They needed to be more manoeuvrable so didn’t have armour
weighing them down.
3. Page: at the age of seven, a boy would be sent to live with the family of another lord. He
would learn to ride a horse, use a sword, sing and dance. He was taught manners, helped
the lady of the castle and served the lord and lady at table.
Squire: at the age of 14, the boy began to learn to fight on horseback. He would
accompany the lord into battle, look after his horse and weapons and help the lord dress
for battle and tournaments.
4. Fostering: the practice of sending a son to be reared with the family of another lord.
Dubbing: the ceremony where a squire became a knight.
Oath of chivalry: oath sworn by knights promising to be loyal to their lords, protect the
poor and weak and be brave in battle.
5. Knights engaged in tournaments to keep their skills up between wars; to win prizes
and fame.
119

1. Most were built near rivers on the coast to allow easy trading.
2. They had high walls, gates controlled entry and there were guards employed by the town.
3. A house in a medieval town was made of wood, usually several storeys high with the
higher floors sticking out over the street.
4. Charter: the contract from the king that set out the rights of the town in return for taxes
paid to the crown.
Fair green: a large open space outside the walls where fairs were held.
Curfew: people had to extinguish their fires at sundown.
5. The streets were dirty, as people threw their rubbish out on to them; people lived very close
together; animals roamed freely carrying disease with them.

1. Shops had picture signs because many people could not read.
2. Guilds were organisations that regulated a trade in a town. All the craftsmen were
members and they set down rules about prices, quality and workshops. They looked after
the older members and the families of members who died.
3. Apprentice: a boy who went to learn a trade from a craftsman by living and working in
his workshop.
Journeyman: after seven years as an apprentice, a journeyman could be paid for his work
and would travel around offering himself for work.
Master craftsman: a craftsman who had been admitted into the guild and could open his
own workshop.
Masterpiece: to become a master craftsman, a craftsman would prepare an example of his
work to be judged by the guild.

1. Means ‘the kingdom of Christ’. Europe was called this during the Middle Ages, as nearly
everyone was Catholic.
2. The Pope was the head of the head in Rome. Under him were the cardinals, then the
bishops ruling each diocese, then the priests in the parishes and finally monks and nuns in
their monasteries/convents.
3. Kings gave them land and wealth.
4. The priest was often the only person who could read and write; life was centred on
religious holidays.

1. People joined monasteries and convents so they could dedicate themselves to the service
of God.
2. Abbot: head of the monastery.
Sacristan: prepared the church for Mass.
Infirmarian: looked after the sick.
Almoner: gave help to the poor.
Hosteller: looked after visitors to the monastery.
120
3. Cloisters: covered walkways where monks could pray in silence.

Dormitory: where monks slept.
Scriptorium: where monks produced hand written books/manuscripts.
Refectory: where the monks ate.
4. Monasteries were the first places to offer education to children based on ability, to provide
help to the poor and the sick and they also provided places for travellers to stay.
5. Tonsure: monks hair was shaved on the top of their heads.
The Rule of St. Benedict: the set of rules that monks had to live their lives by.
Habit: the long woollen tunic worn by monks.
6. Monks stayed in their monasteries, while friars travelled around serving the poor and
the sick.

1. Medieval medical practices were based on the writings of ancient Greek doctors, for
3
example Hippocrates.
2. People believed that an imbalance between the body’s four humours (blood, black bile,
Solutions
yellow bile and phlegm) caused illness.
3. The main treatments for illness in the Middle Ages were leeching, bleeding, cupping
and amputation.
4. Diseases spread easily: because people had no idea about cleanliness; they lived close
together; towns were very dirty; animals and animal waste were everywhere.
5. Doctors did not assist at childbirth; women could bleed to death during birth or get
infections afterwards.
6. The Black Death was a plague that swept across Europe from 1347 to 1350, killing
one-third of Europe’s population.
7. It was spread by fleas, which could be transported long distances quickly on rats, helping
the plague to spread from region to region at speed.
8. The symptoms were oozing swellings all over the body, darkly discoloured skin and the
filling of the lungs with phlegm.
9. People responded with prayer, by fasting and beating themselves with whips to repent of
their sins and often by blaming minorities in communities, such as the Jews.
10. As many peasants died, there were fewer people to work the land. Those who remained
demanded better conditions from their lords.

1. The feudal system was the system that controlled society in the Middle Ages. The king was
at the top and granted land to nobles who became his vassals and they promised him taxes
and soldiers in return. They then gave land to knights who in turn rented it to peasants.
2. The land was split into three large fields which were used to grow wheat, barley and oats.
These were then split into long strips for each peasant family to farm. There was also a
large field, the commons, for grazing animals.
3. Noble families sent their sons to each other for training as knights (fostering) and arranged
marriages between their children.
4. (a) Duties of the lord: running his lands, training his soldiers, acting as a judge and hunting.
(b) Duties of the lady: running the castle, supervising servants, organising feasts, rearing
her children.
121
5. There were no serfdom in the towns and people had more freedom. There was a wide
range of trades and types of work available.
6. The guilds regulated the craftsmen in each trade in a town: set prices, wages, standards,
etc. They decided who got to be a craftsman and looked after old and sick members and
the families of dead members.
7. People become monks and nuns in the Middle Ages to dedicate their lives to God. Also,
especially for poor boys and all girls, monasteries and convents were their only chance to
gain an education in the Middle Ages.
8. People lived in crowded, dirty towns overrun with animals. They had limited medical
knowledge, based on the writing of ancient Greeks, which had little to do with the reality
of the body.
9. The Black Death caused Europe’s population to fall by nearly a third. This meant that
peasants were able to demand better treatment from their lords in return for continuing to
work the lands.

1. A Castle Under Attack (page 33)
1. (a) The defenders are pouring oil or tar on the attackers.
(b) The attackers are undermining the wall.
(c) The attackers are climbing the walls on a ladder.
(d) The attackers are using a siege tower.
(e) The attackers are using a battering ram to break the wall.
(f) The attackers are using a catapult to hurl stones at the castle.
(g) The attackers are hiding behind an arrow shield.
(h) The drawbridge is being pulled up.
2. The soldiers inside the castle are trying to defend it by firing arrows and pouring boiling oil
on the attackers.
3. The attackers have put down wooden planks so the siege towers can be rolled across.
4. Using different machines and methods would allow them to find the one most effective
against a castle and also to divide the attention of the defenders.
5. The castle is on fire, possibly from flaming arrows shot by the attackers, and there are large
holes in the walls from the balls/stones fired from the catapult and from the undermining
of the walls.
6. Any of the various ways of attacking is a valid answer here once they are backed up
with explanations.
122
2. Training in the Middle Ages (page 34)
Name of stage Age What happens then?

Knight
Stage 1 Page 7 Learned to ride a horse, basic combat skills, served lord at table
Learned to fight with weapons, accompanied the lord into battle,
Stage 2 Squire 14
looked after the lord’s weapons and horse
Stage 3 Knighthood 21 Dubbing ceremony during which the knight swore the oath of chivalry
Master Craftsman
Lived with a master craftsman, worked in his workshop, learned
Stage 1 Apprentice 12
from him
Can now be paid for his work, goes from workshop to workshop
Stage 2 Journeyman 19
gaining experience
3
Stage 3 Master Presents a masterpiece to a guild as an application for membership
Solutions
Monk
Learned to follow the monastic rules, to read and write Latin, study
Stage 1 Novice 15
church teachings and history
Swore vows of poverty, chastity, obedience. Received his habit
Stage 2 Monk
and tonsure
3. Key Terms: The Middle Ages (page 35)

the system of land ownership where rulers (kings, lords) divided land among their followers
Feudal system
in return for loyalty and taxes
Vassals the men the king granted land to under the feudal system
Fief the land granted to a vassal
the people who worked on a lord’s land. Serfs were the property of the lord and very few rights.
Peasants
Freemen had more freedom to do as they wanted but still had to pay rent, taxes and tithes
Tithe the payment of one-tenth of a peasant’s annual income to church
Open field system the system of farming where all peasants were given strips of land to farm in large fields
Fallow one field was left empty every year to allow it regain its nutrients
The commons large field on the manor used for the grazing of the peasants’ animals
official on the manor who was in charge of collecting taxes and maintaining order when
Bailiff
the lord was away
Knights warriors from noble birth who rode horses
first stage of becoming a knight. At seven, a boy would be sent to live with the family of
Page
another lord to begin his training
second stage of becoming a knight. At 14, the boy would learn to fight and assist
Squire
the lord
contract from a king where the town was granted freedom to run its own affairs but had to
Charter
pay taxes to the king
123
Oath of chivalry sworn by a knight to be loyal to a lord and protect the weak
Toll a tax for entry into a town
Curfew rules that required people to put out their fires at night in towns
Guild organisation of people who worked in the same trade
the first stage in becoming craftsman, where a boy went to live and work with a master
Apprentice
craftsman
the second stage in becoming a craftsman, where a craftsman could be paid for his work
Journeyman
and travelled around getting more experience
a piece of work presented to the guild to judge if someone was good enough to become a
Masterpiece
master craftsman
Christendom the ‘kingdom of Christ’, referring to Europe
a monk in training who learned Latin, the rules of the monastery and the duties of being
Novice
a monk
The Rule of St. Benedict the strict set of rules that monks had to live by
Friars monks who travelled around the countryside tending to the poor and the sick
The Black Death the bubonic plague which wiped out huge numbers of people in Europe
Wordsearch
4. Wordsearch: The Middle Ages -(page 37)
Chapter 6
O Q T A R B K M S L P H L G E C U R F E W C F T C
A Q Q T N E L I F K E X S F R M H M O P K Y R G L
P Z A Q T L N M K M A N I Y N F B I A E T O I L C
G H Z T D H N F A Q S V B E V V N U V M E W A B F
X M O I J P G U A L A S D K C Z W F C A F W R R F
K M F Y E E I R C U N E G K J E Q X W H L U D W Q
I W I B J A X N Z Y T R D O N W E F L I T R R Q H
C P L A G U E D F J L F S X T E R R G H Y P Y B H
P J V C H R I S T E N D O M G H V O X U R S A W B
I O N T Y Q D O X E B B Z E G M I L W I I Q S G G
X B T S Z N P O E Z T S I B W T N C Q T T L U Y E
T C M O Y O M N W X L S H V P D S R L J X L D E K
F I Y V C T U P X R U D L B Q S T G Q D L L R L K
K G T W R D L Z K B Y I V T U P Q F A L L O W W F
U R F H Z M E R R O K X H V Z U M V F Z Y T O J J
F A S Y E A P P R E N T I C E G W S O C X U H H U
U I S U H D L P X J V G W R E K M U T V D F N Q S
Peasant Motte Page Christendom Serf Siege Plague

Apprentice Tithe Friar Guild Fallow Chivalry Curfew
Dowry Gothic
124

1. Source: Aerial Photograph of a Medieval Castle (page 37)
1. (a) walls; (b) battlements; (c) keep; (d) gatehouse; (e) moat.
2. Anything made of wood, such as the keep, is missing (might have deteriorated over time,
burned, or been destroyed during conflicts).
3. Castles like this were built to protect the lord and his family, to be the base from which he
could run his land.
4. It is located near a river which would provide the castle with water, as well as adding to the
castle’s defences.
5. The inside of this castle would have been cold, dark and damp because the walls were very
thick, the windows were very small and the fireplaces were small for the large rooms they
had to heat.
2. Source: Writings on the Life of a Cistercian Monk (page 38)
3
1. The Cistercian order is being described here.
Solutions
2. The writer describes the regulation the monks followed as ‘severe’.
3. Two tunics with hoods; nothing else; nothing made with furs or linen.
4. The monks’ work is looking after the sick and the ‘stranger’ (visitor).
5. They ‘inflict intolerable tortures’ on their own bodies.
6. People became monks and nuns to live a life free from sin and become closer to God.
3. Source: Letter Describing the Black Death (page 39)

1. This is a primary source, as it is an account from the time describing what the writer saw at
first hand.
2. The disease was brought by sailors.
3. It was transmitted by breath.
4. The symptoms of the disease were pains all over the body, lack of energy (lassitude),
pustules on the arms or legs, bloody vomiting.
5. It lasted three days before the sick person died.
125
Chapter 7: Medieval Ireland

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. A: Wall of a house/boundary fence
B: Wooden footpath/wattle mat (see page 45)
C: Ranging rod/measuring pole
2. Any three: Homes in Viking Dublin were made from wattle and daub; people lived very close
together; wooden pathways linked the houses/formed streets; fences divided the houses.
3. A: Swords
B: Axe head
C: Spear head
D: Arrow head
E: Shield centre
4. Any two: they were skilled metal workers; weapons were common and diverse; warfare
and/or violence was probably a regular feature of life.

Discussion to lead in to Checkpoint 7.1; answer in Q.1.

1. The first Viking settlements were built on the coast and beside large rivers. Both of these
locations would help the Vikings to raid the rest of the country and trade with the outside world.
2. Viking Dublin was protected by a ditch and an earthen mound with a high wooden fence
on top. In the late eleventh century, stone walls were built around Dublin. The houses
were made of wattle and daub with thatched roofs. The town was full of craftspeople like
blacksmiths, carpenters, jewellers and leather-workers.
3. We know that the town expanded over time because: a second set of walls was built
around the earlier settlement; a suburb was built on the north side of the Liffey in the
eleventh century.
4. Evidence at Wood Quay shows that the following craftspeople worked in Dublin:
blacksmiths (metal working, making tools and weapons), carpenters (woodworking),
jewellers (fine, artistic metalwork) and leather-workers (tanning, shoemaking, etc.).
5. The Gaelic Irish attacked Dublin for its trade goods and its riches.
6. At the Battle of Clontarf, a Gaelic Irish alliance led by the High King Brian Boru defeated
the Vikings of Dublin and their Irish allies.

1. In France, the Vikings settled in Normandy.
2. The Normans invaded England in 1066, when William of Normandy laid claim to the
English crown after the death of King Edward the Confessor.
3. Dermot MacMurrough sought help from Henry II because he had been driven out of his
kingdom of Leinster by the High King, Rory O’Connor. Henry II refused to help outright but
did allow MacMurrough to recruit Norman knights to help him.
126
4. MacMurrough promised Strongbow his daughter’s hand in marriage and the kingship of
Leinster after his death.
5. Norman advantages over the Irish in battle: the use of horses and archers; better armour
and swords; battle tactics were more coordinated than those of the Viking and Irish armies.
6. Henry II came to Ireland in 1171 because he was worried that Strongbow was getting too
powerful and would become the ruler of Ireland.
7. Many of the Irish kings swore allegiance to Henry in the hopes that Norman expansion
would be slowed or stopped.

1. Fishamble Street: fish were transported up this street from the port to the market;
Winetavern Street: where all the taverns/pubs were located; Cook Street: where the
bakeries were located.
2. Where corn from outside the town was brought in for sale.
3
3. Where the town’s large fair was held.
4. Students might comment on the variety of trades in the town, the expansion as the town
Solutions
grew, the focus of power in Dublin Castle and Christ Church Cathedral.

1. Dublin needed walls to protect it from attacks by the Gaelic Irish.
2. The Vikings and Gaelic Irish had been banned from living inside the walls of Dublin.
3. The Liberties were areas outside the city walls that did not have to pay taxes.
4. The city council passed a law that every householder had to clean the street in front of
their house and fined them if they did not. Animals were banned from wandering the
streets. In 1305, three watchmen were appointed to patrol the streets at night. In 1224,
a conduit was built to bring fresh water into Dublin from the mountains, and in the
fourteenth century the main streets were paved.
5. (a) Imports to Dublin: wine from France and iron and pottery from Britain.
(b) Exports from Dublin: included hides, grain and pulses.

1. Two of: The Annals of the Four Masters; archaeological remains; the writings of Gerald
of Wales.
2. Along the coast and near the mouths of large rivers. (Two of) Dublin, Cork, Wexford,
Limerick, Waterford, Wicklow.
3. The Vikings made Dublin into a busy trading centre for goods and also slaves. Coins from
English towns have been found and Dublin was regularly attacked for its wealth.
4. The Normans conquered Ireland relatively easily because of their superior weapons, horses
and battle tactics.
5. Only the west and north of Ireland were left under Gaelic control after the Norman conquest.
6. It was the seat of royal power in Ireland, where the king’s representative lived. It needed
the walls for protection from attacks by the Gaelic Irish.
7. The Liberties, Irishtown (the Gaelic Irish), Oxmantown (the Vikings).
8. Fishamble Street – fish transported to and from the port; Winetavern Street – inns or
taverns sold wine or beer; Cook Street – bakeries; the Cornmarket – the sale of corn and
other grains.
127
9. The Normans [any two]: built castles; introduced the English language, culture and laws
to Ireland; introduced Norman names (e.g. FitzGerald); shifted towards tillage farming and
away from cattle; introduced the feudal system to Ireland.
10. Students are to draw a timeline and enter the dates below on it, in this sequence.
795 The first Viking raid on Ireland
841 Dublin is founded by the Vikings
1014 The Battle of Clontarf
1066 The Battle of Hastings
1167 Dermot MacMurrough is expelled from his kingdom in Leinster
1169 The Normans invade Ireland
1190 A great fire destroys Dublin
1317 A Scottish army lays siege to Dublin
1320 The founding of a university at St Patrick’s Cathedral
1348 The arrival of the Black Death in Dublin

Crossword(page 41)
1. Medieval Ireland crossword - Chapter 7
1 2 3
P B F
4 5
C O N Q U E R O R D U B H L I N N
6
D I W S
7
D B L A C K P I T T S H
L N N A
E B E M
8 9 10
I C O O K S T R E E T B
11
R R A O L W
12 13
T R I M U V L I B E R T I E S
S E L X
14
C H R I S T C H U R C H F
T N O
15 16
W O O D Q U A Y F O U R
W D
N
Across Down
4. William the _____________ [CONQUEROR] 1. Dublinʼs vanished river [PODDLE]
5. The black pool [DUBHLINN] 2. The king who won and lost the Battle of
7. Black Death mass burial site [BLACKPITTS] Clontarf [BRIANBORU]
9. Probably the site of the start of the great fire of 3. Walking food street in medieval Dublin
1190 [COOKSTREET] [FISHAMBLE]
12. Norman castle outside Dublin [TRIM] 6. Dublin street for drinking houses
13. No taxes but no protection [LIBERTIES] [WINETAVERN]
14. Cathedral in Dublin [CHRISTCHURCH] 8. Where the Gaelic Irish lived [IRISHTOWN]
15. Archaeological site of medieval Dublin 10. Tax to be paid for entry [TOLL]
128 [WOODQUAY] 11. Viking town [WEXFORD]
16. How many Masters? [FOUR]
2. Key Terms: Medieval Ireland (page 42)

Scandinavian invaders who attacked Ireland from the late eighth century onwards;
The Vikings
founded settlements along the coast, such as Dublin
Wood Quay the main archaeological site in Dublin
battle in 1014 when a Gaelic Irish alliance led by Brian Boru defeated the Vikings of
Battle of Clontarf
Dublin and their Irish allies
Dermot MacMurrough King of Leinster who sought Norman help after he was expelled from his kingdom
Richard de Clare, Norman knight who organised and led the Norman invasion of Ireland
Strongbow
and became King of Leinster after Dermot MacMurrough
descendants of the Vikings who settled in Normandy in France and conquered England
The Normans
and Ireland
3
Christ Church Cathedral built in the twelfth century as the main church for the bishop of Dublin
The Liberties areas outside the city walls that did not have to pay taxes
Solutions
The Pale the area around Dublin directly under the control of the English king
descendants of the Norman conquerors who adopted many Irish customs and intermarried
Anglo-Irish
with the leading Gaelic families
Irishtown area south of the Liffey where the Gaelic Irish were forced to live outside the city walls

1. Source: Report on the Wood Quay Protests (page 43)
1. Dublin Corporation wanted to build its civic offices on Wood Quay.
2. Combs, pottery, swords and jewellery, whole streets and houses, bone and leather factories
and slaughterhouses from the tenth and eleventh centuries were found at Wood Quay.
3. About 20,000 people marched in September 1978.
4. Academics wore their gowns and young people dressed up as Vikings.
5. No, the offices were built anyway.
6. Wood Quay was the best link to Dublin’s Viking past. Its destruction was the loss of an
invaluable historical resource.
129
Chapter 8: The Renaissance

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
1. ‘Renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’. It refers to the period in European history (c. 1350–1650)
when there was a rebirth of interest in Ancient Greek and Roman culture.
2. Humanism is the idea that human beings should be at the centre of everything and we
should think about the world in terms of the lives people live.
3. Why the Renaissance began in Italy (any three): ruins of Ancient Rome; the fall of
Constantinople; wealth from trade; new ideas from trade; wealthy patrons; competition
between the city states.
4. A patron was a wealthy person who commissioned (hired) an artist to produce a work of
art for them, for example the de Medici of Florence or the popes in Rome.
5. Any of the reasons is valid once it is backed up with an explanation. A good answer will
highlight the role of money.

Students might comment on things such as the colours, the shape of the bodies, the differences
in the faces, the different subject matter, the backgrounds, the detail or realism.

1. Medieval subject matter: usually religious
Renaissance subject matter: mythology, portraits, nature, religion, everyday life
2. (a) Medieval paint – egg yolk mixed with powdered colour pigments (egg tempera)
(b) Renaissance paint – oil mixed with colour pigments
3. Fresco: painting done directly onto a wall while the plaster is wet.
Sfumato: blurring or smudging lines and colours in a painting to soften textures and create
a ‘smoky’ effect.
Perspective: the creation of depth and distance in paintings; a three-dimensional effect.
Anatomy: the study of the structure of the human body.
4. Renaissance artists made their paintings more realistic by: painting people as they saw
them, with attention paid to details like body shape and facial features; including light and
shadow in their paintings; using perspective to create the sense of three dimensions in
their work.

1. Leonardo da Vinci is considered the ideal ‘Renaissance man’ because his interests and skills
ranged over many areas: such as painting; science; anatomy; engineering.
2. He was an apprentice to Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. He was trained to prepare
paints, learned to sketch and put the finishing touches to his master’s works.
3. Success: use of perspective, realism of the figures, excellently captured the scene.
Failure: because he painted with oil and tempera onto a dry wall instead of wet plaster, the
paint has peeled off and deteriorated.
4. Sfumato.
130
5. Leonardo dissected corpses so that he could better understand the human body and more
accurately depict it.
6. Some machines that Leonardo imagined and drew in his notebooks: submarines,
helicopters, tanks, gliders, parachutes, cannons, aeroplanes, etc.

Students might comment on differences such as the forms of the bodies, the clothing or lack
thereof, the realism, freestanding sculpture vs attached to the wall.
Checkpoint 8.2. (page 106)

1. Michelangelo studied the work of Donatello closely and was invited to join the de Medici
sculpture academy.
2. His patron Lorenzo de Medici had died in Florence.
3. The Pietà: the Virgin Mary cradling the body of Jesus after it was taken from the cross;
3
or David: the young David before he kills Goliath (five metres high; intended to show the
perfect human body; detail of muscles and proportion of the limbs is excellent).
Solutions
4. Yes – the Pope was constantly interfering and he had to lie on his back for months to paint
the ceiling.
5. The words ‘il Divino Michelangelo’ on his tomb were a tribute to the quality of his work,
meaning that his talents and skill must have been God-given.

1. In Europe before the printing press, books were copied by hand, often by monks.
2. Gutenberg’s printing press: first, individual metal letters (the movable type) were assembled
to make words on a frame. Then they were coated with ink and the frame pressed onto
paper. The paper sheets would be dried and later bound into a book.
3. Effects of the printing press (any two): more books were produced; books were cheaper;
more people learned to read and write; people read for entertainment; the Church’s
control over learning and ideas was reduced; the use of Latin declined as people started to
write books in the vernacular.
4. The vernacular is the everyday language spoken by people in their native country.

1. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-on-Avon, England, in 1564.
2. His plays were performed at the Globe Theatre in London.
3. Comedies: A Midsummer’s Night’s Dream; Much Ado About Nothing; The Merchant
of Venice.
Tragedies: Hamlet; Romeo and Juliet; Macbeth.
Histories: Henry V, Richard III, Julius Caesar.
4. His work is still performed and studied today because (any approximation of these): his
understanding of human nature is universal (people continue to identify strongly with
his characters); because his language is beautiful and inventive; his themes and plotlines
are dramatic.
131

Students should note the far greater realism in the Renaissance drawing: the formation of the
limbs, the muscles, the stance, the correct positions of the body parts and so on.

1. Andreas Vesalius’s book, On the Fabric of the Human Body, was full of correct information
and contained 270 accurate drawings of the human bones, muscles, veins and organs.
2. Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body.
3. William Harvey discovered that the heart pumped blood around the body.
4. Main differences: in medieval medicine, sickness was thought to be caused by imbalances
between the four humours, but Renaissance medicine proved these did not affect health
in that way; medieval medicine was based on ancient beliefs that were not backed up by
facts, while Renaissance doctors did research and sought to base their treatments on actual
observations and facts about the body.
Students may make other valid points.

1. Before the Renaissance, people believed that the sun rotated around the Earth.
2. Galileo’s Law of Falling Objects: all objects fall to ground at the same speed regardless of
their weight.
3. Galileo’s astronomical discoveries (any two): the surface of the moon has craters and
mountains; the rings of Saturn; the four moons of Jupiter; sun spots.
4. Galileo’s writings showed that the Earth was not the centre of the universe and that it
rotated around the sun, which went against Church teachings.
5. Galileo’s trial by the Inquisition tells us that the Church at the time was very powerful and
was not prepared to allow anyone to challenge its teachings.

1. Any three: visible ruins of Ancient Rome; the fall of Constantinople; wealth from trade;
new ideas from trade; wealthy patrons; competition between the city states. A good
answer will mention money.
2. Rich patrons could pay artists to produce works, so there was more art being produced as
artists could earn a good income and focus on developing their art.
3. Perspective – The Last Supper
Sfumato – The Mona Lisa
Realism – David
4. Most students will answer ‘Yes’ and detail Michelangelo’s achievements in paintings
and sculpture.
5. The printing press was such an important invention during the Renaissance because it
allowed the production of books cheaply and in bulk. New ideas were able to spread much
more quickly and more people learned to read and write as a result.
6. Advances in the study of anatomy meant that medical treatments could be based on real
knowledge of the body and how it works.
7. Galileo tried to prove that the earth was not the centre of the universe, which went against
Church teachings. He was put on trial and had to say he was mistaken. Instead of being
burned at the stake, he was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life and forbidden
to publish anything else.
132
8. Students are to draw a timeline and enter the dates below on it, in this sequence. The
timeline should be in proportion and the dates spaced accordingly.
1451 The Gutenberg Bible was published
1452 Birth of Leonardo da Vinci
1453 The Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople
1492 Christopher Columbus sailed to America
1495 Leonardo painted The Last Supper
1501 Michelangelo sculpted David
1517 Martin Luther began the Reformation in Wittenberg
1564 Death of Michelangelo
1603 Shakespeare wrote Hamlet
1632 Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
9. (a) It is very realistic; the bodies are all the right size and shape; use of sfumato.
3
(b) The Catholic Church had banned dissections.
(c) Either Andreas Vesalius or William Harvey.
Solutions
(d) Artists like Michelangelo and da Vinci studied anatomy so they could more realistically
paint and sculpt the human body.
(e) Any medical or scientific discovery here is valid.

1. The Works of the Renaissance (page 46)
Work Artist, author, inventor Description of work

The Last Supper Leonardo da Vinci Painting of the moment Jesus declared that one of
the apostles would betray him. Shows great use of
perspective to create depth. Is in poor condition due to
the paint being applied to a dry wall
The Pièta Michelangelo Statue of Mary cradling the body of Jesus after it was
taken down from the cross
The movable type Johannes Gutenberg Individual metal letters were assembled into words on a
printing press frame, then coated in ink and the frame pressed onto paper.
The printing press allowed books to be mass-produced
On the Fabric of the Andreas Vesalius Book that contained detailed and accurate drawings of
Human Body the human body based on his study of anatomy
Macbeth William Shakespeare Tragedy, play
Dialogue Concerning the Galilei Galileo His book proving the Earth revolved around the sun
Two Chief World Systems
133
2. Key Terms: The Renaissance (page 47)

Renaissance Means ‘rebirth’. The period in European history that saw huge changes in art, literature and science
the idea that human beings should be at the centre of everything and we should think about the
Humanism
world in terms of the lives people live
Patron a wealthy person who supported the work of artists by commissioning them to produce works of art
Fresco a method of painting directly onto wet plaster
a painting technique that blurs or smudges lines and colours to soften textures and create a
Sfumato
‘smoky’ effect
Perspective the creation of depth and distance in painting
Anatomy the study of the how the human body works
Movable type a method of printing books that placed individual metal letters into a frame to form words, coated
printing press them with ink and pressed the frame onto paper
Vernacular language as spoken by people in their native country
Sonnet a 14-line rhyming poem popular during the Renaissance
Astronomy the study of the stars and planets
3. The Magic Square (page 48)
A9 B2 C7
D4 E6 F8
G5 H 10 I3
Magic number: 18
1. Source: A Renaissance Portrait (page 49)
1. The Duke is painted realistically, ‘warts and all’. The landscape in the background
shows perspective.
2. Evidence that the Duke of Urbino was a wealthy man: his clothes; the fact that he could
afford to have a portrait painted.
3. Lorenzo de Medici; Cosimo de Medici; Pope Julius II/the Church in general.
4. Patrons provided the finance for artists to create their best works and also to compete with
each other through art.
134
2. Source: Michelangelo’s Apprentice (page 50)

1. Primary source: it was written by somewhere who was there at the time.
2. Twenty months.
3. The urgency of the Pope.
4. Immense satisfaction.
5. Their relationship was difficult: as the Pope pressured Michelangelo to finish quicker and
threatened him.
3
Solutions
135
Chapter 9: The Age of Exploration and

Conquest
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] European writers will view the cultures through their own
experiences and judge them by European standards. They do not understand what they are
writing about or the reasons for the various practices they observe, and in many cases, they
did not speak the language.

1. Sailors could get lost easily and could run out of food. They feared sea monsters and falling
off the edge of the world.
2. (a) The Renaissance: encouraged people to think about the world in different ways; desire
to explore the world and understand; influence of Ptolemy’s Geographia.
(b) Trade routes: European demand for silk and spices from the east meant that people were
looking for ways to get there to make money, especially after the fall of Constantinople.
(c) The desire for empire: European rulers wanted to discover new lands to expand
their territory.
(d) Religion: European rulers were Catholics who wanted to spread their faith to new lands.
3. Any reason is valid here once it is properly backed up with an explanation.

1. Mapped harbours and coastlines more precisely, recording information like currents, tides
and depth.
2. (a) Calculate longitude: a quadrant and an astrolabe
(b) Show direction: compass
(c) Measure speed: log and line
3. Large square sails to catch the wind for propulsion and triangular (lateen) sails to sail into the wind.
4. Planks fitted edge to edge. These were far lighter, so ships could be made bigger, could have more
masts and could carry more men and supplies.
5. (a) Harsh discipline was used to keep order. Men were flogged (whipped) or put in chains
for breaking minor rules. Execution was common. This was to prevent a mutiny
breaking out.
(b) Food that would last for long voyages tended to be dry and very salty. When the crew
ran out of meat and vegetables, they ate flat hard bread made from water, flour and
salt called ship’s biscuit.
(c) Disease: the lack of fresh water led to typhoid and the lack of foods rich in vitamin C
(such as citrus fruit) led to scurvy, which caused exhaustion, tooth loss, vomiting and
eventually death. Disease spread easily as the sailors lived in close quarters on the ship.
136

1. Portugal was ideally located on the edge of Europe and close to Africa. Its kings wanted to
find new trade routes that could make Portugal rich enough to protect itself from its more
powerful neighbours, especially Spain.
2. He founded the school for navigation at Sagres to bring together sailors and cartographers
to advance knowledge and to perfect naval technology.
3. (a) Dias sailed around the southernmost tip of South Africa (the Cape of Good Hope)
in 1487.
(b) da Gama sailed around Africa to India in 1497.
4. They set up an empire along the African and Indian coasts; controlled the trade around
Africa; Portugal became wealthy; other countries sought to follow Portugal’s example.

1. On the Mediterranean and along the African and European Atlantic coasts.
3
2. He read the works of Marco Polo and Ptolemy and studied a map by Toscanelli and these
convinced him that China was only 4,500 km to the west.
Solutions
3. If they sponsored his voyage, he would claim any lands he discovered for Spain and he
would then be appointed governor, to rule those lands on behalf of Spain.
4. They had travelled so far into the Atlantic and not found land. Their food was running out.
Columbus lied to them about how far they had come, keeping two log books, one that
was fake to reassure the crew and one that accurately recorded their distance.
5. He landed on an island in the West Indies in the Caribbean, which he called San Salvador.
He believed he had reached Asia.
6. Fruit and vegetables (pineapples and maize); animals (parrots); some of the native
people; gold.
7. He was accused of mistreatment of the native people and poor leadership.

1. Columbus believed he had landed in India and so the people he found there must
be Indians.
2. Food (potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, coffee, chocolate, maize, tea), animals (turkey).
3. The artist paints them wearing little clothing, in costumes which are very different to those
of the Europeans, they look less civilised.

1. Human sacrifice; many gods; used wood and stone weapons; no metal tools; no horses,
cattle, sheep.
2. He had heard rumours of their great wealth.
3. He burned his ships upon landing so that his men would have no choice but to follow him.
4. Their god, Quetzalcoatl, returned from across the sea as promised in their mythology.
5. The Spaniards started to steal from the Aztecs and tried to rule through their king,
Montezuma.
6. Cortés laid siege to the island with a massive army and they built a small fleet to cross the
lake and attack the island.
137

1. He had heard rumours about the wealth of their kingdom.
2. At Cajamarca, in order to provoke the Incas, Pizarro sent them a priest and the Bible. When
the Inca king rejected it, Pizarro attacked and captured the king, Atahualpa.
3. The Incas promised to fill an entire room with gold and silver.
4. The Incas were in chaos, as they were without a king after Atahualpa’s execution by
the Spaniards.

1. Colonisation is when a country takes over another territory and settles some of its own
people there to control it. Britain colonised North America, Spain colonised Mexico, Portugal
colonised Brazil, the Netherlands colonised the Spice Islands (modern-day Indonesia), etc.
2. The people of South America had no immunity or resistance to European diseases and
millions were wiped out.
3. Ships sailed to African slaving ports, where they loaded up with slaves to bring to the
Americas. They then sailed back to Europe, laden down with food and precious materials
from the Americas. They brought European goods (e.g. cotton, glass, iron or guns) to Africa
to trade for more people to transport as slaves.
4. Spain in South America; Portugal in South America and Africa; Britain in North America
and India; France in North America and Africa.
5. They were all competing for the same territory and resources. Examples: Spain/Portugal;
Spain/England; England/France.
6. The ‘Columbian exchange’ was the exchange of foods and animals between Europe and
the Americas. Horses, cattle, sheep, new farming methods and new technologies (like
steel) were introduced to the Americas and foods like potatoes, chillies, avocado, cocoa
(chocolate), coffee, tomatoes and tobacco reached Europe.

1. The Renaissance encouraged the challenging of old ideas, like the idea that the Earth was
flat. It also saw the growth of science, which helped with the invention of new instruments
and ships.
2. Demand was high for spices in Europe. The supply through Constantinople had been cut
off. Anyone who could find a new route to the East could make huge sums of money and
so many people, including kings, were prepared to invest in the voyages to find a new
route to the East.
3. New ships like the caravel; new instruments like the compass, astrolabe, quadrant, etc. to
accurately measure distance, position and speed; new maps (portolan charts) accurately
recorded the information.
4. Any of the above mentioned is valid, once the explanation focuses on how it helped
advance the process of discovery.
5. The Portuguese started by making short voyages along the African coast. In 1487, Dias
sailed all the way around the southern-most tip of the African continent, which afterwards
became known as the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497, da Gama sailed around the Cape, up
the east coast of Africa and across the Indian ocean to reach Calicut in India.
6. People still believed the world was flat. Columbus did not know how far the voyage was,
so he nearly ran out of food. His sailors became anxious and threatened to mutiny. He did
not realise that an entire continent lay between Europe and Asia.
7. They had superior weapons (guns, metal swords, armour) and the use of horses.
138
8. Some were killed in violence and conflict, but most died due to European diseases
(smallpox, measles, etc.), as they had no immunity or resistance to these.
9. Millions of Africans were transported across the Atlantic as slaves to work on plantations in
the New World.
10. Spain, Portugal, England, France, the Netherlands.
SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK

3. Timeline: Exploration and Conquest (page 53)
1453 The fall of Constantinople
1487 Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope
1492 Columbus lands in the New World
3
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas signed between Spain and Portugal
Solutions
1497 Da Gama sails to India
1497 John Cabot claims North America for England
1499 Columbus is removed as Governor of the Indies
1519 Cortés conquers the Aztec Empire
1528 Pizarro conquers the Incan Empire
1585 War breaks out between England and Spain
4. The Technology of Exploration (page 53)
Name Function
Used to determine the position of a ship relative to the equator by measuring the
astrolabe
position of the stars
compass Used to identify north and so determine the direction a ship was sailing
log and line Allowed a ship to measure its speed accurately
lateen sails Triangular sails that allowed the ship to sail into the wind
A ship that was large and sturdy enough to make long voyages and able to sail in
caravel
all winds
rudder Made the ship easier to steer
139
5. Voyages of Exploration (page 54)
Explorer Discovered Consequence of his voyage

Bartolomeu Dias Rounded the Cape of Good Hope Allowed future voyages to sail around Africa
Sailed around Africa to India Established there was a viable trade route around
Vasco da Gama
Africa to Asia
Discovered the Americas The Americas were colonised by Europeans; millions of
Christopher Columbus
native Americans were killed
Ferdinand Magellan Sailed around the world Proved the world was round
John Cabot Discovered North America England colonised North America
Abel Tasman Discovered Australia England colonised Australia
Crossword
6. Crossword: Exploration - Chapter(page 55)
and Conquest 9
1
P
2 3 4
I C I R C U M N A V I G A T E
Z O O S
5 6 7 8
S M A G E L L A N C A T H A Y V
M R O Q R A
9 10
A R N U P O T A T O E S
L O I I L O C
11 12
L S A N S A L V A D O R O
P A T A B D D
13 14
J O H N C A B O T A T E E A
15
X O I D E S G S
16 17
M G O O D H O P E P I N T A L
P N R N L M A
A E L A V
18
S A Z T E C S A E
19
S S A G R E S
Across Down
2. Verb: to sail around the world 1. Conqueror of the Inca Empire [PIZARRO]
[CIRCUMNAVIGATE] 2. Process of a country taking over another
6. First man to sail around the world territory and settling some of its own people
[MAGELLAN] there to control it [COLONISATION]
7. Name for China during the Age of Exploration 3. Spanish soldiers who invaded South America
[CATHAY] [CONQUISTADORES]
9. A food introduced to Europe from the Americas 4. Instrument used to measure latitude
[POTATOES] [ASTROLABE]
11. Island in the Bahamas where Columbus first 5. Disease that killed millions in South America
landed [SANSALVADOR] [SMALLPOX]
13. Claimed North America for England 8. Sailed around Africa to India
[JOHNCABOT] [VASCODAGAMA]
140 16. Cape of _____________ _____________, the 10. Treaty that prevented war between Spain and
tip of Africa [GOODHOPE] Portugal [TORDESILLAS]
17. Columbusʼs three ships were the Nina, the 12. Triangular sails, originally used in the

1. Extracts from Columbus’s Diary (page 56)
1. Any rephrasing of this content: ‘all young and of fine shapes, and very handsome. Their hair
was not curly but loose and coarse like horse-hair… Their eyes are large and very beautiful’.
2. He tried to find out if they had any gold.
3. The native people gave the Spaniards parrots, balls of cotton and spears and they received
glass beads and hawks’ bells.
4. Yes, they would be easy to conquer. They didn’t know anything about weapons and he thinks
fifty armed men could conquer them.
5. He looks down on them: he thinks they would be easily conquered and they trade valuable
things for glass beads. He compliments some of their characteristics (they are very handsome),
but even this is in negative terms (they would make good servants).
2. A Spanish Priest Bears Witness (page 57)
3
1. About 7,000 children died while de las Casas was in Cuba.
Solutions
2. Their mothers had no milk to nurse them. They were malnourished.
3. Men died in the mines, women from overwork and starvation.
4. The Spaniards had no more consideration for the native people than for ‘beasts’ and only
wanted their gold.
5. The author’s sympathy is with the native people – he describes the Spanish as committing
‘villainies’, of treating the native people like beasts. They, on the other hand, are ‘meek and
patient’ and he is clearly horrified by their deaths: ‘I tremble as I write’.
141
Chapter 10: The Reformation

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
On the left, Jesus is washing and kissing the feet of the apostles, symbolising his service to them
and the rest of the world. On the right, princes and bishops line up to kiss the feet of the Pope,
symbolising that they are now his servants, the exact opposite of what Jesus had intended.

1. The surge in learning, science, culture, etc. that occurred during the Renaissance
encouraged people to question traditional beliefs. An increase in literacy also helped
people to gather information independently.
2. The ideas of the Reformers spread widely and quickly in printed books and pamphlets.
3. Simony: the buying or selling of positions within the Church.
Nepotism: the appointing of relatives to Church jobs regardless of merit.
Pluralism: holding more than one Church position at the same time, e.g. several
parishes/dioceses.
Absenteeism: priests or bishops being absent from their parish or diocese for long periods
of time.
4. An indulgence was a prayer to reduce the amount of time a soul spent in purgatory. Their
sale meant that rich people could buy their way into heaven, while the poor would suffer
additionally and some would endure extra hardship to pay an already rich Church, afraid
for their souls.
5. (a) The Church was wealthier than some kings and ordinary people paid tithes to it.
(b) The Church was beyond the power of kings, who wanted to have full control over the
countries they ruled.

1. The goal of this question is to ensure students fully understand the text and the meaning
of the more complex words. Once their version conveys the correct meaning, that is valid.
2. People may believe they have to buy indulgences to get into heaven.
3. No, as he clearly says they should be a ‘matter of choice’.
4. Luther had suggested that the Pope should pay for the rebuilding of St Peter’s himself.
The Ninety-Five Theses were an attack on his power to grant indulgences and a challenge
to his authority.

1. Justification by faith alone: Luther’s belief that only faith in God could get a person
into heaven.
Excommunication: expulsion from the Catholic Church.
Heresy: knowingly holding a view that went against the official teachings of the Church.
Vernacular: the everyday spoken language of the people.
2. Martin Luther protested against the sale of indulgences by writing to the Archbishop of
Mainz but he was ignored. He then wrote ninety-five theses against them, which were
distributed around Germany.
142
3. Pope Leo X sent John Eck to debate with Luther and then threatened him with
excommunication via papal bull if he did not recant (take back) his beliefs.
4. Luther defended his teachings before the Holy Roman Emperor at the Diet of Worms, but
did not convince the Diet. He was declared an outlaw and his arrest was ordered.
5. After the Diet of Worms, Luther was whisked away in a fake kidnapping and given shelter
by Prince Frederick of Saxony at Wartburg Castle.
6. (a) The language of Mass and the Bible: they should be in the vernacular
(b) The sacraments: there were only two sacraments, baptism and communion
(c) What happens at communion: Luther believed in consubstantiation – that the bread
and wine did not become the body and blood of Jesus, but rather that the two existed
side by side
7. Any one: Religious wars broke out; the Catholic Church lost power; Christians split
between Catholics and Protestants; other Reformers challenged the Church.
3
1. Any four: Scotland, England, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, parts
Solutions
of France, Germany.
2. Presbyterianism: the Protestant church founded by Jean Calvin.
Predestination: Calvin’s belief that God had already selected those who would get
into heaven.
3. Geneva.
4. Southern Europe was closer to the power centre of the Catholic Church (Rome) and
therefore it was easier for the Church to keep control over those areas.

1. The Inquisition was a Church court used to try those accused of heresy. Suspected
Protestants were tortured and tried until they recanted their beliefs.
2. They travelled the world to convert new people to Catholicism and set up schools for the
sons of the elite to ensure they remained Catholic.
3. A regular meeting of bishops between 1545 and 1563. It was the Church’s response to the
Protestant attack on its teachings.
4. It banned the sale of indulgences, simony, nepotism, pluralism and absenteeism.
Seminaries were set up to train priests. A list of books was created that Catholics were
forbidden to read.
5. It was a single ‘rule book’ for Catholicism, designed to provide people with clear, simple
answers to questions about their faith, and also to ensure there was consistency in how
Catholicism was taught across Europe.

1. Many countries had minority populations of either Catholics or Protestants. These groups
were seen as a potential threat by their rulers and were persecuted to get them to
change religions.
2. England/Spain; Spain/Netherlands; various German states.
3. The Pope no longer had power in Protestant countries, and in Catholic countries his power
was reduced as he now needed the support of the local Catholic ruler.
143
4. (a) Both sides wanted to educate the people in their faith so that they would understand it
better and therefore remain loyal. As a result, education greatly expanded in Europe.
(b) The Catholic Church spent huge sums of money on its churches and filled them with
art to make them more attractive than the plain Protestant ones. This started the
Baroque movement in art.

1. (a) Money was a factor in many of the abuses of the Church: simony; pluralism;
absenteeism; the sale of indulgences. Rulers and the people alike resented the Church’s
wealth, which made them open to challenging it.
(b) The desire for power within the Church can be seen in simony, nepotism, pluralism and
absenteeism. Kings/rulers resented the fact that the Church was beyond their power.
2. Simony; pluralism; absenteeism; the sale of indulgences, nepotism.
3. At first, Martin Luther wrote privately to the Archbishop of Mainz to complain about the
sale of indulgences, but he was ignored.
4. (a) Justification by faith alone: only faith in God could get a person into heaven.
(b) Consubstantiation: the belief that the bread and wine did not actually transform into
the body and blood of Jesus, but rather that the two existed side by side.
(c) The sale of indulgences: people were being falsely told that they were guaranteed a
place in heaven if they bought an indulgence, and this was wrong.
5. Luther refused to recant his beliefs. The Pope sent him a papal bull commanding him to
so do. He refused and burned it in public in Wittenberg and he was excommunicated as
a result.
6. Luther believed that each prince should decide the religion of his own state. This would
significantly increase their power.
7. England – Henry VIII; Scotland – John Knox; Switzerland – Jean Calvin.
8. (a) The Courts of Inquisition tortured people and put them on trial for heresy. One
potential punishment was to be burned at the stake. Many remained loyal to the
Church out of fear.
(b) The Council of Trent addressed many of the problems in the Church that provoked the
Reformation (by banning the abuses, ensuring priests were educated) and produced a
simple expression of Catholic teaching (the Catechism) that people could easily follow.
9. (a) In countries that contained large numbers of both Catholics and Protestants
(e.g. France), violence broke out over which faith should dominate.
(b) States of different faiths attacked each to try to force the conversion of the other side.
10. Protestants encouraged people to read the Bible for themselves and published it in the
vernacular so people could do so. More people learned to read so they could read the Bible
and the writings of Reformers for themselves.
144

1. Beliefs: The Catholic Church vs Martin Luther (page 59)
Belief Catholic Church Martin Luther

Language of the Bible and Mass Latin The vernacular
Priests Could not marry Could marry
How to get into heaven Faith and good works Faith alone
Number of sacraments 7 (baptism, confession, communion, 2 (baptism and communion)
(name them) confirmation, marriage, the last rites and
ordination)
3
Eucharist/Communion Transubstantiation: the bread and wine Consubstantiation: the bread and
become the body and bloody of Jesus wine and the body and blood exist
Solutions
side by side
2. Key Reformation Dates (page 59)
Year Event
1483 Luther is born
1517 Luther begins his protest against the sale of indulgences in Wittenberg; Reformation begins
1521 The Diet of Worms
1534 Jesuits are founded; Henry VIII breaks with Rome, begins the English Reformation
1541 Calvin reforms Geneva
1545 The Council of Trent starts
1555 Peace of Augsburg
1572 Knox brings Presbyterianism to Scotland
1588 The Spanish Armada attacks England
1648 The Treaty of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War
Any event is valid here as ‘the most important’ once the reasons provided back up the choice.
Good answers will focus on the consequences of particular events.
145
3. Key Terms: The Reformation (page 60)

Initially, the supporters of reform to the Catholic Church, and then members of the
Protestants
churches who broke away from it
Simony The buying or selling of positions within the Church
Nepotism The appointing of relatives to Church jobs regardless of merit
Pluralism Holding more than one Church job at the same time
Absenteeism A priest/bishop being absent from their parish/diocese for long periods
The sale of indulgences The sale of prayers to reduce the time a soul would spend in purgatory
Justification by faith alone Luther’s belief that only faith in God could get a person into heaven
Excommunication Expulsion from the Catholic Church and being unable to receive the sacraments
Knowingly holding a view that was contrary to the official teachings of the
Heresy
Catholic Church
Presbyterians’ belief that God had already decided who was going to heaven before
Predestination
people were born
Courts of Inquisition Catholic courts set up during the Counter-Reformation to try heretics
The Society of Jesus: highly educated priests who worked as missionaries abroad to gain
Jesuits new converts to Catholicism or else in schools at home where they taught the sons of
the nobility

1. Source: Martin Luther in Pictures (page 62)
1. A – Luther is nailing the Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg.
A – Luther is protesting against the sale of indulgences in public because his private
protests have been ignored.
2. B – burning the papal bull ordering him to recant his teachings.
B – he is publicly rejecting the power of the Pope and refusing to back down.
3. After his protests in 1517, the Pope made several attempts to get Luther to recant his
views and stop his teachings against the Church. These failed and eventually in 1520
the Pope sent him a papal bull (letter) formally instructing him to recant and stop his
preaching. He refused and publicly burned the bull to show his rejection of the Pope’s
demands.
4. A – Symbolically, the theses were addressed to the Church and the Church was what
Luther was trying to save. In addition, most people would visit the church regularly and
it was in the centre of the town, so displayed there it would reach as big an audience
as possible.
B – Luther was showing his complete rejection of the Pope and his demands. Also, fire was
the traditional punishment for heretics, so it could be argued that he was hinting that
the Pope was guilty of heresy against the true spirit of the Church. Burning the bull in
public would have also created a huge spectacle and drawn a large crowd.
146
2. Source: The Papal Bull Exsurge Domine (page 63)

1. The Pope’s inquiry had found that Luther’s teachings were ‘against the doctrine and
tradition of the Catholic Church’.
2. The Pope had urged Luther to change his mind through meetings with his representatives
and through his own letters. He offered him protection and money to come to Rome for
a meeting.
3. Luther and his supporters must stop preaching and publishing books and pamphlets within
sixty days. They must burn all his writing.
4. Students to outline any two of the beliefs below:
Belief Catholic Church Martin Luther

Language of the Bible and Mass Latin The vernacular
Priests Should not marry Could marry
How to get into heaven Faith and good works Faith alone
3
Number of sacraments 7 (baptism, confession, 2 (baptism and communion)
Solutions
(name them) communion, confirmation,
marriage, the last rites and
ordination)
Eucharist/Communion Transubstantiation: the bread and Consubstantiation: the bread and
wine become the body and bloody wine and the body and blood exist
of Jesus side by side
3. Source: The Council of Trent (page 64)

1. This document banned the books of those who ‘originated or revived heresies’, such as
Luther, Zwingli and Calvin.
2. People who had these books should hand them over to the authorities.
3. Those who continued to possess these books would incur a sentence of excommunication.
4. The Catholic Church was worried that people would read the Reformers’ writings, be
influenced by them and possibly share them with others. This is what had happened at the
start of the Reformation.
5. The Council of Trent: banned the abuses in the church; set up seminaries to train priests;
wrote the Catechism.
147
Chapter 11: The Plantations

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] Students could observe that plantation town plans: are very
organised; are laid out in straight lines; have a defined main street; all contain a church; are
often walled towns, e.g. Londonderry; had a plantation castle/fortified house on each estate.

1. Old English: People living in the Pale who were loyal to the king.
Anglo-Irish: Descendants of the Anglo-Normans who had invaded Ireland in the
twelfth century.
Gaelic Irish: The Gaelic chieftains who followed Irish laws (known as Brehon laws).
2. Anglo-Irish families: the Fitzgeralds of Kildare, the Butlers of Ormond/Kilkenny and the
Fitzgeralds of Munster.
Gaelic Irish families: the O’Neills of Tyrone, the O’Donnells of Donegal and the MacCarthys
of Cork.
3. The Brehon Laws were Gaelic Irish laws dating from the Iron Age. The laws were a civil
rather than a criminal code. The Gaelic Irish resisted the English laws because they reflected
the values of a different society and would involve such things as: harsh jail sentences and
death by hanging given as punishments, divorce being forbidden, etc.
4. Tensions increased because the Gaelic Irish feared that the Crown would try to expand its
control over Ireland and therefore disliked and attacked English settlers.

1. Pope Clement II refused to annul Henry VIII’s first marriage. Henry broke with the Church
to marry Anne Boleyn, was excommunicated by the Pope and declared himself Head of the
Church in England. This marked the beginning of the English Reformation and resulted in
England becoming a Protestant monarchy.
2. Act of Supremacy: When Henry VIII declared himself the Head of the Church.
Act of Dissolution: When Henry VIII closed down the monasteries and confiscated the
Catholic Church’s lands.
3. Mary I, Elizabeth I and Edward VI.
4. Any three: To expand their territory; to spread English customs, culture, laws and so forth;
to spread their new religion; to prevent the Catholic Gaelic Irish forming an alliance with
other Catholic countries; to prevent further rebellions; to save money.
5. Surrender and regrant: The Old English and the Gaelic Irish rulers were to surrender their
lands to Henry VIII, and he would grant their land back to them, along with an English title.
Plantation: Irish lands confiscated by the king could be sold or rented to loyal English settlers.
148

1. In the sixteenth century.
2. Adventurer: A man who claimed to be a descendant of the early Normans granted land in
Munster by Henry II.
President: A man who imposed English law, the English language and the Protestant religion.
Undertaker: A man who undertook (agreed) to do as he was told with the land given
to him.
3. Laois-Offaly: Queen Mary I. Munster: Queen Elizabeth I.
4. Laois-Offaly: It did not attract enough planters from England; English customs and laws did
not flourish; Gaelic planters had to be given land; the confiscated lands were still attacked;
lessons were learned for later plantations.
Munster: The Crown had hoped for 20,000 settlers, but only one-fifth of that number
went; land still had to be rented to the Gaelic Irish; the Gaelic Irish continued to attack
the plantations; new towns such as Killarney, Lismore, Youghal, Mallow and Bandon were
3
founded; new farming methods arrived and tillage (crop farming) became widespread; new
trades such as coopering came to Ireland; lessons were learned for later plantations.
Solutions
5. Laois-Offaly: The estates were too large. Not enough planters were brought over. The
plantation towns were not planned well.
Munster: The estates were still too large. They still had to rent to the Gaelic Irish. The
Gaelic Irish continued to attack the plantations.

1. The Nine Years War was a war that took place in 1594–1603 when the Gaelic clans in
Ulster fought against the spread of English control.
2. King James I organised the Ulster Plantation to gain control of Ulster and
spread Protestantism.
3. The county of Derry was reserved for London craft guilds. It was renamed Londonderry,
and each section of land was given to a guild, for example tailors, fishmongers
and goldsmiths.
4. Servitor: an English or Scottish soldier who had fought for the Crown.
Loyal Irish: native Irish who stayed loyal to the English during the Nine Years War.
The Flight of the Earls: when O’Neill and other Ulster chiefs fled to Europe in 1607.
5. To discourage them from renting land and prevent them becoming economically secure.
6. (a) population: large numbers of English and Scottish settled in Ulster. Of a total Ulster
population of one million, roughly 40,000 were Scots.
(b) religion: the Protestant population grew.
(c) land ownership: the Gaelic Irish were driven off the land they had always held. It was
given to loyal planters.
7. After plantation, 1/25 of the population of Ulster was Scottish.
8. Any three: English-style houses and castles were built. Crop farming began to take over
from cattle farming. Markets were set up in plantation towns.
149

(a) A primary written source.
(b) What was once ‘the most rude and unreformed part of Ireland’ is now ‘better organised
and established than any of the lands in other provinces’.
(c) By ‘wicked and ungrateful traitors’ he meant enemies of the Reformation in Ireland, the
native Catholic Irish who held rebellions.
(d) The native Irish were not excluded completely so that they and the planters ‘might grow up
together in one nation’ and make a plantation that will ‘secure the peace of Ireland, assure
it to the Crown of England for ever; and finally, make it a civil and a rich, a mighty, and a
flourishing kingdom’.
(e) Some of the native Irish were ‘transplanted from the woods and mountains into the plains
and open countries’.
(f) The authors hopes (any two): that like fruit trees, the transplanted Irish might ‘grow the
milder, and bear the better and sweeter fruit’; that the plantation will secure the peace of
Ireland by solidifying the Crown’s power in Ulster; and that it will become ‘a civil and a rich,
a mighty, and a flourishing kingdom’.
(g) We can see that his view of the Irish was negative (‘wicked and ungrateful’) and that
he believed that the Irish were wild and uncivilised: ‘the lands of the Irish in Ulster were
the most rude and unreformed part of Ireland’. He speaks about Ireland as though it is
a garden, the planters are gardeners and the native Irish are no more than trees, to be
moved about to grow ‘milder, and bear the better and sweeter fruit’.
(h) Benefit: It shows us how the Irish and the Ulster Plantation were regarded at the time.
Limitation: It contains strong bias.

1. Penal Laws: laws that suppressed the status of Catholics in Ireland.
2. Catholics were forbidden to run schools; forbidden to teach; forbidden to hire a Catholic
teacher for their children; and forbidden to attend the only university (Trinity College).
3. (a) Religion: The majority of Ireland’s population remained Catholic, but by 1700
Protestants owned 85 per cent of the land. Anger and mistrust grew between the
communities and tensions occasionally erupted into terrible violence on both sides.
(b) Politics: Protestants ensured that they held on to their control, wealth and land
ownership by introducing the Penal Laws. The Protestant/Catholic political divide
continues to influence.
(c) Culture: The culture and language of the Gaelic Irish declined: English laws replaced
the Brehon laws; English farming methods replaced the Gaelic ways; the English
language became the dominant language in most parts of the country; forests were
cleared and land divided up; Ireland became more urban.
4. Areas where the numbers of Irish speakers are the highest are the areas where the
Plantations were least successful. Areas with the lowest figures are areas that were
successful during the Plantations, along with the Pale, which had originally been loyal to
the king.
150

1. The Pale was the base of English power in Ireland. There, the English language, customs,
dress, farming methods (mainly crop farming) and laws were practised. Most people within
the Pale were English merchants who were loyal to the king.
2. Surrender and regrant was when the Anglo-Irish and Gaelic Irish rulers were to surrender
themselves and their lands to Henry VIII, and he would grant their land back to them along
with an English title. It was not very successful. It led to increased wealth and power for
certain families but it was not taken up by all rulers/families.
3. To spread English customs and laws, to defend the land from the Gaelic Irish and to
spread the religion of the English Crown. It was hoped it would work better than
surrender and regrant.
4. Henry VIII, Mary I, Elizabeth I, Edward VI and James I.
5. For key terms, see page 165 of Artefact.
3
Solutions
1. Map of Ireland in the 1500s (page 66)
Refer to map on page 150 of Artefact to assess.
2. Fill in the Gaps: The Flight of the Earls (page 67)

Missing words: O’Neills, O’Donnells, Elizabeth, sheriffs, Philip, the Nine Years War, Yellow Ford,
Kinsale, 1601, Treaty of Mellifont, the Flight of the Earls, organised resistance.
3. Matching: The Plantations (page 67)

Loyal Irish – native Irish who had stayed loyal to the English during the Nine Years War
Adventurers – men who claimed to be descendants of the early Normans who had been
granted land in Munster by Henry II
Undertakers – men who undertook (or agreed) to do as they were told with the land given
to them
Old English – people in the Pale who were loyal to the king
Anglo-Irish – descendants of the Anglo-Normans who had invaded Ireland in the
twelfth century
Gaelic Irish – the Catholic Gaelic chieftains who followed Irish law (known as Brehon laws)
Servitors – English or Scottish soldiers who had fought for the Crown
Presidents – men who imposed English law, the English language and the Protestant religion
151
4. Crossword: The Plantations (page 68)
1
U
2
N A
3 4
P A D V E N T U R E R S
5
L E G T
6
A R O L D E N G L I S H
7
N P T O E
T E A I P
A N K R A
8
T A S E R V I T O R S L
I L R S E
9
L O Y A L I R I S H H
N A
W
10
P R E S I D E N T S

1. Source: Engravings of a Plantation Estate (page 69)
1. A primary visual source.
Across Down castle with its high walls, the river,
2. In the left-hand engraving you can see the English-style
4. Men whothe claimed to befields
surrounding descendants of thein the background.
and a mountain 1. Men who Theundertook (agreed)
right-hand picture is a to do as they were
close-
early Normans granted land in Munster by told with the land given to them
up: it shows the enclosed fields with crops growing, some farm buildings and also tents.
Henry II [ADVENTURERS] [UNDERTAKERS]
There in
6. People living arethe
some soldiers
Pale who guarding the to
were loyal lands
theor firing guns or cannons.
2. Descendants of the Anglo-Normans who had
king [OLDENGLISH]
3. The fields are organised and laid out with enclosures, invaded Ireland
and crops in the twelfth century
are growing.
8. English or Scottish soldiers who had fought for [ANGLOIRISH]
4. New
the Crown towns were founded. The Protestant population
[SERVITORS] in Ireland
3. Policy wheregrew.
IrishNew trades
lands were
confiscated by the king
9. Native Irish who stayed loyal to the English
brought to Ireland. Irish language and culture went were sold or rented to loyal English settlers
into decline.
during5. the Nine ItYears
Benefit: gives usWar
an [LOYALIRISH]
idea of/image of how areas in[PLANTATION]
Ireland looked after the Munster
10. Men who imposed English law, the English 5. Dublin and its surrounding areas: the base of
Plantation. It gives us
language and the Protestant religion an idea of the methods used by the planters.
English power in Ireland [THEPALE]
[PRESIDENTS]
Limitation: It is not a complete reflection of how7.the Laws that suppressed
plantation happened, as the status
it was not of Catholics in
the most successful plantation. Ireland [PENALLAWS]
152
Chapter 12: The American Revolution

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] Most of the newspaper and official documents from the
revolutionary war come from one side or the other; neutrality is rare. Historians must be very
careful to verify any claims made, so that they are not misled by propaganda from the time.

1. The Enlightenment was a movement of thinkers in the eighteenth century who valued
reason and science above faith or authority as a basis for society.
2. The British passed the Navigation Acts, which meant the colonies could only sell some
3
products to Britain. They did this because they wanted to use cheap American raw
materials in their industries.
Solutions
3. Britain wanted the colonies to contribute to the cost of their own defence. Also, many
Americans gained military experience from fighting with the British army.
4. The Stamp Act required all sorts of documents to have a government stamp on them,
which had to be paid for. The Americans were strongly opposed to it and attacked tax
collectors, held protests and forced the British to withdraw the Act.
5. Any of the causes are valid answers here, once the explanation details how it was linked to
the revolution.

1. British soldiers opened fire on a crowd in Boston, killing five. The British withdrew the last
of the restrictions and taxes on the colonies, except one on tea.
2. The British imposed a tax on tea to show they could still tax the colonies. When they
decided to exempt the East India Company from this tax, the Americans were outraged
and protested by throwing the tea shipment into Boston harbour.
3. The British blockaded Boston harbour, suspended the city’s assembly and imposed military
rule on the city. The other colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to
consider their response.
4. They stated their opposition to all taxes, ordered a boycott of British goods, demanded the
removal of British soldiers and ordered the formation of local militias.
5. The British army tried to seize the weapons of the colonists at Concord and they were
ambushed on the way there at Lexington by American militiamen.
6. It was the day that the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence.

1. The rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; they come from the ‘Creator’, i.e.
they are God-given rights.
2. People have the right to alter or abolish a government that has become destructive to the
people’s rights.
3. Any two: ‘quartering large bodies of armed troops among us’; ‘protecting them from
punishment for any murders committed on the inhabitants of these States’; ‘cutting off our
Trade with all parts of the world’; ‘imposing Taxes on us without our Consent’; ‘depriving
us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury’.
153
4. The representatives in General Congress made the solemn declaration that the colonies are
free and independent states.
5. Yes, it is a piece of propaganda. It is directed at several different audiences: at American
colonists, to explain to them why they were declaring independence and to make sure they
supported the declaration and the war; and at other countries, to get their support for
the Americans.
6. Students should comment on the idea that government should be responsible to the
people; that government should protect people’s rights; and if a government fails to do
that, the people have the right to change the government.

1. Washington inherited his brother’s land and married a very wealthy widow.
2. Due to his military experience, and because his appointment guaranteed the support of the
largest and richest colony, Virginia.
3. Advantages of the Continental Army: local knowledge; guerrilla warfare.
Disadvantages: far smaller (only 20,000 men), part-time only, lacked discipline, poorly
equipped, poorly trained.
4. Advantages of the British army: larger (80,000 men); professionally trained and equipped;
well financed and supplied by the British fleet.
Disadvantages: thousands of miles from home; lost the support of the people by treating
them all as enemies.
5. Victory at Saratoga restored confidence after the defeat at Philadelphia and convinced
other countries, such as France, to enter the war on the American side.
6. Washington spent the harsh winter of 1777–1778 at Valley Forge training his army and
turning them into a modern, professional army.
7. Any three: supported by the colonists; guerrilla tactics wore down the British; they had
French support; Washington’s leadership; training at Valley Forge; victory at Yorktown.
8. He chaired the Constitutional Convention and served as the first president.
9. A constitution is the set of fundamental rules for running a country that outlines the
powers of government and the rights of citizens.

1. US territory expanded to the west coast and grew to 50 states.
2. (a) The French were influenced by the ideals of freedom and equality. In addition, the cost
of the war in America (together with their king’s lifestyle) bankrupted France, causing
the crisis that brought on the revolution.
(b) Ireland was inspired by the ideals of equality and of independence from Britain.
3. The revolution was based on the inalienable rights of people and the need for equality. All
those groups were treated unequally and therefore the ideals of the revolution encouraged
them to fight for the freedom and equality promised in the Declaration of Independence.
154

1. The Enlightenment encouraged people to question whether they should be ruled by a king.
2. (a) Americans were prevented from profiting and growing their businesses, as they could
only sell products to Britain.
(b) They had no say in deciding what was taxed or how much they had to pay and could
not argue for themselves in parliament without representatives there.
3. They organised protests against the Townsend Acts, leading to the Boston Massacre.
4. The Boston Massacre caused outrage in the colonies, because the British had killed people
for protesting. After the Tea Party, the British blockaded Boston and this led to the First
Continental Congress.
5. The British had superiority in numbers and were better trained, armed and supplied. The
Americans had better local knowledge and were fighting for their homes, but they lacked
numbers and were poorly trained and equipped.
6. The Battle of Saratoga and Valley Forge.
3
7. Any of Washington’s achievements (winning the war, becoming president, etc.) is valid
once it is backed up with reasons and explanation.
Solutions
8. (a) inside: the American Revolution inspired oppressed groups like slaves, women, etc. to
fight for their own rights.
(b) outside: inspired France and Ireland with dreams of political freedom and equality.
9. Students are to draw a timeline and enter the dates below on it, in this sequence. The
timeline should be in proportion and the dates spaced accordingly.
1756–1763 The Seven Years’ War
1765 The Stamp Act
1767 The Townsend Acts
1770 The Boston Massacre
1774 The First Continental Congress
1776 The Declaration of Independence
1777 The Battle of Saratoga
1777–1778 Valley Forge
1781 The Battle of Yorktown
1789 George Washington becomes US President
10.
Causes of the Revolution Course of the Revolution Consequences of the Revolution
The Enlightenment The Battle of Yorktown The French Revolution
The Seven Years’ War The Battle of Saratoga Campaigns against slavery
The Boston Tea Party The capture of Philadelphia The United Irishmen’s rebellion
The Sons of Liberty Valley Forge The US Constitution
155

A6 B 11 C4
D5 E7 F9
G 10 H3 I8
Magic number: 21
1. Source: The Boston Massacre (page 72)
Source A: Report of the Committee of the Town of Boston
1. On 2 March 1770 a quarrel arose between soldiers and the Boston rope-makers,
journeymen and apprentices.
2. On 5 March British soldiers fired on people in King Street without warning and killed four
of them.
3. This account suggests the British soldiers opened fire because there had been a
‘contentious disposition’ all weekend and because Captain Preston ordered them to fire.
4. The Committee’s negative attitude towards the British soldiers is conveyed through the
description that they fired ‘promiscuously’, ‘without the least warning’.
Source B: Paul Revere’s Engraving ‘The Bloody Massacre Perpetrated in King-Street’

1. In this picture, the Americans are being shot and killed by the soldiers.
2. They are trying to get away and protect themselves from the soldiers. Some are dead on
the ground; others beg for mercy.
3. They are lined up in a military formation and are attacking the crowd.
4. Paul Revere was a revolutionary. He would want to portray the British in a bad light, which
means that he is highly unlikely to be an unbiased source.
5. Both put the blame on the British soldiers for attacking the innocent protestors.
Source C: Testimony of [British] Captain Thomas Preston

1. The source had been told that bells were ringing to call people out to attack the troops.
2. About 100 people and they were threatening the troops.
3. He stood between the soldiers and the crowd, trying to get them to disperse peacefully.
4. The mob shouted abuse at the soldiers, hit them with clubs, dared them to fire and
advanced towards them.
5. When they were being hit with clubs and snowballs and when they believed their lives
were in immediate danger.
6. The soldiers heard the shout ‘fire’ and assumed it came from Preston, but it might have
come from the crowd.
156
Source D: Testimony of Bostonian William Tant

1. The soldiers drew themselves up in a line in front of the Customs-house.
2. The crowd shouted at them to fire and threw snowballs.
3. The soldiers fired on the crowd after they heard the word ‘fire’.
The account of the massacre should be balanced and draw on the evidence provided by all
the different witnesses. Students can decide that the soldiers were guilty or not guilty of
murder. If they decide guilty, they can argue that the soldiers were the ones who were trained
to be able to handle themselves in the circumstances and therefore should not have reacted
to the crowd. If they go for not guilty, they can argue that they were in fear of their lives and
acted in self-defence.
2. Source: The Olive Branch Petition (page 76)

1. According to the source, the Americans are attached to Great Britain with the strongest
ties that can unite societies.
3
2. The Americans ‘deplore’ any event that weakens those ties.
3. They ‘most ardently desire’ the restoration of harmony.
Solutions
4. This document has a very conciliatory approach and states that the Americans wanted to
end the conflict peacefully – only a year before they declared independence.
5. It may have been a last attempt to bring about a peaceful solution.
6. No. The Americans needed to be seen to make every effort for peace if they were to gain
the support of the American people for a war against Britain. Also, they were probably
trying to make the British look bad if they rejected this petition, especially in the eyes of
other countries.
7. No: the fighting between the two sides soon started and the Americans declared
independence shortly afterwards.
8. Any three: the Navigation Acts; the Stamp Act; the Boston Massacre; the Boston Tea Party;
the Battles of Lexington and Concord.
157
Chapter 13: The French Revolution

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] Students should identify that most documents will be in French
and that this is a problem for historians who do not speak French. This means they are reliant
on secondary sources in English or primary sources in English from the time, which might suffer
from bias or inaccuracy. They could overcome these problems by using translations, learning
French or working with a French historian.

1. An absolute monarch was a king who held total power over the country; it was thought
that his authority came directly from God and he had a divine right to rule.
2. The Enlightenment thinkers said that society should be based on reason and science, not
on faith or authority. This helped people to feel that it was possible to challenge the view
of absolute monarchs.
3. (a) First Estate: the clergy
(b) Second Estate: the nobles
(c) Third Estate: all other French citizens
4. Any two: The Third Estate was larger; was not exempt from taxes; many still lived under
feudal law.
5. The Third Estate had to pay the taille (land tax), the gabelle (salt tax), the corvée (working
for free repairing roads) and the tithe (Catholic church tax). They resented these as the
other two estates were exempt, yet the Third Estate had no say in running the country.
6. Many French people were inspired by the ideals of liberty and equality seen in the
American colonies; the war bankrupted France and caused the crisis that led to the calling
of the Estates General in 1789.

1. The Estates General was a French parliament that was made up of three parts, each
representing one of the three Estates.
2. 175 years.
3. Traditionally, the three estates had one vote each. But there were far more members of the
Third Estate than of the other two combined. The Third Estate representatives demanded
that each representative get one vote each.
4. The oath taken (on the Versailles tennis courts) when the Third Estate declared itself the
National Assembly and swore to continue meeting until the king agreed to a constitution
for France.
5. The summer of 1789 saw food prices rise too high for ordinary people. There were also
fears that the king would use the army to shut down the National Assembly.
6. On 14 July, the Paris mob stormed the Bastille prison and executed the governor.
158

1. Liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
2. Any two: liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom of thought and
opinion, freedom to talk, write and publish freely, freedom of religious belief.
3. Liberty consists of being able to do whatever does not harm others.
4. Most students will agree and should provide examples or arguments for the importance of
free speech.
5. Any one: Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Paine.

1. (a) Nobles: the revolution abolished the feudal system, all privileges of the nobility and all
titles.
(b) Clergy: the revolution abolished tithes, seized all Church property for the State,
required all clergy to take an oath of loyalty to the revolution and removed the Pope’s
3
power over the French Church.
2. All men are born free and equal; all citizens have the right to liberty, property and security;
Solutions
all citizens are equal before the law; everyone has the freedom to speak, write and print
what they want.
3. Liberty: everyone is free.
Equality: everyone is equal.
Fraternity: everyone should treat each other as brothers.
4. It was the attempt by the king and queen to escape from France towards Belgium in 1791.
When they were caught, the king was stripped of his powers and the royal family was
effectively imprisoned.
5. Other European countries were worried that the revolution would spread to their countries.
France declared war on Austria, who were joined by Prussia.
6. Louis XVI was convicted of treason by the National Assembly after letters were discovered
that appeared to show that he had been working with enemy European monarchs.

1. Robespierre was considered to be absolutely honest and sincere. He remained committed
to his ideals throughout his life and he even took them to an extreme degree during the
Terror, to ‘protect the revolution’.
2. The Jacobins were a radical anti-monarchist political group during the revolution.
Robespierre was one of their leaders.
3. After the rest of Europe declared war on France, the Committee of Public Safety formed to
deal with the crisis.
4. Any two: the military crisis against many of Europe’s strongest states (mass enlistment into
the army); the opposition to the revolution by the upper classes and in the Vendée region
(the Law of Suspects); the rising food prices and shortages (the Law of Maximum).
5. Other members of the National Convention were concerned that the Terror was
continuing, that Robespierre had gathered too much power and would target them next,
so they acted first and ordered his arrest.
159

1. (a) Eventually Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France, but his rule solidified many
of the changes to France and there was no return to the pre-revolution social divisions.
France kept the metric system and the middle class became more powerful.
(b) The revolution’s ideals of liberty and equality spread around Europe and led to
increased demands for democracy by other peoples. It also led to the rise in the power
of the middle classes and national armies.
(c) The United Irishmen were inspired by the revolution’s ideals and this would directly
inspire the 1798 Rebellion.
2. Any of the results are valid once backed with a detailed explanation.

1. France’s Third Estate had to pay high taxes that the other estates were exempt from; they
had no power in their own country.
2. Debt incurred in the American war and the expense of the extravagant court at Versailles;
the First and Second Estates refused to pay the existing taxes.
3. The Third Estate refused to participate unless the voting system was changed. They
declared themselves the National Assembly and demanded a constitution that would limit
the power of the king.
4. The National Assembly abolished the privileges of the nobility, took control of the Catholic
Church in France and passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
5. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen clearly set out the rights that belong
to each citizen and how those were to be protected from the powers of government.
6. Louis XVI was convicted of treason after letters were discovered between him and other
European monarchs. He had also opposed the revolution every step of the way and had
tried to flee the country.
7. The country was in crisis: militarily threatened from outside by the rest of Europe; facing
internal opposition in the Vendée and amongst the former nobility, still suffering food
shortages. The Committee for Public Safety was formed to assume absolute control of
these situations.
8. They arrested and executed thousands of people; imposed strict price controls; put down
the revolt in the Vendee and organised a mass recruitment to fight the foreign powers.
9. The revolutionaries began to feel that Robespierre had too much power/had gone too far/
would come for them next: he was arrested and quickly executed.
10. Any of the results are valid, once backed up with a detailed explanation.
11.
Causes of the Revolution Course of the Revolution Consequences of the Revolution
French aid to the Americans The Storming of the Bastille The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
during their War of Independence
The gabelle The Terror The decline in the power of kings
The Estates General The trial of Louis XVI The 1798 Rebellion in Ireland
The Flight to Varennes
The war with Austria
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
160

1. Timeline: The French Revolution (page 78)
Students are to draw a timeline and enter the dates below on it, in this sequence.
1778 France joins the American War of Independence
May 1789 The first meeting of the Estates General
July 1789 The storming of the Bastille
August 1789 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
June 1791 The flight to Varennes
April 1792 The declaration of war on Austria
Sept. 1792 The September Massacres
3
Sept. 1792 France is declared a republic
January 1793 The execution of Louis XVI
Solutions
April 1793 The setting up of the Committee of Public Safety
July 1794 The execution of Robespierre
1804 Napoleon declares himself Emperor of France
Crossword
2. Crossword: The French - Chapter
Revolution 13
(page 79)
1 2 3
T U I L E R I E S
N S
4 5 6
S A N S C U L O T T E S W
7 8
B O A G R A
9
S R T S U S P E C T S
10 11 12
V O R S E F I V E
A L U A S R L O R
R U P F G A L L L
E T T E E T O U O
13
N E N L I G H T E N M E N T T O
N B Y E R I I
14
E B L R N N O
15
B A S T I L L E D A Y A I E N
U L T
16
T A I L L E Y
* Alternative for 16 across: corvée
Across Down
1. The royal family were imprisoned in the 2. Robespierre was thought of as
_____________ Palace [TUILERIES] _____________ [INCORRUPTIBLE]
4. The Parisian mob who pressured the National 3. French parliament made up of three parts
Assembly to take radical action during the [ESTATESGENERAL]
Revolution [SANSCULOTTES] 5. French kings were _____________ monarchs
9. The Law of _____________ was passed by [ABSOLUTE] 161
the Committee of Public Safety [SUSPECTS] 6. Napoleonʼs final battle [WATERLOO]
13. A movement of eighteenth-century thinkers 7. Symbol of the revolution [GUILLOTINE]

1. Source: The Three Estates in Pictures (page 80)
1. A: The priest and the noble are riding on the back of an old peasant.
B: The priest and noble look on in horror as the commoner breaks his chains and reaches
for a gun.
C: The peasant is now riding on the backs of the priest and the noble.
2. A
: The other two estates dominating the Third Estate, which did all the work and paid all
the taxes to support them.
B: The Third Estate breaking free of the domination of the other two and using violence to
change France.
C: The power of the clergy and nobility broken and the ordinary people in power.
3. A: Before the Estates General met in 1789.
B: After the fall of the Bastille.
C: During the Terror.
Students should be able to see the shift in the power from the nobles and clergy to the Third
Estate. They might note things like the Tennis Court Oath, the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the declaration of the republic,
the execution of the king and the Terror as representing this shift in power.
2. Source: The Storming of the Bastille (page 82)

1. To demand the ammunition they thought was stored there.
2. The people had sent a flag of truce first, and it was acknowledged.
3. Some people were allowed in on condition that they not act violently.
4. They were massacred.
5. The governor was sentenced to be executed.
6. The governor. He fired on the people when they had a flag of truce and then massacred
the first group who went inside the prison.
3. Source: The Execution of Louis XVI (page 83)

1. Half past nine.
2. The king approached the scaffold calmly and declared his innocence to the crowd.
3. That he was innocent and he pardoned his enemies.
4. The source claims that only the sans culottes rejoiced at the king’s execution.
5. A number of different answers here: the writer is clearly an opponent of the revolution.
He speaks highly of the king (‘much loved Sovereign’) and of those who mourn his death
(‘honest citizens’). He describes the revolution’s leaders as ‘tyrants’ and says they cannot
expect friendship with ‘any civilised part of the world’ and that Europe will avenge Louis
XVI’s death.
162
Chapter 14: Physical Force: The 1798

Rebellion
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] As these documents were never intended for publication, the
people who wrote them could be completely honest – therefore they contain huge amounts
of private information (especially on secret meetings) that are invaluable for historians trying to
understand the past.

1. The wealthy landowning Church of Ireland minority who controlled Ireland in the
3
eighteenth century.
2. The Penal Laws were discriminatory laws designed to keep Catholics poor and powerless.
Solutions
Any two: Catholics could not vote or sit in parliament; Catholic priests were banned;
Catholics could not open or attend schools; Catholic-owned land had to be divided
equally between all sons upon a father’s death; Catholics had to pay tithes to Church
of Ireland clergy.
3. (a) Anglicans: the Irish parliament was still under the control of Westminster.
(b) Catholics: they could not vote or be MPs.
(c) Presbyterians: they could not vote or be MPs.
4. The ideas of liberty would have appealed to those who wanted Ireland to be more
independent of Britain. Equality would have appealed to Catholics and Presbyterians who
wanted to end the discrimination they suffered. The revolutions in France and America had
been successful and therefore people believed these ideals were achievable.
5. The British government worried that the French might invade Ireland to support a
revolution and that Ireland might try to break away from Britain.

1. (a) Odious (adj.): extremely unpleasant; repulsive
(b) (b) Sects (n.pl.): different (sometimes conflicting) groups within one religion
2. Tone wanted to unite Protestants, Presbyterians and Catholics ‘under the common and
sacred title of Irishman’.
3. Catholics also needed ‘justice and liberty’ under reform.
4. The alternative would be ‘an unconditional submission to the present, and every future
Administration […] while the people remain divided’; to ‘give up’ against this government
and future ones, and never unite.
5. No, he is arguing for reform and the bringing of Catholics into the present system.

1. Tone witnessed the French Revolution at first hand and was convinced that the ideas of
‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ could be applied to Ireland.
2. He wrote ‘An Argument on behalf of the Catholics of Ireland’, which argued that Catholics
should have the same rights as Protestants.
163
3. The United Irishmen originally wanted religious equality, the removal of British influence
from Ireland (though not an independent republic) and that all men should have the vote
and the right to sit in parliament.
4. (a) Response to concern over Catholic loyalty: Catholics were granted the vote.
(b) Response to concern over possible plots between France and the United Irishmen: the
United Irishmen were banned in 1795.
5. The French sent a fleet and an army to invade Ireland in December 1796, but the larger
part had to turn back in storms.
6. Any two: General Lake’s campaign of terror in Ulster and Leinster; the infiltration of the
United Irishmen by spies and the arrest of the leaders; the setting up of the militia and
yeomanry; the support for the Orange Order.

1. The disruption of the mail coaches from Dublin.
2. Spies had passed on information on the rebellion and the rebels were arrested when they
arrived at their assembly points.
3. The rebels in Ulster were defeated in battles at Antrim and Ballynahinch.
4. Any two: the rebels were better organised; won the initial battles with the government
troops; the sectarian killings of Protestants; lasted nearly a month.
5. Yes. The French only sent about 1,000 troops; they arrived in Mayo, far from the action
and in August, when the rebellion was already over.
6. Any reason is valid once it is backed up by examples and explanation.
7. (a) Wolfe Tone was one of the founders at the meeting in Belfast and his ideas were the
basis for the organisation.
(b) Tone was able to persuade the French to send soldiers to Ireland in 1796 and 1798.
(c) He was abroad and took no direct part in the rebellion but he did return to the island
in October with more French troops. He was arrested, tried and committed suicide
before his execution.

1. Sectarianism is conflict and hatred based on a religious divide.
2. The atrocities in Wexford fed fears that Catholics would target Protestants if they ever
gained control of Ireland.
3. The Act of Union abolished the Irish parliament and meant that Irish MPs would sit in
Westminster instead. The British wanted greater control over Ireland to ensure that there
would be no future rebellions.
4. Dublin went into a decline as many of its wealthy citizens relocated to London and much
of its trade shifted to Belfast.
5. Wolfe Tone was the founder of the physical force republican tradition, which believed that
force would be necessary to win an independent Irish republic from Britain.

1. The small minority of Anglican (Church of Ireland) Protestants held all of the political power
and owned most of the land. There were laws that discriminated against Catholics and
Presbyterians and prevented them from voting and sitting in parliament.
164
2. America fought successfully for its freedom from British rule, inspiring people in Ireland
to believe they could do the same. The French Revolution was about the ideas of liberty
and equality, which appealed to people in Ireland due to the discrimination suffered by
Catholics and Presbyterians. Also, the French were prepared to support other peoples who
rose in revolt against their governments.
3. The United Irishmen were founded to campaign for reform in Ireland to achieve religious
equality, greater freedom from Britain and the right of all men to vote in elections.
4. Positive: the French government sent troops to invade Ireland and support the
United Irishmen.
Negative: the fear of a French invasion led the British to launch a harsh campaign to
destroy the United Irishmen, and after the 1798 rebellion, they pushed the Act of Union
through to ensure they had greater control over Ireland.
5. They were able to arrest nearly all the leaders of the United Irishmen before the
rebellion began.
6. (a) Around Dublin: most of the rebels in Dublin were arrested when they arrived at their
3
assembly points. Small rebel attacks in Kildare, Meath, Carlow and Wicklow were
largely uncoordinated and the rebels were defeated by the British in battles at Carlow
Solutions
town and the Hill of Tara.
(b) In Ulster: 4,000 mostly Presbyterian rebels were defeated in Antrim on 6 June. In
Co. Down, 7,000 rebels were initially victorious at Saintfield, but they too were
defeated later at Ballynahinch.
7. Yes, as the rebels won more battles there than anywhere else, but they also engaged in
atrocities in which hundreds of innocent Protestants were killed.
8. (a) The massacres of Protestants in Wexford; (b) the campaigning of the Orange Order.
1791 Publication of Tone’s pamphlet
1792 The founding of the United Irishmen
1793 Catholics get the vote
1795 Arrest of William Jackson
1796 French fleet in Bantry Bay
1797 General Lake in Ulster
1798 Arrest of Lord Edward FitzGerald
1798 Capture of Enniscorthy
1798 Battle of Vinegar Hill
1798 French troops land in Mayo
1800 The Act of Union
10.
Causes of the Rebellion Course of the Rebellion Consequences of the Rebellion
• The French Revolution • Battle of Vinegar Hill • Growth of sectarianism
• Founding of the United Irishmen • Atrocities in Wexford • Irish Republican rebellions in 1803
• The Penal Laws • French navy in Lough Swilly and 1848
• General Lake’s campaign of terror • Battle of Ballynahinch • Act of Union
• Decline of Dublin
165

1. Key Terms: The 1798 Rebellion (page 85)

Protestant Ascendancy the wealthy land-owning Church of Ireland minority
laws that discriminated against Catholics and were designed to keep them
Penal Laws
poor and powerless
Whiteboys Catholic groups who attacked Protestant landlords in rural areas
Northern Star the newspaper of the United Irishmen
An Argument on Behalf of the Catholics pamphlet by Wolfe Tone where he argued for better treatment of Catholics
of Ireland
the French sent a fleet to invade Ireland but they were unable to land due
Bantry Bay, December 1796
to stormy weather
Orange Order organisation founded to promote unity amongst Protestants
Lord Edward FitzGerald United Irishmen leader arrested in weeks before the Rebellion
Henry Joy McCracken United Irishmen leader who was defeated at Antrim
Father John Murphy leader of the United Irishmen in Wexford
Scullabogue site of a massacre of Protestants by the United Irishmen in Wexford
Vinegar Hill battle where the United Irishmen were defeated in Wexford
Sectarianism conflict and hatred based on a religious divide
The Act of Union an act passed in 1800 that abolished the Irish parliament
Wolfe Tone was the first person to argue for an independent Irish republic
The Father of Irish Republicanism
and advocate the use of violence to achieve it

1. Source: The Rebellion in Wexford (page 86)
Image A
1. A group of soldiers (United Irishmen) have surrounded a young woman and are stabbing
her with pikes. A man and dog are lying dead on the ground. In the background, someone
is watching and trying to hide/escape.
2. (a) The woman evokes sympathy and pity. She looks terrified, is innocent and is being
murdered alongside her grandfather (see caption).
(b) The soldiers evoke feelings of anger and disgust. They are savagely killing people who
are no direct threat, and they have animalistic features.
3. The artist was an opponent of the Rebellion: he depicts the United Irishmen as brutes and
savages who murdered innocent men and women.
166
Image B
1. A large crowd of United Irishmen are using their pikes to force people into a barn or keep
them there while it burns down. People are trying to escape through the windows and
holes but the men outside are preventing them from leaving.
2. The massacre of 200 Protestants at Scullabogue.
3. (a) Inside the barn: we feel sympathy as the people inside are terrified, are being prevented
from escaping the fire and we know they will die there.
(b) Outside the barn: we feel anger and outrage, as they are killing innocent people inside
the barn (including several women and children) by burning them alive.
4. The artist was likely to have been against the Rebellion, as he highlights the brutality and
savagery of the rebels in the killing of innocent Protestants.
If I were a Protestant living in Ireland in the 1830s and saw these images, I might…
• Feel angry and horrified about what happened – and afraid of it happening to me and
my family.
3
• Worry that what happened during the Rebellion would happen again if the protection of
the British army were removed.
Solutions
• Be afraid that, as the United Irishmen were nearly all Catholics, they might oppress
Protestants or massacre us if they got more power. I would probably take action to
ensure that didn’t happen.
2. Source: A Letter from Wexford (page 88)

1. The writer’s letter is expressing fear and a sense of threat.
2. The reports from Naas say ‘the rebels have defeated and killed Captain Swayne,
of Youghall’.
3. Rebels and spies.
4. A ‘genteel-looking’ (well-dressed) man approached her yesterday outside the house and
was arrested today with plans of all the houses in the area, the number of their occupants,
and a copy of Enlightenment writer Thomas Paine’s Age of Reason on his person.
5. A writer during the American Revolution. This man might have been influenced by
his ideas.
6. One of her neighbours is paying a guard to sleep in her home.
7. Yes. During the rebellion in Wexford, many Protestants were killed by the rebels. That the
young man had information on the layout of each house and how many people might
defend it certainly suggests that an attack was being planned.
167
Chapter 15: Parliamentary Tradition:

Daniel O’Connell
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] We rely on hand-drawn pictures, paintings or etchings to
show us the past. These are often influenced by the artists who created them. A photo is more
accurate/objective and so gives us a more reliable vision of how the past looked.

1. Ireland’s population grew from 5.5 million to 8.2 million = an increase of 2.7 million.
2. Belfast and Dublin differed from the rest of the island because they had some industry.
3. Any two: Linen, lace or shipbuilding around Belfast; wool, weaving or Guinness’s brewery
in Dublin.
4. Some of Ireland’s rapidly rising population had migrated to the cities to seek work. People
were housed in large tenement buildings in the centres, sometimes two families to a room.
5. Conditions were unsanitary; sewage sometimes overflowed into water sources; disease
spread easily; people worked hard for long hours, for low pay, with no job security;
drinking, gambling and fighting were common and the crime rate was high.
6. Ireland did not have enough of the resources needed for industrialisation, such as coal.
Some also believed that the United Kingdom would work better if Ireland produced the
food to feed people on both islands and Britain did the same with industrial goods, so
there was little effort to develop any industry on this island.

1. One hundred Irish MPs represented Ireland in Westminster.
2. Chief Secretary: the head of the Irish government in Westminster.
Lord Lieutenant: the king’s representative in Ireland.
3. Catholic emancipation: the demand for Catholics to be allowed to become MPs, and sit
in parliament.
4. Catholics had been promised emancipation under the Union but that promise had
been broken.

1. O’Connell supported the ideals of the French Revolution but was horrified by its violence
and was opposed to political violence for the rest of his life.
2. The Catholic Association collected the ‘Catholic rent’, which paid for the campaign,
supported pro-emancipation MPs, paid the legal costs of those arrested for campaigning
and paid for publicity material.
3. In 1828 O’Connell was elected to Westminster as an MP but was unable to take his seat.
4. The British government responded to O’Connell’s election by passing the Emancipation Act
because they feared that otherwise a revolution would break out in Ireland.
5. ‘Monster meetings’ were huge rallies in support of repealing the Act of Union, sometimes
attended by over 100,000 people. The government was afraid that these would lead to
a rebellion.
168
6. He cancelled the meeting when it was banned, afraid that there would be violence if the
government tried to break up the assembly. The Repeal Association split as a result and the
other faction formed the Young Irelanders.
7. (a) Other Irish leaders followed O’Connell’s example of rejecting violence to achieve
political change through peaceful means (such as Parnell, Redmond and Hume).
(b) O’Connell was an influence on non-violent mass protest movements around the world,
such as those led by Mahatma Gandhi in India or by Dr King in the US.

1. Belfast was a thriving port city, with a large industrial base and had a mainly Protestant
population. Dublin was mainly Catholic, had little industry, was in decline, was
overcrowded and had many social problems.
2. Ireland’s industrial cities were unsanitary, had poor sewage, and diseases were common.
People lived in tenements. They worked hard for low pay with no job security and there
was a high crime rate.
3
3. Ireland did not undergo an industrial revolution like Britain’s firstly because it lacked
some of the resources (e.g. coal) that industrialisation would require. However, a larger
Solutions
issue was the theory that the Union would work better if Ireland produced the food for
both islands and Britain did the same with industrial products. There was little desire to
develop Ireland.
4. Any three: Irish Catholics could not enter parliament; they had to pay tithes to the Church
of Ireland; tenant farmers had few rights; an educated Catholic middle class was emerging
that had the strength to fight for change.
5. O’Connell was extremely popular and powerful in Ireland, especially since he forced the
passing of Catholic emancipation. To be called this by the actual king is also likely to have
been a sign of respect, however inconvenient O’Connell’s agitations were for the Crown.

1. Key Terms: Parliamentary Tradition (page 91)

Tenement a building housing a large number of families in separate rooms
Linen industry the key textile industry around Belfast
Act of Union the 1800 law that merged the parliaments of Britain and Ireland
Catholic Association the organisation founded by Daniel O’Connell to campaign for Catholic emancipation
Monster meeting huge rallies organised by O’Connell and attended by hundreds of thousands
Catholic Rent the one-penny membership fee of the Catholic Association
Young Irelanders group that split away from O’Connell after the Clontarf meeting was cancelled
Chief Secretary head of the Irish government under the Union
Lord Lieutenant the king’s representative in Dublin
Catholic emancipation the demand that Catholics be allowed to sit in parliament
169

1. Source: Punch Magazine on Daniel O’Connell (page 92)
1. The cartoon depicts a large fat man/’ogre’ (according to the caption) sitting on a number
of bags of ‘rint’, holding a club labelled ‘repeal’, eating ‘agitation soup’, made out of the
‘finest pisantry in the world’.
2. O’Connell is shown as an ogre, a savage who eats the people who support him.
3. His club is labelled to show how he threatens Britain with repeal and how dangerous he is
with it as a weapon.
4. He is using the peasants to create agitation to get what he wants.
5. To show he thinks of the Irish as backwards and uneducated. This was a view commonly
held in England at the time.
6. The cartoonist has a negative view of both. O’Connell is shown as a monster, a fat ogre
hoarding the Catholic ‘rint’ gathered by the Irish poor for the cause. Repeal is a weapon to
be used against England.
2. Source: The ‘Catholic Rent’ (page 93)

1. Catholics have long been engaged in ‘a painful and anxious struggle to attain... those civil
rights to which every subject of these realms is entitled’.
2. They have used ‘peaceful and constitutional means’.
3. Pecuniary resources are needed to ‘effectively to exert the energies of the Irish people’.
4. To raise a monthly subscription ‘throughout Ireland, to be denominated “the monthly
Catholic rent”’.
5. One penny per month.
6. The association talks about how the fight is ‘just and holy. It is the cause of religion and
liberty. It is the cause of their country and their God’ and it makes reference to cooperating
with local Catholic chapels for the collection of the rent.
170
Chapter 16: The Great Famine and the

Irish Diaspora
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] In the left-hand picture, we see a starving boy and girl in
rags searching for food on the ground. In the right-hand picture, we see cottiers begging the
landlord (on horseback) not to evict them from their cottage, while his agents tear their roof
down. Life was incredibly difficult for ordinary people: many were made homeless while they
were starving.
3
1. The Agricultural Revolution was the period of change when advances in agriculture made
more food available, which increased life expectancy.
Solutions
2. Norfolk system: a four-crop rotation cycle of wheat, turnips, oats/barley and clover/grass
over four years.
Enclosure: when each tenant farmer’s fields were grouped together in one small farm,
fenced off, instead of in strips all across the landlord’s land.
Selective breeding: reserving the largest or most suitable animals for breeding rather than
for meat.
3. Technology affected/changed agriculture by leading to more food being produced; sowing
seeds became more efficient, wastage went down and crop harvesting became cheaper
and quicker.
4. A cottier was a labourer who rented one acre from a farmer.

1. Between 1845 and 1850.
2. More people had to survive on smaller plots of land and became reliant on potatoes as the
largest part of their diets.
3. Just one acre of land could grow enough potatoes to feed a family for six months. The
potato was suited to Ireland’s damp climate, it was easy to grow and harvest, and it stored
well, unlike grain.
4. Potato blight is a fungus that spreads in damp and humid weather and destroys potato crops.
5. Any one, with a reason given: Rise in population, poverty; subdivision of land leading to
ever smaller farms; reliance on the potato; cottiers worked in exchange for rent rather than
for money; the potato blight.

1. Other European countries were not as reliant on farming and had other available food.
2. Typhus and cholera killed many due to bad living conditions and dirty water. People moving
to towns for work brought disease with them and it spread rapidly.
3. Eviction: when someone is removed from their home.
4. Many people evicted from their homes emigrated.
171
5. The west, south and midlands of Ireland were most affected. These were the poorer areas
of Ireland and the least industrialised.
6. People from the countryside went there looking for work as they were cities with factories
and other industries.

1. The British government took a laissez-faire (‘let it be’) attitude to the economy; British
farmers did not depend on the potato for food as they had alternatives. The British
government thought the situation was the same in Ireland.
2. A government should not interfere in the economy as it would correct itself eventually.
3. Maize: aid was given in the form of maize – enough to feed one million people for one
month. It was offered at cost price, but many still could not afford it or else sold all they
had to buy the maize.
Public works schemes: set up for people to earn money by building roads, walls or bridges.
People earned 1 shilling per day, but this still wasn’t enough as prices had risen due to
shortages.
4. Workhouse: a large building where people worked in return for basic accommodation
and food.
Advantages: it provided people with somewhere to go. People received basic
accommodation and food. Disadvantages: families were split up. Diseases spread easily.
5. Soup kitchens were places that gave hot soup to starving people who were not
in workhouses.
6. Queen Victoria, Pope Pius IX, the Choctaw Nation and the Ottoman Sultan.

1. Two million people either died or emigrated.
2. There was an end to the subdivision of land. Farms were no longer split between sons;
instead the eldest son inherited everything when his father died. This allowed for larger
farms, though many younger sons and daughters had to emigrate.
3. Many blamed the British government for the suffering of the Irish people during the
Famine. It led to a growing belief that Britain should not control Irish affairs and made
many determined to win Irish independence. Support for nationalist groups rose.
4. The west and south-west of Ireland.

1. Irish diaspora: the scattering of Irish migrants and their descendants across the world.
2. There were jobs in Britain due to the Industrial Revolution. The Irish already had a history of
emigrating to Britain, with an Irish diaspora already present in many cities, e.g. Liverpool.
Many used Britain as their first step to travel to Canada or the US.
3. The Irish became involved in the building trade and transport, particularly as dockers. They
were heavily involved in the building of the British canal, road and rail networks in the
nineteenth century.
4. The Irish married into the British population and moved up the social class system.
Today, up to six million people in the UK have an Irish-born grandparent (around 10%
of the population).
172

1. The Famine migrants were Catholic and most spoke Irish. There was a large Protestant
population already in the US, and they did not welcome the new Catholic migrants, who
suffered discrimination. Many of the Irish were uneducated. They often competed with
Americans for manual labour jobs.
2. The Irish did manual labour jobs or were recruited from the docks by the US Army to serve
in the American Civil War and afterwards to build the Union Pacific Railroad.
3. Between 1841 and 1850, around 910,000 Irish emigrated to the US – 250,000 in 1847
alone. Today, over 41 million Americans claim Irish ancestry,

1. A primary written source.
2. Any points from: ‘Hundreds of poor people, men, women and children of all ages huddled
together without light, without air, wallowing in filth and breathing a fetid atmosphere,
3
sick in body, dispirited in heart; the fevered patients lying beside the sound, by their
agonised ravings disturbing those around’.
Solutions
3. Poor quality: ‘The food is generally ill-selected and seldom sufficiently cooked’.
4. Drunkenness was not discouraged ‘because it is found profitable by the captain who
traffics in grog [watered-down rum]’: the captain was making money from it.
5. Benefit: The source bears witness to the conditions on the ships travelling to America.
Limitation: Points may be exaggerated due to emotion, as it is an eyewitness account and
it is clear that its author pities those in steerage.

1. The Agricultural Revolution in Britain brought with it new inventions such as the seed
drill and the mechanical reaper. The Norfolk system and enclosure replaced previous field
systems. Selective breeding made animals bigger and healthier. All of these factors meant
that food was more abundant than before – but also that fewer hands were needed on
farms. Thousands left the countryside and went to seek work in the cities.
2. Improvements were made to farming in Ireland due to enclosure and new machinery,
however, most farmers were cottiers, so labour was still needed, and most could not afford
the new inventions as they were poor.
3. About 70% of Irish people still lived in the countryside. Most farmers in Ireland were
tenant farmers. There were two types:
Large farmers were farmers who rented more than 30 acres. They hired labourers to help
them on the farm and grew wheat and barley to pay their rent. They also kept some cattle
and sheep. Their diet consisted of meat, milk, potatoes and vegetables.
Small farmers were farmers who rented between five and 30 acres. They divided land
amongst their sons. They grew wheat and barley to pay their rent. Their diet consisted of
potatoes and milk.
Poorer people worked as labourers. Cottiers were labourers who rented one acre from
a farmer. They usually paid their rent by working for the farmer. They had a one-room
thatched cottage and grew potatoes.
173
1945 The first year the crops failed
1946 The year farmers lost two-thirds of their crop
late 1946 The year the Quakers set up soup kitchens
1947 The year there was no blight, but farmers had few seeds to plant
1947 The year the workhouse population reached 200,000
5. Public works schemes were set up to pay people to build public works such as roads, walls
and bridges. This was not an appropriate way to help a starving people, as they were
physically weak and earned only one shilling per day, which was not enough to survive on.
6. Student can agree or disagree as long as they give reasons/explanations for their answer.
7. Many were uneducated; many could not speak English; religious differences led to
discrimination and conflict, etc.
8. Any three: Over time, people began to favour the English language over Irish because it
would help them find work elsewhere if they needed to emigrate; Ireland’s population has
never regained its pre-Famine levels; support rose for nationalist groups and paved the way
for uprisings and rebellions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; Ireland
changed from largely tillage farming to pasture/cattle farming.

3. (a) A primary written source.
(b) Digging with the spade and the pick; carrying loads of earth and ‘turves’ (sods of turf)
on their backs; wheeling barrows; breaking stones.
(c) Men were generally bigger and stronger, so most could probably carry out more
manual labour than most women and certainly all children.
(d) Benefit: Shows what working in the public works schemes was like, and how much pay
people received.
Limitation: May contain exaggeration as it is an account from a witness who was
clearly troubled by the Famine’s terrible effects on people.

1. Multiple Choice Questions (page 95)
1. (a)
2. (a)
3. (b)
4. (b)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (c)
8. (a)
9. (b)
10. (b)
174
2. Key Terms: The Great Famine (page 96)

Norfolk system a four-crop rotation with a cycle of wheat, turnips, oats/barley and clover/grass over four years
each tenant farmer’s fields were grouped together in one small farm, fenced off, instead of in
Enclosure
strips all across the landlord’s land
Selective breeding reserving the largest or most suitable animals for breeding rather than for meat
Seed drill a machine, pulled by a horse or ox, that sowed seeds at the right depth, in straight rows
Mechanical reaper a horse-drawn cart with a cutting blade that cut crops neatly in straight rows
Large farmers farmers who rented more than thirty acres
Small farmers farmers who rented between five and thirty acres
Cottier a labourer who rented one acre from a farmer
3
Potato blight a fungus that spreads in damp and humid weather and destroys potato crops
Eviction when someone is removed from their home
Solutions
the attitude that a government should not interfere in the economy and it would correct itself
Laissez-faire
eventually
Workhouse a building where people worked in return for basic accommodation and food
Soup kitchens places that gave hot soup to starving people who were not in workhouses
Irish diaspora the spread of Irish migrants and their descendants across the world

1. Source: A Factory Inspector’s Report (page 97)
2. The boys in the factories gave the evidence.
3. 6 am Friday until 4 pm Saturday = 34 hours
4. The children were working far longer hours than was legal. In one shift, these children had
already worked 34 of the 54 hours that were legal for an entire week’s work. No mention
is made of the two hours of schooling that is also required (but it seems highly unlikely!).
5. No, because children were still working too many hours, and didn’t have much time
for education.
6. Benefit: Shows us how conditions were for children working in the factories.
Limitation: The source may contain bias, as the inspector’s job was to find factories that
were breaking the new regulations.
2. Source: Punch Magazine on the Famine (page 98)

2. An English labourer in the countryside is struggling to carry a grinning Irish man who has a
sack of money slung over one shoulder.
3. This tells us that many people did not agree with famine relief being given to Ireland. They
felt that the English would struggle as a result.
4. Benefit: Shows one opinion of the Irish in England held by some English people at the time.
Limitation: It is from an English magazine and the illustration and the message are both
critical, so bias is likely.
175
Chapter 17: Ireland 1884–1914: Politics,

Culture and Sport
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The harp and shamrock details on the medal are expressing
Irishness, as is the newspaper banner line done in the style of Early Christian Irish scribes,
with illustrated lettering.

1. Nationalist: someone who believes that their people are their own nation.
Unionist: someone who wants Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom.
Republic: a country not ruled by a monarch, but instead ruled by its citizens, who choose
their representatives.
2. The IRB (Irish Republican Brotherhood), also known as Fenians.
3. Home Rule: Ireland would have its own parliament in Dublin to govern local affairs, such
as education and health, while Westminster could still control trade and foreign affairs.
Ireland would still be part of the United Kingdom.
4. Unionists believed that ‘Home Rule is Rome Rule’ – that they would be discriminated
against as Protestants if there were a Catholic-majority parliament in Dublin. Unionists also
feared that trade in the North could be badly affected by Home Rule.
5. Any one: Edward Carson; Walter Hume Long; Edward Saunderson.
6. The Penal Laws and the Plantations meant that few Irish Catholics people owned land,
while the Famine allowed a new group of middle-class farmers to acquire bigger farms.

1. Parliamentary obstruction: deliberate interference with the progress of legislation, for
example by making very long speeches to delay the passage of laws through parliament.
Political agitation: encouraging people to form local groups to demand better treatment,
for example by refusing to pay rent or cooperate with local landlords.
2. Parnell tried to solve the ‘Land Question’ by founding the Land League to gain loans from
the British government, lower rents and prevent evictions. This was popular with Irish
Catholic farmers. In May 1882 they signed the Kilmainham Treaty, which gave tenants
access to land courts and helped tenants who owed money to pay their rents.
3. The Conservative Party was against the First Home Rule Bill. Many felt that Home Rule
would eventually lead to Ireland having full independence. The bill was defeated in June
1886, by 341 votes to 311 in the House of Commons.
4. In 1887, false accusations of supporting violence and even of involvement in the Phoenix
Park Murders were made against Parnell in The Times newspaper, which published a letter it
claimed he had written. Catholic Ireland disapproved of Parnell’s relationship with Katharine
O’Shea, who in 1890 was in the process of going through a divorce from her husband.
Some Liberal Party members feared that their ties to Parnell would damage them politically.
176

1. Cultural nationalism: focuses on promoting a national identity shaped by shared cultural
traditions and language.
Anglicisation: the spreading of English culture throughout Ireland, leading to people
speaking English, following English customs and playing English sports.
2. The Gaelic League was set up to renew enthusiasm for the Irish language and halt
its decline.
3. They founded an Irish newspaper called An Claidheamh Soluis (‘Sword of Light’), which
published works in Irish such as poems and short stories. They trained travelling teachers
called timirí to teach Irish to local communities. They organised feiseanna and céilidhe to
encourage Irish dancing and traditional Irish music. They aimed to increase the standard of
written Irish throughout the country.
4. The Irish Literary Revival was a movement that aimed to promote Irish literature and
coincided with a renewed interest in Gaelic Irish heritage.
3
5. The theatre supported Irish writers and staged plays such as Kathleen ni Houlihan and The
Playboy of the Western World. Plays held in the theatre were Irish in character but written
Solutions
in English, with content and themes inspired by ancient Irish myths and legends, as well as
by contemporary Irish society.

1. English sports such as tennis, cricket, soccer and rugby had become very popular in Ireland.
Irish sports such as hurling and Gaelic football were in decline and were even unknown in
some areas. They were poorly organised and the rules differed in different parts of
the country.
2. Hayes Hotel in Thurles, Co. Tipperary, by Michael Cusack.
3. Any two: The Home Rule Party; the IRB; and the Catholic Church.
4. Any two: Clubs were formed all over the country and also abroad; games were allowed on
Sundays for the first time; new rules were agreed; people were banned from playing Gaelic
sports if they also played or attended foreign sports (rugby, cricket, soccer, tennis).
5. The scandal about Parnell and O’Shea split the GAA as well as the Irish Parliamentary Party,
leading to many members leaving the GAA.
6. Any two: The GAA revived sports in Irish society; it linked sport and nationalism in a
way that hadn’t been done before; it provided a social and physical outlet for people
from different social classes in towns and the countryside; it became a recruitment
ground for IRB and Home Rule; many members would later be involved in future efforts
to gain independence.

1. The Irish Parliamentary Party was reunified under John Redmond in 1900. It had little
power, but steady support as there was no real alternative.
2. Sinn Féin’s aims: a dual monarchy; to develop Irish industry by having tariffs put on
goods transported across international borders; to achieve these by using parliamentary
abstention, meaning that Irish MPs would withdraw from the Westminster parliament and
a Dublin parliament would deal with Ireland’s internal affairs.
3. Sinn Féin intended to achieve their aims by abstaining from the Westminster parliament,
whereas the IPP would not abstain but seek change from within the parliamentary system.
177
4. Dual monarchy means the King/Queen of England would also be the King/Queen
of Ireland.
5. Any two: Complete independence from Britain; to make Ireland a republic; to use physical
force to achieve this.
6. The Unionist Party wanted: the parliament in Westminster to continue to make laws for
Ireland; the British government and the Crown to still have representatives in Ireland.

1. Unionists were against Home Rule and didn’t want Ulster counties to be part of it.
Nationalists were for Home Rule, with Ireland represented as a woman and wolfhound,
who are behind the Home Rule flag physically and metaphorically.
2. Anti-Home Rule Poster: The Red Hand of Ulster; county names – all nine Ulster counties.
Pro-Home Rule Poster: Woman dressed in Celtic-style clothing, wolfhound, green flag,
harp, slogan ‘Erin Unfurls Her Flag’, poem/song invoking destiny and talking about the
‘free, green flag’.
3. (a) Benefits: Shows what symbols were linked with unionism and nationalism then and
also something about the artistic styles popular at the time. They show the issues that
were current then and what approach the designers thought might influence people.
(b) Bias is likely, as each poster is trying to convince people to support its side of the Home
Rule question.

1. The Parliament Act meant that the House of Lords could not fully veto any bill and could
only delay laws from passing for two years. This made Home Rule a possibility in the near
future.
2. 1914
3. UVF: Ulster Volunteer Force
4. Any two: Organised demonstrations and protests against Home Rule; made a declaration
called the Ulster Solemn League and Covenant; founded the UVF; bought guns and
ammunition into the country in the Larne gun-running.
5. IVF: Irish Volunteer Force
6. The IVF (Irish Volunteer Force) was officially founded at the Rotunda in Dublin. Gathered
weapons and ammunition. The Howth gun-running took place in July 1914, when 900
rifles and 25,000 rounds of ammunition were landed in Howth in north Co. Dublin.

1. (a) Unionists felt it would help to maintain their union with Britain and that they might
receive special treatment after the war.
(b) Nationalists hoped it would benefit Ireland when it came to the Home Rule
negotiations after the war.
2. The Irish Volunteer Force split over the issue of whether or not to support Britain in World
War I. Some felt joining Britain in World War I would benefit the cause of Home Rule,
while others wanted to stay and keep up the pressure to make Home Rule happen.
3. National Volunteers: 175,000 agreed with Redmond that supporting Britain would benefit
Home Rule.
Irish Volunteers: 11,000 disagreed and were led by Eoin MacNeill. They stayed in Ireland to
pursue Home Rule.
178
4. About 250,000 Irishmen fought on Britain’s side in World War I.

5. Many Irishmen fought in World War I not only because of their political beliefs, but
because times were hard at home and it was a good opportunity to earn money to send
home to their families.

1. The south of Ireland (roughly speaking, the three provinces of Connacht, Leinster and
Munster) was mainly Catholic: by 1911, 89.6% of its population was Catholic. In contrast,
the north of Ireland (roughly speaking, Ulster) had a slight Protestant majority, at 56.33%.
Many were descended from the settlers of the Ulster Plantation.
2. Constitutional nationalists wanted to see the re-establishment of a parliament in Ireland
and to achieve this through political means. They believed that the British parliament was
too far removed from Irish issues to deal with them properly. On the other hand, radical
nationalists wanted full independence from Britain and believed that, if necessary, they
should use force to achieve this.
3
3. Irish MPs and Lords would leave Westminster; Ireland would have an elected parliament
in Dublin; this parliament could make laws for internal affairs; Westminster would keep
Solutions
control of external affairs; a viceroy would represent the British monarch in Ireland.
4. To promote a national identity; to stop the spread of English culture; to help prevent the
further decline of the Irish language; to boost Irish culture.
5. The IPP/Home Rule Party’s aims were unchanged:
• to achieve Home Rule or self-government by having a parliament in Dublin to deal with
internal affairs. Westminster could look after external affairs.
• the King/Queen of England to also be the King/Queen of Ireland.
Sinn Féin wanted:
• a dual monarchy, where the King/Queen of England would also be the King/Queen
of Ireland.
• to develop Irish industry by having tariffs put on goods transported across
international borders.
• to achieve these by using parliamentary abstention, meaning that Irish MPs would
withdraw from the Westminster parliament created in the 1801 Act of Union to set up
their own parliament in Dublin.
• the Dublin parliament would deal with Ireland’s internal affairs.
6. The Third Home Rule Bill was similar to the other Home Rule Bills: Ireland would have
its own parliament in Dublin to deal with internal affairs. The parliament in Westminster
would deal with external affairs such as foreign policy and taxation.
7. It led to mixed reaction in Ireland. Unionists believed ‘Home Rule was Rome Rule’ and they
felt that trade would be greatly affected. They felt it would not go ahead if opposition was
strong enough, so they organised demonstrations and protests against Home Rule. They
signed (in their own blood) the Ulster Solemn League and Covenant, which stated that
Unionists would ‘use all means to defend the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule
Parliament in Ireland’. They set up the UVF to use force and bought arms and ammunition
from Germany.
In response to this, nationalists followed the Unionist example to pressure the British
government to make sure Home Rule did indeed happen. They set up the IVF and bought
arms and ammunition from Germany.
179
8. Home Rule was not achieved in this period (1884–1914) because on 4 August 1914 Britain
declared war on Germany, beginning World War I. The Home Rule Bill became law on
18 September but was immediately suspended because of the war.

5. Students are to draw a timeline of events that happened during the Home Rule Crisis,
beginning with the Parliament Act of 1911 and proceeding in the correct sequence.
Example events below.
1911 Parliament Act
1912 Third Home Rule Bill
1912 Ulster Solemn League and Covenant
1913 UVF set up
1913 IVF set up
1914 Larne gun-running
1914 Howth gun-running
1914 World War I begins

1. Timeline: Charles Stewart Parnell (page 100)
Students are to create a timeline featuring major events from the career and life of Charles
Stewart Parnell between 1846 and 1891. Central events listed below.
1846 Born in Wicklow
1875 Elected to parliament as member of Home Rule Party
1880 Became leader of Home Rule Party
1881 Jailed for his political agitation
1882 Signed the Kilmainham Treaty with Gladstone; Phoenix Park Murders take place
1885 Irish Parliamentary party (once the Home Rule Party) hold balance of power in parliament
1886 First Home Rule Bill defeated
1887 False accusations, forgery proven, standing ovation in House of Commons
1890 Revelation of his relationship with Katharine O’Shea; disgrace
1891 Died of pneumonia
2. Fill in the Gaps: Political Groups in Ireland in 1910 (page 100)

Missing words: John Redmond, constitutional, Home Rule, Dublin, external, Arthur
Griffith, industry, parliamentary abstention, Westminster parliament, Irish Republican
Brotherhood, physical force, radical, independence, republic, Union, Edward Carson,
Westminster, representatives.
180
3. Matching: Political Beliefs (page 101)
Constitutional Nationalist Radical Nationalist Unionist

Re-establish an Irish parliament IRB Stay part of Britain
Home Rule Use force Edward Carson
Political methods Full independence Colonel Edward Saunderson
Isaac Butt Republic Home Rule is Rome Rule
Look after internal affairs Secret oathbound society Mainly Protestant
John Redmond James Stephens
Charles Stewart Parnell Mainly Catholic
Mainly Catholic
3
Solutions
1. Source: A Lecture by Douglas Hyde (page 102)
2. Douglas Hyde asks people to stop turning to Britain for culture, literature, etc. and to
instead get it from Irish sources: ‘to set his face against this constant running to England
for our books, literature, music, games, fashions, and ideas’.
3. Irish people have become anglicised because of their ‘constant running to England’ for their
culture. That in turn caused Irish people to speak English more, read English more, etc.
4. Benefit: Shows the opinions of Douglas Hyde at the time.
Limitation: Contains bias.
2. Source: John Redmond’s Speech to Woodenbridge (page 103)

2. Redmond asks people to ‘go on drilling and make yourself efficient for the work, and
then account for yourselves as men, not only in Ireland itself, but wherever the firing line
extends in defence of right, of freedom and religion’.
3. The Volunteer’s duty is ‘at all costs, to defend the shores of Ireland from foreign invasion’.
4. Because at the time Ireland was about to achieve Home Rule, and many people did not
agree that the Irish should be supporting Britain in World War I.
5. Benefit: Shows the reasons given by the IPP for supporting Britain in World War I.
Limitation: It may be an example of propaganda as it is appealing to people’s emotions to
convince them to act in a particular way.
181
3. Source: Recruitment Poster (page 104)

2. Reasons: Cathedrals and churches have been violated in Belgium; ministers of religion have
been driven from their churches by the Germans; if Germany succeeds, Ireland will also be
crushed, etc.
3. Any two: The Irish Guards, the Munsters, the Inniskillings, the Connaughts, the Dublins,
the Leinsters, etc.
4. Benefit: Shows some reasons given at the time for joining the fight in World War I.
Limitation: It is an example of propaganda as it is appealing to people’s emotions to
convince them of something, e.g. ‘glorious deeds’, ‘accompany your brave countrymen’.
182
Chapter 18: Ireland 1916–1923:

The Struggle for Independence
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] We can learn that Cork city was ruined during Ireland’s struggle
for independence. We learn that children’s lives were lost during the Rising.

1. Blood sacrifice: they would give up their lives for the good of the future of Ireland.
2. The role of the Military Council was to secretly organise a rising.
3
3. Support from outside Ireland included funds from Irish-Americans. Joseph Plunkett and the
Irishman and former British diplomat Sir Roger Casement used the money to buy arms and
Solutions
ammunition from Germany.
4. The purpose of the Castle Document was to convince Eoin MacNeill and the Irish
Volunteers to support the Rising, by showing MacNeill a forged document on Dublin Castle
paper stating that the British government planned to disarm the Irish Volunteers.
5. The Aud was captured by the British navy in Tralee Bay on the Friday before Easter, sunk
by its captain and all 20,000 rifles were lost. Also, Casement, who had been travelling
in a German submarine, was captured. Finally, Eoin MacNeill found out that the Castle
Document was a forgery and cancelled the Irish Volunteers’ participation in the Rising.

1. The Rising went ahead because Pearse felt that the British would not expect this after the
loss of the Aud, and as it was a bank holiday Monday, many British soldiers based in Dublin
had the day off. Knowing that it would be a military failure did not deter him; he felt that
the ‘blood sacrifice’ would have a powerful effect.
2. The rebels were trying to spread their fighting around the city in different areas, maybe to
split up the British forces in many areas. They were also using main landmarks/buildings in
the city and may have been taking into account that British reinforcements would probably
arrive at the harbours and train stations.
3. Patrick Pearse read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic outside the GPO.
4. British response, any two: Extra soldiers were quickly brought in from the Curragh barracks
in Co. Kildare; reinforcements came from England through ports such as Dún Laoghaire;
the gunboat the Helga was brought up the Liffey and shelled the GPO; the British
surrounded the rebels’ locations (and used better weapons: shells, snipers, grenades, etc.).
5. Any of the reasons in the box, with a reason given for the student’s choice.

1. Buildings and properties were damaged throughout the city, to the cost of nearly
€4 million in today’s money.
2. (a) Three thousand people were sent to British prisons.
(b) Ninety leaders of the Rising were sentenced to death: 15 were shot in Kilmainham
Gaol, Dublin, including all members of the Military Council, and Casement was hanged
in London.
183
3. The executions were stopped because popular opinion at home and abroad had begun to
turn towards sympathy for the rebels.
4. People began to feel sympathy towards the leaders, who had caused havoc in Dublin but
were ultimately dying for the cause of Irish freedom. They did not want more Irish lives to
be lost. Anger began to grow towards the British.

1. Centenary: the 100-year anniversary of an event.
Commemoration: a ceremony or celebration in which a person or an event is remembered.
2. 2016 marked the centenary of the 1916 Easter Rising.
3. Students may voice any opinion, once it is explained. Examples might include: people may
be upset about commemorations of 1916 if they have a family connection to someone
who was affected or killed. Some people may fear that a commemoration of an event such
as the Rising might encourage other uprisings or rebellions.

1. Conscription: is when it is made compulsory for men aged 18 and over to join the army for
a period of time.
TD(s): teachtaire/teachtaí dála
2. Sinn Féin became associated with the Rising as it was given the recognition and credit for
the Easter Rising in newspapers at the time.
3. Sinn Féin began to win by-elections in 1917 and 1918, filling seats that were empty due to
retirements and deaths during World War I.
4. The proposed conscription was met with major opposition from the Irish people. When the
British government dropped its plan to introduce conscription, Sinn Féin received most of
the credit for this, further increasing the party’s popularity.
5. Pie chart showing the results of the 1918 Election.
73 Sinn Féin
23 Unionist Party
6 Irish Parliamentary Party
6. The First Dáil took place on 21 January 1919.

7. Dáil Éireann means ‘meeting of Ireland’.
8. Éamon de Valera: President of the Dáil; Arthur Griffith: Minister for Home Affairs; Cathal
Brugha: Minister for Defence, etc.
9. Loans were sourced to help run the new Dáil. Michael Collins raised a loan of over
£300,000 from the general public. De Valera went to the US to get recognition for the
Dáil, and raised nearly $5 million from the supportive Irish emigrant population there.
10. The Dáil tried to establish order by gaining control of local government. They also founded
Sinn Féin courts/Dáil courts to deal with people’s court cases and crimes.
11. The Government of Ireland Act was a law that said there would be a Home Rule
parliament in Ulster and one for the rest of Ireland, to try to keep both Unionists and
nationalists happy.
184

1. The War of Independence began on 21 January 1919 when a Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC)
patrol was ambushed in Soloheadbeg, Co. Tipperary. Two RIC constables were killed by the
group of volunteers led by Dan Breen and Séan Treacy.
2. Guerrilla warfare: a tactic involving ambushes and hit-and-run methods.
3. (a) Rural areas: Local units called flying columns, which took part in large-scale ambushes,
raided local police stations for arms and helped organise the IRA locally.
(b) Urban areas: spies and assassins, e.g. the Squad.
4. Black and Tans: ex-British soldiers named for the colours of their uniforms, a mix of army
and RIC uniforms.
Auxiliaries: ruthless ex-army officers.
5. A reprisal was an act of retaliation against local people in revenge for attacks on British
organisations, e.g. the Bloody Sunday massacre at Croke Park.
6. A truce was declared in July 1921 because the war was costing Britain £20 million a year,
3
and the Irish were running out of arms and ammunition. The British government was also
being criticised at home and abroad.
Solutions
1. Members of the Irish delegation: Arthur Griffith, Michael Collins, Robert Barton, Éamonn
Duggan, George Gavan Duffy and Erskine Childers. Éamon de Valera did not attend.
2. Members of the British delegation: Lloyd George, Winston Churchill, Austin Chamberlain
and Lord Birkenhead. Their advantage was their experience in politics and negotiation,
having just negotiated the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I.
3. The treaty was signed on 6 December 1921.
4. Dominion: a self-governing country within the British Empire. This was more than Home
Rule because Ireland would have its own parliament and be able to look after its own
affairs – but the British king would remain the head of state, so it would remain less than a
republic despite being called ‘the Irish Free State’.
5. Other main terms of the Treaty:
• A governor-general would be the king’s representative in the Free State.
• All TDs would have to take an oath of allegiance to the British Crown.
• Britain would keep three naval ports in Ireland – Cobh, Berehaven and Lough Swilly.
• Northern Ireland would continue to stay in Britain.
• A boundary commission to establish a northern border would be set up.
6. (a) In support of the Treaty:
–– They could not fund a war against Britain any longer.
–– The Treaty could be built on over time and was a stepping stone to full independence.
–– Was an improvement on Home Rule.
–– Guaranteed immediate peace with Britain.
(b) Opposed to the Treaty:
–– They had not achieved the republic that they had fought for and died for.
–– They should have achieved better terms.
–– TDs should not have to swear an oath of allegiance.
–– It left Ireland partitioned.
185

1. The Treaty led to a split in Sinn Féin into pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty sides.
2. (a) Regulars: IRA supporters of the Treaty. Irregulars: (b) IRA members who were against
the Treaty.
3. Results of the 1922 Election: a huge majority of the people supported the Treaty (92 pro-
Treaty candidates to 36 anti-Treaty candidates elected).
4. General O’Connell of the Free State Army was kidnapped. Collins was forced to act.
5. On 28 June 1922, Collins began to attack the Four Courts with artillery borrowed from
Britain. Within two days, the Irregulars in the Four Courts had surrendered. Sixty-four
people died in Dublin. Rory O’Connor was captured.
6. The Munster Republic was where the Irregulars had a lot of support, south of the Limerick–
Waterford line.

1. Griffith and Collins were mourned deeply by members of both the pro-Treaty and
anti-Treaty sides. Collins’s death in particular convinced many that the bloodshed needed
to end.
2. W.T. Cosgrave.
3. The Special Powers Act was an act that allowed the government’s forces to arrest, try and
imprison – or even execute! – IRA members for a number of offences.
4. The pro-Treaty side renamed themselves Cumann na nGaedheal (‘the Union of the Irish’).
Any three: A constitution was written for the Irish Free State (called ‘Saorstát Éireann’);
a parliament called the Oireachtas, made up of the Dáil and the Seanad, was set up; an
Garda Síochána was established; the courts system was reorganised.
5. Long legacy: The two largest political parties in Ireland today have their roots in the Treaty
politics of that time. Cumann na nGaedheal (later Fine Gael) arose from the pro-Treaty side
and Fianna Fáil was formed from the anti-Treaty side.

1. The new state of Northern Ireland was set up as a result of the Government of Ireland
Act 1920. It had a form of Home Rule with its own parliament, later based at Stormont,
Belfast. It was in control of internal affairs such as education and health care.
2. James Craig became Northern Ireland’s first prime minister.
3. The foundation of the RUC and B-Specials; the use of gerrymandering.
4. Gerrymandering: rearrangement of voting districts to benefit one political party.

1. Any opinion, once it is explained.
2. Any opinion, once it is explained, for example: very significant, because it showed the
passion and determination of the Irish, with 13 rebels in several positions holding up some
1,750 soldiers for hours.
186
3.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
24 April 25 April 26 April 27 April 28 April 29 April
Buildings Arrival of British Mount Street – City in ruins Surrender by
occupied soldiers Bridge Pearse
by rebels Arrival of the
Reading of the Helga
Proclamation
by Pearse
4. In the longer term, the Easter Rising: led to a growth in patriotism and nationalism in
Ireland; turned more people against the British and British rule; acted as a motivation
to achieve Irish Independence; led to an increase in popularity for Sinn Féin; led to the
creation of Dáil Éireann, etc.
5. Sinn Féin were given credit for the Easter Rising in newspapers at the time; many people
became convinced that Home Rule would not be enough, so support for the IPP declined;
3
Sinn Féin’s aims changed from continuing a dual monarchy to seeking a republic; steady
winning of by-elections; change of leadership to Éamon de Valera; given credit for the end
Solutions
of the conscription crisis; false accusations of the German Plot.
6. Guerrilla warfare; the intelligence network of spies organised by Michael Collins; local units
called flying columns; the fact that they had the support of the ordinary people; they were
fighting in their own country and knew it well, etc.
April 1918 the Conscription Crisis
December 1918 the General Election
January 1919 the First Dáil *
January 1919 ambush in Soloheadbeg *
1920 the Government of Ireland Act
November 1920 the execution of Kevin Barry
November 1920 Bloody Sunday
July 1921 War of Independence truce
October–December 1921 Treaty debates
January 1922 the Treaty’s acceptance in the Dáil
*These two events took place on the same day and so are also correct if presented in
reverse order.
8. Treaty arguments for:
• The Irish could not fund a war against Britain any longer.
• The Treaty could be built on over time and was a stepping stone to full independence.
• The Treaty was an improvement on Home Rule.
• The Treaty guaranteed immediate peace with Britain.
Treaty arguments against:
• They had not achieved the republic that they had fought for and died for.
• They should have achieved better terms.
• Irish TDs should not have to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown.
• The Treaty left Ireland partitioned.
Any side, once reasons are given.
187
9. Any two: The IRA as well as Sinn Féin split due to the Treaty, into the Regulars and the
Irregulars, with tensions deepening; in April 1922, Irregulars led by Rory O’Connor
occupied the Four Courts and other buildings in Dublin in protest against the Dáil’s
acceptance of the Treaty; Michael Collins could not be seen to ignore this threat to the
newly formed state or else Britain would step in, etc.
10. Any two: A recruitment drive meant that the Free State Army grew to a number of 60,000,
greatly outnumbering the Irregulars; The Regulars/Free State Army had artillery borrowed
from Britain; the Irregulars had to retreat to the countryside in places such as Cork; the
Regulars were able to drive the Irregulars out of barracks that they had taken over, etc.
11. The Civil War came to an end when some key people, such as de Valera, started to believe
that the bloodshed had to stop. After Collins’s death, the Free State government took a
harder line against the Irregulars. The Special Powers Act, allowed the government forces
to arrest, try and imprison – or even execute – IRA members for a number of offences. De
Valera and the new chief of staff of the Irregulars, Frank Aiken, persuaded members of the
IRA to agree to a ceasefire on 24 May 1923.
12. Impact of gerrymandering on Catholics: throughout Northern Ireland, most councillors in
the wards were Unionists. This resulted in discrimination against nationalists in regard to
housing, jobs, schools, local facilities and more.

7. Any five:
A parliament responsible to the Irish people alone; a government responsible to that
parliament; power to make laws; an Irish army; an Irish police force; democratic control; an
Irish legal system; complete financial control; a national flag; freedom of opinion; complete
control of education; complete control of her land systems; power and freedom to develop
resources and industries; a democratic constitution; a state organisation to express the
mind and will of the nation; her rightful place as a nation among nations.
Any two: people might have disagreed with this poster because:
They may have felt that Ireland was not fully free because it had not achieved a republic;
they might have felt that the fact that Ireland still had to swear an oath to Britain meant
that they were not responsible to the Irish people alone; they might have felt that Britain
would still have an influence and control over Ireland.

1. Fill in the Gaps: Planning the Rising (page 106)
IRB, Home Rule, difficulty, opportunity, military council, Clarke, Mac Diarmada, Pearse, Plunkett,
Ceannt, McDonagh, Irish-Americans, Plunkett, Roger Casement, Germany, Monday, blood
sacrifice, Christ’s, James Connolly, Citizen, Labour Party.
188
2. Matching: Pro-Treaty or Anti-Treaty? (page 106)
Pro-Treaty Anti-Treaty
Regulars Irregulars
Arthur Griffith Éamon de Valera
58 seats in 1922 General Election Four Courts occupied
Michael Collins 36 seats in the 1922 General Election
British artillery Cathal Brugha
Four Courts attacked Rory O’Connor
Munster Republic
3. Fill in the Gaps: The Establishment of Northern Ireland
3
(page 107)
Solutions
nationalists, Ireland, Home Rule, education, health care, partition, James Craig, Free State,
Westminster, Unionists, seats.
4. Timeline: The Irish Civil War (page 107)

Significant events between the beginning and the end of the Irish Civil War. Students are to
draw a timeline and enter the dates below on it, in this sequence.
April 1922 Rory O’Connor and Irregulars occupy the Four Courts
June 1922 General Election
June 1922 Collins and Free State Army attack the Four Courts
August 1922 Arthur Griffith dies
August 1922 Michael Collins dies
May 1923 Ceasefire and end of Civil War.
189
5. Crossword: The Struggle for Independence (page 108)

Chapter 18 - Crossword
1
S
2 3
B G E
4 5 6 7
D C L E K C F
8 9
O I R E A C H T A S O R E P R I S A L T L
M S O R L A Y
10 11
I R T D Y C O M M E M O R A T I O N
N E L S M A I N
12
I G U E R R I L L A W A R F A R E I A G
O U D C N N N C
N L O R D H I O
13
A C I R R E G U L A R S S L
R U F R M M U
14
S M C O N S C R I P T I O N G M
E C N A N
15
N E G F O U R C O U R T S
16
P A R T I T I O N L

Across Down
8. The two houses of the ______________ are
1. Source:
the The
Dáil and the Proclamation
Seanad. of the1.Irish
(10) [OIREACHTAS]
Conflict and hatred based on a religious
divide. Republic (page 109)
(12) [SECTARIANISM]
9.
1. An A act of retaliation
primary against local people in
written source. 2. The idea behind the rebels giving up their lives
revenge for attacks on British organisations. for Irelandʼs future. (14) [BLOODSACRIFICE]
2. (8)Any[REPRISAL]
two: the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Irish3. Rearrangement
Volunteers and the of voting
Irish Citizendistricts
Army.to benefit
11. A ceremony or celebration in which a person one political party. (14) [GERRYMANDERING]
3. or‘Her exiled is
an event children in America’
remembered. (12)and ‘her gallant allies in Europe’.
[COMMEMORATION]
4. It declares the ‘right of the people of Ireland to the ownership 4. A self-governing
of Ireland,country
and to thewithin the British
12. A tactic involving ambushes and hit-and-run Empire. (8) [DOMINION]
unfettered
methods. control
(16) of Irish destinies, to be sovereign 5.
[GUERRILLAWARFARE] and indefeasible’
Forgery created(para 3); ‘its resolve
to convince the Irish
13. IRA to pursue the happiness and prosperity of the whole nation and all of its parts,Rising.
members who were against the Treaty. Volunteers to join the (13)
cherishing
(10) [IRREGULARS] [CASTLEDOCUMENT]
all the children of the nation equally’ (para 4); that the Provisional Government will
14. When it is made compulsory for men 18 and 6. Site of the executions of the leaders of the
over to join the
administer civilarmy for a period
and military affairsofon
time. (12)
behalf Rising.
of the people until(14) [KILMAINHAMGAOL]
a permanent national
[CONSCRIPTION]
government can be set up. 7. Localised IRA groups that performed
15. Dublin landmark occupied by Irregulars and ambushes and raids. (13) [FLYINGCOLUMNS]
5. shelled by Collins.
It guarantees (10) and
religious [FOURCOURTS]
civil liberty, equal rights and equal opportunities to all its citizens.
16.6. Division between the north
Benefit: Shows what people wanted and southandof believed in
10.atIRA
the supporters of the freedom,
time, for example Treaty, also the called the
Ireland. (10) [PARTITION] Free State Army. (8) [REGULARS]
‘unfettered control of Irish destinies; ownership of Ireland; religious and civil liberty; equal
rights and equal opportunities; the pursuit of happiness and prosperity; for all the children
of the nation to be cherished equally.
Limitation: It was written by people who wanted to be free of Britain, and its wording is
therefore written in such a way as to convince you to believe in this too.
190
2. Source: Collins and Lloyd George meet (page 110)

2. Collins had in his own estimation fully argued all points already.
3. Mr Griffith had suggested in his official capacity as Chairman of the Delegation that Collins
should have the meeting with Lloyd George, as so much depended on the delegation at
this vital time.
4. Talks had broken down as a result of the interview the previous night, on the question of
‘within or without’ the Empire.
5. He was anxious to secure a definite reply from Craig and his colleagues.
6. His opinion was that Tyrone and Fermanagh, parts of Derry, Armagh and Down could be
saved by a boundary commission.
7. Benefit: Gives details of private conversations at the time of the negotiations. Shows the
opinions of people within the Irish delegation, e.g. Collins and Griffith.
Limitation: It may contain bias towards the Irish delegation.
3
3. Source: The Oath of Allegiance (page 112)
Solutions
2. They must ‘swear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of the Irish Free State as
by law established’, and that they ‘will be faithful to H.M. King George V, his heirs and
successors by law’.
3. Many people were particularly angered by the inclusion of this oath in the Anglo-Irish
Treaty because a war fought for independence from Britain had just drawn to a close –
that their newly ‘free’ politicians should still have to swear an oath to the British Crown
seemed unacceptable.
4. Source: The Death of Collins (page 112)

2. To ‘stand calmly by your posts. Tend bravely and undaunted to your work. Let no cruel act
of reprisal blemish your bright honour’.
3. The men of the army each inherited Collins’s strength and bravery.
4. The army would be strengthened by its sorrow.
5. Benefit: Shows what the army were being encouraged to do.
Limitation: Contains bias, as it is the point of view of the Chief of Staff.
191
Chapter 19: Ireland during World

War II: The Emergency
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The advertisement provides us with information about the
availability and prices of items in Clerys in Dublin during the Emergency and is also an example
of 1940s design. The extract from de Valera’s speech provides information as to why Ireland
stayed neutral during World War II and looks back to the Conscription Crisis during World War I
to call for unity.

1. Any three: The country was still heavily reliant on agriculture and had little industry; the
Great Depression had led to an increase in unemployment, poverty and emigration; there
had been no progress in dismantling the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty; Cumann na
nGaedheal continued to introduce the controversial Public Safety Acts.
2. Éamon de Valera founded Fianna Fáil in 1926. He had left Sinn Féin and needed a new
political party to pursue his goals.
3. Fianna Fáil removed the Oath of Allegiance in 1933; they sidelined the position of
governor-general; references to the British monarch were removed from the Irish
Constitution in 1936.
4. Land annuities were abolished; welfare payments were introduced for widows and orphans
in 1933; unemployment assistance was introduced in 1935; 10,000 more houses were
built than during Cumann na nGaedheal’s government; the IRA was banned in 1936.
5. Land annuities: the repayments of loans given to Irish farmers by Britain to buy their farms.

1. Neutrality: not fighting in the war and not supporting either side.
2. Ireland wanted to continue to show its independence from Britain; Ireland was ill-prepared
to fight in a war; Ireland’s economy was weak; political parties wanted to stay out of World
War II.
3. Ireland allowed Allied planes to fly over Donegal from Northern Ireland; German airmen
were imprisoned if caught, while British and Americans were allowed to ‘escape’ over the
border; Irish fire brigades went to Belfast to help after the Blitz; around 50,000 Irishmen
joined the British Army.
4. The Emergency Powers Act meant that the government could go to great lengths to
ensure that Ireland stayed neutral: newspapers were censored, along with plays, poetry
and books, and people’s private post could even be opened.
5. Strict censorship was introduced so that newspapers could not share any news that might
show a bias towards any side. Ireland had to be seen to be neutral.

1. Rationing limited the goods people could buy to a fixed amount.
Glimmer men were government inspectors who called to houses in towns and cities to
check that people were not overusing their gas supplies.
192
2. Seán Lemass was appointed Minister for Supplies during the Emergency.
3. The Irish Shipping Company was founded to transport goods to Ireland in 15 cargo ships.
4. (a) Tea, flour, butter and other essentials were hard to get. People dried out and reused
their tea leaves. Ration books were distributed to every household, with coupons to
exchange for goods in shops.
(b) Electricity and gas were in short supply and had to be rationed. If you were using more
than your allowed amount, you could be cut off or prosecuted in the courts. Petrol was
extremely limited and was only really used by doctors and priests. Turf replaced coal as
fuel. The army was put to work cutting turf from the bogs. Industry suffered as a result
of fuel shortages.

2. The Department of Supplies was based in Ballsbridge, Dublin.
3
3. The head of a household is ‘a person who holds or occupies a house, or part of a house,
whether separately valued or not, as his or her own dwelling and that of his or her
Solutions
household, including family, servants and guests’.
4. The householder’s folder in the deceased head of household’s ration book should be cut
out and used by the new head of household.
5. Sugar, tea and butter.
6. You should hand your ration book to the shopkeeper to enable them to cut out the
appropriate coupon.
7. Any two: The source shows how difficult life was for people at the time; how ration
books worked in households; which foods and items were in short supply; how to use the
coupons in ration books.

1. (a) Industry boomed in Northern Ireland. Unemployment levels dropped by 20% to only
5%. Companies such as Harland and Wolff and Short Brothers grew in size, producing
warships, merchant ships and aircraft.
(b) Agriculture in Northern Ireland benefited. Prices were guaranteed for food on the
British market. Over 17,000 gallons of milk were being exported to Britain every day.
Tillage farming expanded.
2. American soldiers were based in Northern Ireland either to protect trade across the Atlantic
or to prepare for the Allied invasion of Normandy.
3. Belfast was bombed because of how much key wartime industry it had, and the fact that it
was not well defended meant it was low-risk for the bombers.
4. Factories such as Harland and Wolff were seriously damaged. About 1,100 people were
killed and over 56,000 homes were destroyed. Great numbers of people left the city for
safety, and many took refuge south of the border.

1. The economy in the south suffered during the war, whereas the economy in Northern
Ireland improved.
2. Northern Ireland contributed a lot to the war effort in soldiers, supplies, food and
weaponry, which strengthened the ties between Northern Ireland and Britain.
193
3. The war pushed the two parts of Ireland further apart because the south of Ireland had
stayed neutral. This demonstrated the south’s independence, but damaged relations
between the south and Northern Ireland. It showed that the two parts of the island
regarded their relationship with Britain very differently.
4. The war weakened the relationship between the south of Ireland and Britain and
strengthened that between Northern Ireland and Britain. Reasons may include: Northern
Ireland helped Britain during World War II with supplies, soldiers, weapons, etc.; the south
stayed neutral and more independent; the south didn’t encourage its people to fight in
World War II; trade links between the south and Britain took years to return to normal.

1. Fianna Fáil finally decided to take the oath of allegiance because the Electoral Amendment
Act stated that all elected TDs had to take the oath of allegiance or give up their seats in
the Dáil.
2. Cosgrave called a general election in 1932 because his party’s popularity had started
to drop.
3. The economic war was when Ireland stopped paying Britain land annuities. In response,
Britain placed a tariff (tax) of 20% on all Irish agricultural goods. This caused great hardship
for Irish farmers, as 83% of their exports went to Britain. De Valera retaliated by putting a
5% tariff on British goods entering Ireland. It was resolved with the signing of the Anglo-
Irish Agreement, under which land annuities were abolished; the Irish government paid a
once-only fee of £10 million.
4. The government responded to the outbreak of World War II in 1939 by declaring itself a
neutral country. A law called the Emergency Powers Act was passed by the government
in 1939.
5. Rationing of food, clothes, footwear and so forth was introduced. Foods such as tea, flour,
butter and other essentials were hard to get, and were rationed. All farmers had to till
a certain amount of land and sow a certain acreage of wheat. Fuels were rationed, and
glimmer men checked people’s usage of gas. Turf replaced coal as fuel.
6. (a) Irish relations with the British: Ireland allowed Allied planes to fly over Donegal from
Northern Ireland. Irish fire brigades went to Belfast to help after the Belfast Blitz.
(b) Irish relations with the Germans: German airmen were imprisoned if caught, while
British and Americans were allowed to ‘escape’ over the border.
7. The south’s neutrality demonstrated its independence from Britain, but damaged relations
with Northern Ireland, many of whose citizens were fighting or knew the fear of the Blitz.
8. The war brought Britain and Northern Ireland closer together due to the contribution of
Northern Ireland to the war effort. It showed that they were in agreement with Britain and
created a more positive relationship between them.

4. (a) De Valera stands in the Irish countryside with a scroll saying ‘neutrality’ in one hand and
a big stick in the other, fending off the lightning emitted by a swastika in the clouds, etc.
(b) Ireland is holding firm in its defiance of Nazism in particular. May be pointing towards
Ireland’s biased neutrality, in which we favoured one side over the other, e.g. by
sending fire brigades north.
194

1. Comparison Task: Ireland North and South (page 115)
Northern Ireland South of Ireland/Éire

Industry boomed Industry suffered
Rationing Rationing
Economy improved Economy suffered
Suffered from heavy bombing Did not suffer from heavy bombing
Unemployment levels dropped Unemployment levels increased
Agriculture benefited Agriculture did not benefit
3
etc. etc.
Solutions
2. Key Terms: The Emergency (page 115)

The Emergency name for the World War II period in Ireland
Land annuities the repayments of loans given to Irish farmers by Britain to buy their farms
Neutrality involves not fighting in a war and not supporting either side
Rationing limiting the goods that people could buy to a fixed amount
Belfast Blitz when Belfast was bombed by the Luftwaffe

1. Source: The Emergency Powers Act 1939 (page 116)
2. The Minister for Posts and Telegraphs.
3. (Any four) The government may:
• authorise and provide for the censorship, restriction, control, or partial or complete
suspension of communication
• make provision for preserving and safeguarding the secrecy of official documents
and information
• authorise and provide for the prohibition, restriction, or control of the entry or departure
of persons into or out of the State and the movements of persons within the State
• authorise and provide for the detention of persons (other than natural-born Irish citizens)
• authorise the arrest without warrant of persons (other than natural-born Irish citizens)
whose detention has been ordered or directed by a Minister
• authorise the arrest without warrant of persons who are charged with or are suspected
of having committed or being about to commit or having being concerned in the
commission of an offence under any section of the Act.
195
4. Propaganda: information that has been designed to influence the attitudes of the general
public. It is generally biased, often appeals to the emotions (fear, anger, loyalty) and may
even be made up.
5. Benefit: Gives details from the time about what powers the government had, e.g. to
open private correspondence, to arrest without a warrant and imprison citizens who are
suspected of being about to commit an offence.
Limitation: It is one-sided, written by the Irish government for the Irish people to outline
actions that it thinks may be necessary during World War II.
196
Chapter 20: An Important Decade:

The 1960s in Ireland
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] RTÉ allows us look back on the reality of Irish life in the years
since the 1960s. It made programmes on every aspect of daily life in the towns, cities and
rural areas. Daily news programmes show us what was happening in the country at the time.
Fictional shows also reflected people’s lives and ideals.
Television changes how we view the past as we can see people’s lives and events in far more
detail than in a photograph.
3
Solutions
1. Protectionism was a policy of placing high tariffs (charges) on goods coming into Ireland
to protect Irish businesses from foreign competition. Because they were protected by the
tariffs, Irish businesses were quite inefficient and badly run and there was little money
available to invest in the economy. These things created high unemployment.
2. Any two: Most political leaders were old and pursued outdated policies; Irish governments
in the 1950s were mostly weak coalitions that did not last long and so elections were
frequent; no majority existed in the Dáil and this made Ireland’s issues hard to address.
3. 44,000.

1. The First Programme for Economic Expansion had three main policies:
• Free trade: Ireland would reduce tariffs on imports to encourage trade and reduce prices;
• Encouraging foreign investment: taxes were reduced on foreign companies that set up
in Ireland and created jobs;
• Grants to business and farmers: £220 million was given to help them modernise.
2. Yes: it achieved 4% growth a year. Unemployment and emigration fell.
3. Lemass met with the Northern Ireland Prime Minister Terence O’Neill in 1965 and they
agreed to cooperate on matters such as tourism, agriculture and education.
4. Ireland was elected to the United Nations Security Council and sent troops abroad as
peacekeepers.
5. Ireland applied for membership alongside Britain, as Britain was Ireland’s largest trading
partner. The application failed when the British application was vetoed by France.
6. Jack Lynch.

1. One channel.
2. Home-made programmes ‘caused the most stir’ or got the biggest reaction.
3. Divorce and contraception.
4. Some people were so outraged when divorce was brought up that they walked out of
the studio.
5. The newspapers were opposed to television, as television made them less necessary.
197

1. RTÉ started broadcasting on 31 December 1961.
2. Any two: Outside influences were introduced to Ireland through foreign television;
controversial social topics were debated on shows like The Late Late Show; political and
religious leaders were challenged for the first time and had to defend their stances and
actions to the viewing public.
3. To reform the Catholic Church and modernise it.
4. Any two: Mass and the Bible were in the vernacular; laypeople gained a greater role in
the Church; ecumenism sought greater understanding amongst the various Christian
Churches.
5. Donogh O’Malley introduced free schooling up to the Inter Cert, free transport to and from
schools, grants to build more schools and opened Regional Technical Colleges.
6. Any of these is correct once it is backed up with examples and an explanation of why it
had the greater long-term impact.

1. Businesses were inefficient and badly run. Unemployment was high. There were few jobs
in rural areas and many people left, leading to depopulation.
2. Protectionism, political instability and outdated policies.
3. High unemployment, high emigration and rural depopulation.
4. The First Programme for Economic Expansion changed the Irish economy from being
a protected one to one that was open to free trade and foreign investment. It led to
economic growth and reduced unemployment and emigration.
5. (a) Lemass met with O’Neill and encouraged cooperation between north and south.
(b) Lemass applied for membership of the EEC.
(c) Ireland became more involved and sent troops as peacekeepers on UN missions.
6. RTÉ was set up to give Ireland its own TV and radio services. It introduced outside
influences to Ireland through foreign television. Controversial topics were debated on
shows like The Late Late Show. Political and religious leaders were challenged regularly on
RTÉ shows.
7. The Second Vatican Council was a meeting of bishops called by Pope John XXIII to reform
the Catholic Church and modernise it.
8. Donogh O’Malley introduced free schooling up to the Inter Cert, free school transport,
grants to build schools, and Regional Technical Colleges.
198

3.
Cause Effect
Shift from protectionism to free trade and foreign Ireland became richer
investment
Reforms to the education system (free schooling and Irish people became better educated and well informed
school transport, school grants)
Lemass and O’Neill met to forge better all-island relations Better north–south relations
Influence of media, public debate, challenges to Decline in the power of the Catholic Church
powerful figures; Vatican II
Ireland increasingly opening to the world (United President Kennedy’s visit to Ireland
Nations membership, application to EEC)
Television and outside influences, better and more Irish women demanded more equal treatment
widespread education, opening of controversial topics
3
to debate, decline of the Church’s power
Solutions
1. Crossword (page 118)
Chapter 20 -Crossword
1
T
2 3 4
C P H I L L E R Y
5
O E R L
6 7
K E N N E D Y M V O E
8
G I E T F O
9 10 11
F O U R G R E C U M E N I S M
R R N C C S A
12 13
O N E I L L A A T O L
14
E O T C I L Y N C H L
T W I U O O E
15
F R E E S C H O O L I N G M Y
A R N A I I
D T R S C
16
D E V A L E R A M
X
17
L A T E L A T E
S
Across Down
4. Young minister appointed by Lemass who 1. Irelandʼs new television station was 199
became President in 1976. (7) [HILLERY] __________ Eireann. (7) [TELEFIS]
6. First US President to visit Ireland. (7) 2. Country in Africa where Irish troops served

1. Source: Economic Expansion (page 119)
1. A primary source, using statistics.
2. (a) Services.
(b) Agriculture.
3. The changes in the economy were caused by an expansion of industry under the
Programme for Economic Expansion and the continued movement of people from rural
to urban areas.
4. (a) Services.
(b) Services.
5. Industry, by 9%.
6. Free trade, foreign investment, grants to businesses and farmers.
7. Benefit: The numbers are clear and allow historians to interpret free from accusations
of bias.
Limitation: They only provide figures and don’t address causes, so this aspect is open
to interpretation.
2. Source: De Valera launches Telefís Éireann (page 120)

1. President De Valera hopes television will provide ‘all sources of recreation and pleasure, but
also information, instruction and knowledge’.
2. Its ‘immense power’ ‘to influence the thoughts and actions of the multitude’ worries
de Valera.
3. He compares television to atomic energy. Students might find the comparison an odd one
in a modern context, but it could serve as a useful discussion point as to why he would
make that comparison: television and atomic energy both have enormous potential that
could go in either direction – towards energy and progress or towards destructiveness.
4. The audience will determine the type of programmes that Telefís Éireann will show.
5. The President would like to see programmes that celebrate ‘the wonders of nature, the
great achievements of man, masterpieces of architecture, engineering, sculpture, painting
and the great musical compositions of great composers’.
6. He was right about its power. RTÉ was very influential in changing Ireland through shows
like The Late Late Show and opening the country to external influences, etc.
200
Chapter 21: The Troubles in Northern

Ireland
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
Students will find an extensive gallery of Northern Irish murals here:
https://educateplus.ie/go/murals
The ‘Who’s Who’ page on the same site will be helpful for public figures, while other figures in
the murals can be searched on Wikipedia or similar.
3
1. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 partitioned Ireland, creating Northern Ireland with its
own parliament in Belfast.
Solutions
2. Two-thirds of Northern Ireland residents were Protestant, most of whom were Unionists.
The other third was Catholic and mostly nationalist.
3. The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) was an almost exclusively Protestant armed police
force. It had part-time special constabulary units such as the ‘B-Specials’, who used
violence against Catholics.
4. (a) State-run Protestant schools received more money than Catholic ones.
(b) Catholics were passed over in favour of Protestants when public housing was
being allocated.
(c) Catholic unemployment was double that of Protestants. Jobs in the civil service did not
go to Catholics, and Unionist ministers urged businesses to employ only Protestants.
5. (a) Belfast was heavily bombed during the ‘Belfast Blitz’ of 1941.
(b) The welfare state greatly expanded the funding available to Catholic schools.

1. Terence O’Neill used tax breaks and grants to attract new industries and foreign businesses
to the province.
2. Most of the new jobs O’Neill created were in the predominantly Protestant east of
Northern Ireland and so the Catholic community did not really benefit from this.
3. O’Neill visited Catholic schools and hospitals. When the Pope died in 1963, he ordered
flags to be flown at half-mast as a sign of respect. In 1965, he met with Taoiseach
Seán Lemass.
4. O’Neill’s gestures raised expectations of widespread change in Northern Ireland.
5. They believed O’Neill’s actions would undermine the position of Unionists and accused him
of ‘betraying the Union’.
201

1. Catholics became increasingly frustrated by the lack of progress in Northern Ireland and
decided to campaign more actively for a change in their status.
2. NICRA’s aims were: the disbanding of the B-Specials; an end to discrimination in housing
and employment; ‘One man, one vote’ in local elections; an end to gerrymandering.
3. NICRA was committed to using only peaceful means to achieve change. It modelled itself
on the US Civil Rights Movement of African-Americans, led by Dr Martin Luther King.
4. While some Unionists supported NICRA, many dismissed it as a ‘republican plot’ against
Northern Ireland and therefore refused all of its demands.
5. In October 1968, a march that had been banned went ahead. It was attacked by the RUC
and the images were captured by television cameras. That night in Derry and Belfast there
was mass rioting between Catholic youths and the RUC.
6. Either answer is acceptable once it is supported by argument and example from O’Neill’s
time as prime minster.

1. In August 1969, there were riots when a march by the Unionist Apprentice Boys passed
through the Catholic Bogside area of Derry. The rioters drove the RUC out of the Bogside,
throwing stones and home-made firebombs (Molotov cocktails). They raised barricades
across the streets and declared the area ‘Free Derry’.
2. British troops were meant to end the violent clashes between the RUC and Catholic rioters.
3. Terrorism is the use of fear and acts of violence to try to change society or government
policy for a political or ideological purpose.
4. IRA a republican terrorist group (the Irish Republican Army)
UDA a loyalist terrorist group (the Ulster Defence Association)
SDLP a moderate nationalist party that rejected violence (the Social Democratic and
Labour Party)
DUP a hardline Unionist party opposed to any compromise with nationalists (the
Democratic Unionist Party)
5. Internment was the arrest and imprisonment of people without trial.
6. On Bloody Sunday (30 January 1972), British troops shot 14 anti-internment protestors
dead during a banned civil rights march in Derry.

1. Britain felt that the Unionist government was failing to deal with the crisis situation.
2. The British hoped that if Unionists and nationalists could work together in government,
many of the causes of the violence could be resolved.
3. There would be a power-sharing executive between the Unionist Party, the SDLP and the
Alliance Party, and a cross-border Council of Ireland to promote cooperation between
north and south.
4. The leaders of the Unionist Party (Brian Faulkner), the SDLP (Gerry Fitt), the British
government (Edward Heath) and the Irish government (Liam Cosgrave) signed the
Sunningdale Agreement. Support was needed from all sides to solves the problems in
Northern Ireland.
5. (a) The IRA opposed the Sunningdale Agreement as it did not end partition.
(b) Some Unionists did not want power-sharing or the Council of Ireland.
6. The Ulster Workers’ Council organised a massive strike that shut down Northern Ireland;
goods could not be transported, electricity was cut off and businesses/factories shut down.
202

1. The IRA used ‘spectaculars’ (large-scale attacks on the British mainland) as well as frequent
attacks in Northern Ireland targeting the RUC and the British army.
2. Loyalists engaged in brutal attacks on civilians, often killing innocent Catholics.
3. 53% of those killed during the Troubles were civilians.
4. IRA prisoners demanded political status, which meant they would be treated as political
prisoners rather than as ordinary criminals – to wear their own clothes and have more visits
and contact with the outside.
5. The British government refused to compromise, believing that if they conceded it would be
seen as a victory for the IRA and for its violent tactics.

1. The two governments agreed to increase security cooperation, and also that the Republic
would have a role in the running of Northern Ireland (the right to be consulted and to put
3
forward proposals).
2. Unionists were outraged and felt they had been betrayed by the British.
Solutions
3. The Downing Street Declaration set out the terms for all-party talks on the future of
Northern Ireland. Most importantly, only parties committed to peace could be involved.
4. (a) IRA ceasefire: August 1994
(b) Loyalist ceasefires: October 1994
5. David Trimble – UUP; John Hume – SDLP; Gerry Adams – Sinn Féin; Bertie Ahern – Irish
government; Tony Blair – British government.
6. Main terms of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement:
• Power-sharing between all the main political parties
• Cross-border bodies to link the north and south
• That the Republic would give up its constitutional claim on Northern Ireland
• The release of IRA and loyalist prisoners from jail
• Decommissioning (surrendering) of weapons by terrorist groups
• The reform of the RUC and gradual withdrawal of most British soldiers
7. Yes, 71% voted for it in Northern Ireland and 94% in the Republic.

1. To create two states which have a majority of Unionists in one and a majority of
nationalists in the other, as a way to end the War of Independence.
2. Unionists wanted Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom, while
nationalists wanted a united Ireland.
3. Terence O’Neill tried to reach out to Catholics through symbolic gestures to make them
feel a part of Northern Ireland, ‘to build bridges between our two communities’. He also
improved the economy.
4. Some Unionists firmly believed that NICRA’s civil rights activism was a Republican plot to
destroy Northern Ireland. They often attacked civil rights marches.
5. In August 1969, there were riots when a march by the Unionist Apprentice Boys passed
through the Catholic Bogside area of Derry. The rioters drove the RUC out of the Bogside,
throwing stones and home-made firebombs (Molotov cocktails). They raised barricades
across the streets and declared the area ‘Free Derry’.
203
6. The Sunningdale Agreement was an agreement between the main Unionist and
nationalist parties to share power and set up a Council of Ireland. It failed because
hardline Unionists opposed it and organised the Ulster Workers’ Council strike, which
shut down Northern Ireland.
7. The hunger strikes increased support for the IRA and encouraged Sinn Féin to pursue a
political strategy.
8. Under the Anglo-Irish Agreement, the two governments agreed to increase security
cooperation, and that the Republic would have a role in the running of Northern Ireland.
9. Secret talks took place with the IRA and in December 1993 the Downing Street Declaration
outlined the process that would lead to talks if the IRA stopped its campaign of violence.
10. The process of implementing the Good Friday Agreement was long and difficult. Eventually
in 2005, the IRA announced that it was disbanding, and in 2007 Sinn Féin and the DUP
agreed to share power.
11. Check that the dates given are correct and are in the correct sequence. Students should
provide one relevant fact about each event.
1920 The Government of Ireland Act
1965 Terence O’Neill meets with Seán Lemass
1967 NICRA founded
1969 The Battle of the Bogside
1969 British troops arrive in Northern Ireland
1973 The Sunningdale Agreement
1981 The IRA hunger strikes
1993 The Downing Street Declaration
1994 The IRA ceasefire
1998 The Good Friday Agreement
204

1. Key Terms: The Troubles (page 122)

Unionists those in Northern Ireland who wanted to remain part of the UK
Nationalists those in Northern Ireland who wanted to be part of a united Ireland
Sectarianism hatred or conflict based on religion
Gerrymandering the rearrangement of voting districts to benefit one political party
a programme of social spending by the British government to provide free education,
Welfare state
free healthcare, public housing and increase social welfare payments
3
those willing to use of fear and acts of violence to try to change society or government
Terrorists
policy for a political or ideological purpose
Solutions
Republicans nationalists willing to use terrorism to further their goal of one united Irish republic
Loyalists Unionists willing to use terrorism to keep Northern Ireland as part of the UK
Internment the arrest and imprisonment of people without trial
Power-sharing government nationalists and Unionists governing Northern Ireland together
the demand by prisoners that they be treated as political prisoners rather than as
Political status
ordinary criminals
Hunger strike the refusal of all food until the prisoners’ demands are met
Decommissioning the surrender or destruction of weapons
A5 B4 C9
D 10 E6 F2
G3 H8 I7
Magic number: 18
205

1. Source: The Battle of the Bogside (page 124)
2. Derry city and elsewhere in the North.
3. ‘The spirit of reform and inter-communal co-operation’ had given way to the forces of
sectarianism and prejudice.
4. Two reasons: Jack Lynch believed that the ‘RUC is no longer accepted as an impartial police
force’. He also does not think the use of British troops would be acceptable, nor would
they be likely to restore peaceful conditions.
5. That the British government should request a UN peacekeeping taskforce and ensure the
attacks by police in Derry are stopped.
6. The British troops were sent onto the streets of Northern Ireland and the situation grew
even worse and more violent, as terrorist groups became more active.
7. Benefit: It is a clear picture of the views of the Irish government at the time, and suggests
ways forward that may limit the damage.
Limitation: It is one-sided (only giving the views of the Irish government).
2. Source: 1973 Election posters (page 126)

1. Primary visual sources.
2. The Unionist Party promised to deliver peace, order and good government.
3. There was a lot of violence on the streets, as the IRA’s campaign was at its height. Unionists
wanted the violence to end and the IRA to be fought and stopped.
4. John Hume, leader of the SDLP.
5. They meant either a united Ireland, or, more likely, an Ireland where power was shared
between nationalists and Unionists.
6. Benefit: The posters are very clear and tell us a lot about the political parties and what they
stood for.
Limitation: As pieces of propaganda, they are biased. Their aim is to persuade the public
and ultimately to win votes.
3. Source: Murals (page 127)

Mural A
2. Bobby Sands, leader of the hunger strikers in 1981.
3. He is described as a poet, Gaeilgeoir, revolutionary, IRA volunteer.
4. His death on hunger strike in the Maze prison made him a hero to many and famous all
around the world.
5. The Republican side. Sands is clearly shown in a positive light, which only Republicans
would do. The breaking of chains is also symbolic of gaining freedom from British rule in
Northern Ireland.
6. Benefit: It allows us to understand how the IRA and its supporters saw their campaign and
the leaders of it.
Limitation: It is one-sided, obviously propaganda and clearly not how Unionists would
view him.
206
Mural B
2. 1973
3. The UDA/UFF will never submit to the Irish.
4. Through violence, evidenced by the masked figure with the gun.
5. The loyalist side. It clearly sets out their opposition to a united Ireland and their willingness
to fight it with force.
6. Benefit: It allows us to understand how the UFF and its supporters saw their campaign and
the reasons for it.
Limitation: It is one-sided, obviously propaganda and doesn’t provide much explanation of
their position.
3
Solutions
207
Chapter 22: Women in Twentieth-

Century Ireland
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] Encourage students to ask their female relatives to identify the
three biggest changes they have seen in their lifetime and then compile these together as a class.

1. Suffrage is the right to vote. Irish women campaigned for it through parades, attacks on
property and hunger strikes in prison.
2. The first Irish women were only admitted to universities in 1908 and only women from
wealthy backgrounds were able to attend.
3. Irish women were expected to marry and have children. Some women worked before they
got married but they had to give up those jobs on marriage. Poorer women often worked
as domestic servants, street traders and in mills or factories.
4. Cumann na mBan was founded to support Irish independence. Many women fought in
1916 and in the War of Independence.

1. By her life within the home, ‘woman gives to the State a support without which the
common good cannot be achieved’.
2. The State will try to ‘ensure that mothers shall not be obliged by economic necessity to
engage in labour to the neglect of their duties in the home’.
3. If a job was considered unsuitable, all women could be refused employment.
4. Women were seen primarily as homemakers whose role it was to look after the family, not
as workers who had as much to contribute as their male counterparts.
5. Any arguments are valid once they are well developed.

1. 1922 (over the age of 21).
2. The view that a woman’s place is in the home was widespread and accepted by most men
and women. Divorce and contraception were banned. Women could not sit on juries. The
1937 Constitution recognised a woman’s special role ‘within the home’.
3. In 1932, a ‘marriage bar’ was introduced, which meant that women automatically lost
their jobs in the public service when they got married. In 1935, the government passed the
Conditions of Employment Act, which limited the number of women in any industry.
4. It was assumed that they would become mothers and if they were working, it would take
away from their real ‘job’ in the home looking after their husband and children.
5. In 1946, only 2.5% of married women were in employment.
6. Women were very much second-class citizens and expectations were that they would
fulfil a role limited to their homes for most of their lives. This led to low levels of female
employment and high levels of female emigration.
208

1. As the economy expanded, more women got jobs. They had greater access to education
and therefore also to professional careers. RTÉ was also influential in beginning to change
attitudes towards a woman’s role in society.
2. Feminism is the movement aimed at achieving gender equality, based on political, social
and economic equality between men and women. The Irish Women’s Liberation Movement
was set up in 1971 and pressed for changes to laws that discriminated against women.
3. The ‘marriage bar’ was abolished. The Anti-Discrimination Act of 1974 made it illegal to
pay men more than women for the same work. The Employment Equality Act of 1977
outlawed discrimination on the basis of sex or marital status. The ban on contraception
was gradually lifted.
4. Mary Robinson’s election as president was a symbol of women’s success and inspired more
women to get involved in politics and public life.
5. Robinson opened up the office, visiting groups all over the country and inviting others to
3
Áras an Uachtaráin. She reached out to marginalised groups at home and abroad.
Solutions
1. Some women formed the Irish Women’s Franchise League to campaign for votes for
women through parades, attacks on property and hunger strikes in prison. Other women
went to university and some joined nationalist organisations to campaign for Irish
independence.
2. They hoped that in an independent Ireland, women would have more rights and equality.
This was reflected in the 1916 Proclamation, if not in the decades that followed.
3. Some regarded the women in the independence movement to have acted in ways
that were not appropriate for women. In addition, many of the leading women in the
movement opposed the Treaty and therefore were not involved in the government of the
Free State in the 1920s. Ireland remained very conservative and this meant women were
discriminated against in many areas and so were passed over in history.
4. (a) Women got the vote on the same terms as men.
(b) Divorce and contraception were banned. Women could not sit on juries. The 1937
Constitution recognised a woman’s special role ‘within the home’.
5. Feminism is the movement aimed at achieving gender equality, based on political, social
and economic equality between men and women.
6. The IWLM pressured politicians, held protest marches and organised events, such as the
‘contraception train’ to Belfast, to draw attention to the inequality of Irish laws.
7. Any answer is acceptable once it is backed up with examples of progress made in that area
and a reason why the student has selected that one.
8. Students can make a number of points here, but particularly good answers will talk about
how an education increases life opportunities and employment in well-paying jobs gives
women greater independence and freedom.
209

1. Matching: Oppression and Progress (page 130)
This exercise contains a number of examples that can be seen as either oppression or progress
or both. When students have filled out the table, discuss as a class each answer in turn and
whether it is possible to see the item discussed as the opposite of what the class consensus is.
The most likely answers for each one are given below:
Oppression or Progress?
Irish Women’s Franchise
Progress Campaigned for women’s right to vote
League (IWFL)
Cumann na mBan Progress Enabled women to play a role in the independence struggle
The Catholic Church Oppression Promoted a very traditional view of Irish women’s roles in the home
1922 Free State Constitution Progress Gave men and women the same right to vote
The marriage bar Oppression Women lost their jobs in the public service when they got married
The Conditions of Gave the government the power to limit female employment in
Oppression
Employment Act 1936 the economy
1937 Constitution Oppression Stated women had a special role ‘within the home’
Irish Women’s Liberation
Progress Campaigned for equality for women
Movement
The Commission on the Recommended the removal of most of the discriminatory laws against
Progress
Status of Women women in Ireland
Election of Mary Robinson
Progress Huge symbolic victory to have a woman as the head of state
as president

1. Source: The Slums of Dublin (page 131)
1. A secondary written source.
2. The mortality rate per 1,000 in Dublin was 22.3, much higher than London’s rate of 15.6.
3. Women bore the brunt of poor housing conditions: they had to cook over open fires, try to
keep draughty high-ceilinged rooms warm in winter, fetch and carry water, and had little
to no privacy.
4. 80 (1,273 people divided by 16 houses).
5. One family had lost two of their nine children.
6. One of the men is described as being illiterate.
7. Benefit: The inclusion of statistics is very useful to prove the points made.
Limitation: We are dependent on the writer to select the relevant figures and evidence.
210
2. Source: Women and the Nationalist Struggle (page 132)

2. Previously Irish women had been happy to remain quietly at home and ‘leave all the
fighting and striving to the men’.
3. A ‘strong tide of liberty’ seems to be sweeping away the restrictions on women, ‘the
outposts that hold women enslaved’.
4. She warns them against joining any women’s organisation that is not committed to
national freedom.
5. ‘A Free Ireland with No Sex Disabilities in her Constitution.’
6. Buying Irish goods, dressing in Irish clothes, eating Irish food.
7. Irish freedom. She clearly wants women to fight for Irish freedom before they fight for
equality, saying they should only be involved in organisations that promote independence.
8. Benefit: It shows the tension that existed between nationalism and the women’s movement
in the early 1900s.
3
Limitation: it is very one-sided and alternative arguments are not provided.
Solutions
3. Source: Cumann na mBan Poster (page 134)
2. Cumann na mBan.
3. They will engage in drill and rifle practice.
4. Their main role will still be to serve as nurses and provide first aid, traditional ‘caring’ roles
generally filled by women.
5. There are branches in every county. They have a headquarters in Dublin and a fund for
buying equipment.
6. Benefit: Provides a lot of information about the structure and activities of the organisation.
Limitation: It can’t tell us anything about the success or otherwise of the recruitment drive;
other sources would be needed to tell the story of the campaign.
211
Chapter 23: World War I and its

Consequences
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
Advantages: Poetry and fiction can paint an unforgettably vivid picture and be very influential
emotionally, increasing readers’ empathy towards the people depicted.
Disadvantages: poetry and fiction are not reliable as historical sources, as the author may have
sacrificed factual accuracy to tell a better story, etc.

1. A number of different reasons: disagreements over colonies in Africa and Asia; military
arms races (especially between Germany and Britain); competition between Austria and
Russia for influence in the Balkans.
2. An alliance is an agreement between states to aid each other in wartime.
3. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
4. Entente Powers: Russia, the UK, France, later Italy and the US.
Central Powers: Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire.

1. Neither side could win. Germany had had to split its army between the Eastern and
Western Fronts and the Entente Powers were not strong enough to defeat the Germans on
either front.
2. Soldiers dug trenches along the Western Front to protect themselves from enemy fire. No
man’s land was the strip of land between the opposing armies, often a wasteland of mud,
barbed wire and corpses.
3. Soldiers had to climb out of their trenches (go ‘over the top’) and march across no man’s
land to try to take the enemy’s trenches.
4. The new technologies (machine guns, shelling, gases, mines and grenades) had made it easy
to kill large numbers at a distance; orders to go ‘over the top’ and run towards the enemy.
5. New technology in World War I included: tanks; aeroplanes for bombing, combat and
reconnaissance; submarines; and chemical weapons such as mustard, chlorine and
phosgene gases.
6. The US entered the war in 1917 and their one million troops allowed the Entente Powers
to break the stalemate and force Germany to surrender.

1. Woodrow Wilson (US President); Georges Clemenceau (French Prime Minister); David Lloyd
George (British Prime Minister).
2. Wilson wanted a just peace to prevent future wars, smaller armies, the ‘right to self-
determination’, and the creation of the League of Nations. Clemenceau wanted to punish
Germany, secure France against future German attacks and to prevent Germany ever being
a threat again. Lloyd George wanted Germany punished, to expand the British empire and
boost the British economy.
212
3. The clause of the Versailles Treaty that placed blame solely on Germany for starting
the war.
4. Reparations were compensation payments paid by Germany to the victors after World
War I.
5. Germany lost territory in Europe to France, Poland and Denmark and its African and Asian
colonies to Britain and Japan.
6. The German army was limited in size to 100,000 men and banned from having an air
force, tanks or submarines.
7. They felt resentment and anger and thought it was an unfair treaty imposed upon them
without negotiation.

1. New states including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Turkey and Finland were created
following the abolition of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires and in accordance
with Wilson’s belief in the right to self-determination.
3
2. (a) The German people felt the treaty was unduly harsh. They rejected the idea that they
Solutions
were solely responsible for the war and resented the humiliating loss of territory and
limitations on their army.
(b) Italy was angered that it did not get the land it had been promised when they joined the
war effort.
3. Russia.
4. Key powers such as Germany, Russia and the US were not members, which limited the
authority of the League of Nations to organise collective security and settle disputes
peacefully.

1. There were long-term tensions over colonies, the arms race and the Balkans. These led to a
complex system of alliances which was activated when the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was
assassinated by a Serbian nationalist.
2. Trench warfare meant great numbers were killed when they went over the top into no
man’s land. There were also dramatic advances in wartime technology (tanks, submarines,
chemical weapons, etc.), which killed many more than previous weapons.
3. The US had not felt the devastation of four years of war that killed millions and destroyed
whole parts of France.
4. (a) France: Millions died and northern France was devastated but it gained territory from
Germany.
(b) Germany: Millions died, the monarchy was overthrown and it had to sign a humiliating
peace treaty that crippled the country.
(c) Russia: Millions died, the monarchy was overthrown and communists seized power.
5. (a) Fascism: the resentment at the peace settlement in Italy and Germany helped generate
support for fascism, as did the economic problems caused by both the war and the
settlement.
(b) Communism: the fall of the monarchy in Russia led to the communist revolution in
1917 and revolutionaries elsewhere tried to follow their example.
213

1. Key Terms: World War I (page 136)

Central Powers the alliance of the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires that lost World War I
Entente Powers the alliance of Britain, France, Russia (until 1917), Italy and the US that won World War I
trenches were dug by soldiers to protect themselves from enemy fire. Eventually they spread
Trench warfare
all along the Western Front
No man’s land the strip of land between the trenches of the opposing armies
US President who wanted: a just peace to prevent future wars; smaller armies; the ‘right to
Woodrow Wilson
self-determination’; and the creation of the League of Nations
Prime Minister of France who wanted to punish Germany, secure France against future
Georges Clemenceau
German attacks and to prevent Germany ever being a threat again
British Prime Minister who wanted Germany punished, to expand the British empire and
David Lloyd George
boost the British economy
the right of a people or nation sharing a common language and culture to govern themselves
Self-determination
independently
Reparations compensation to be paid by Germany to the victors at the end of World War I
Treaty of Versailles the 1919 peace treaty between Germany and the Entente Powers
the peace treaty clause demanding that Germany accept sole responsibility for the outbreak
War guilt clause
of war
organisation set up after World War I to promote the peaceful resolution of
League of Nations
international conflicts

1. Source: A Soldier’s Account of Life in the Trenches (page 137)
2. He describes it as full of ‘the rats, the filth, the mud, cold and non-stop rain. No sleep. No
food for days at a time and being under constant enemy fire from shells, machine-gun and
rifle, and gas’.
3. The soldiers faced enemy fire from shells, machine-guns and rifles and poison gas.
4. The two men were desperate to be sent home. One shot himself in the hand, the other in
the foot.
5. Students should discuss why the soldiers might have acted that way and say whether they
find those actions acceptable, and why.
214
6. Benefit: It is a very personal account of a soldier’s experience and gives vivid insight into life
in the trenches.
Limitation: Does not explain why things were as bad as described and only gives us the
perspective of one soldier in one place, not a broader look at the conduct of the war itself.
2. Source: The Treaty of Versailles (page 138)
Leader Fulfilled Explanation

Wilson Partially It was not a fair peace. The defeated powers had to reduce their armies but not
the others. Some people in eastern Europe got self-determination. The League
of Nations was set up.
Clemenceau Yes Germany was severely punished and had to pay reparations, limitations were
placed on its army and the Rhineland was demilitarised to protect France.
Lloyd George Partially Germany was punished and Britain did gain some colonies but this did not help
3
the British economy beyond the reparation payments.
Solutions
Any answer is acceptable here once it is backed up with reasons and explanations rooted in the
terms of the Treaty and what the leaders wanted.
215
Chapter 24: Life in Communist Russia

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] These sources present the image of Stalin as a strong leader
with his people behind him, and also suggest that his people look up to him and love him.
It shows what image propaganda was presenting of Stalin at the time.

1. Communism: a system of government where the state controls all aspects of the economy
(property, business and jobs) and of society, with limited rights for individuals.
Bolsheviks: followers of Lenin and believers in the ideas of Karl Marx.
The Cheka: the Bolsheviks’ secret police.
2. (a) Karl Marx: a German political thinker who said that the working classes should stage
revolutions to end private ownership and redistribute wealth, making society ‘classless’.
(b) Vladimir Lenin: leader of the Bolshevik party.
(c) Leon Trotsky: commander of the Bolshevik Red Army.
3. Lenin came to power in 1917 by overthrowing the provisional government in the
October Revolution.
4. Any two: All political parties other than the Bolshevik Party were banned; the government
took control of the banks and factories; a peace treaty was agreed with Germany, ending
Russia’s involvement in World War I;
5. By 1921, Lenin and the Bolsheviks had gained control of the country and the last clusters
of the White Army were defeated in 1922. Russia was renamed the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR).

1. Lenin’s Testament was a document outlining his vision for the future of communism.
2. Trotsky was seen as the likely successor to Lenin because he was well liked by the ordinary
party members and had been successful during the civil war. In his Testament, Lenin had
also described Trotsky as the ‘most capable’. Some people were opposed to him as they
saw Trotsky as arrogant and were worried that he already controlled the Red Army and
would have too much power as leader.
3. Stalin eventually seized power by playing the various party members off against each other.
He used Kamenev and Zinoviev to expel Trotsky from the party and the country.
4. ‘Socialism in One Country’ was Stalin’s plan to first strengthen communism in the USSR
before spreading it further afield.

1. Collectivisation: the joining of small, unproductive farms together to create large, state-
owned farms.
Gulags: forced labour camps.
Kulaks: wealthy independent farmers.
Five-Year Plan: set of targets (and policies designed to meet them) over a period of
five years.
216
2. Workers would be hired to run state-owned-farms or farmers could collectively own all the
land and equipment. However, the kulaks refused to surrender their farms, and millions
were sent to gulags.
3. (a) First Five-Year Plan: focused on heavy industry and the production of coal, oil, steel and
electricity. The targets were mostly unrealistic but improvements were made.
(b) Second Five-Year Plan: continued focus on industry but also on transport and the production
of consumer goods. The Moscow underground was built, as were canal and rail links.
(c) Third Five-Year Plan: was cut short due to the 1941 invasion by Germany. Instead, the
focus switched to the production of arms and ammunition.
4. Yes, Stalin’s attempts to industrialise the USSR were successful, as coal, steel and oil output
increased. It also led to the building of the Moscow underground, canals and rail links,
which were key to transporting goods.
5. A dictator is someone who has gained almost total control over their country and uses a
variety of means, especially terror and propaganda, to hold on to power.
3
6. The NKVD was the name of the reorganised secret police force that replaced the Cheka. It
targeted ‘enemies of the state’.
Solutions
7. A show trial was a staged trial held in public to influence popular opinion. Stalin ensured
convictions by having the defendants tortured for their confessions. Their families were
also threatened with arrest and torture.
8. The Red Army was purged in 1937 because Stalin did not trust anyone who had served
under Trotsky, the Red Army’s previous leader.
9. Stalin used terror to achieve total control of the USSR through the use of the NKVD, gulags
for enemies of the state, the show trials and purges of the Red Army and his own party.
10. Dictatorships need to use terror as a tactic so as to prevent any uprisings against them and
ensure that they keep control of their country.

1. Propaganda: information that has been designed to influence the attitudes of the general
public. It is generally biased, often appeals to the emotions (fear, anger, loyalty) and may even
be made up. Three examples: the Communist Party newspaper called Pravda (‘Truth’); posters
and works of art; Stalin’s name on cities and streets; the total erasure of people who had
fallen out of favour; the show trials.
2. Dictators need to use propaganda so that their failings are not shown, and so as to convince
people that they are a good and strong leader. Propaganda also presents the country in a
falsely positive light to other countries.
3. Stalin made school compulsory to combat illiteracy and improve efficiency in the workplace;
exams were also brought back. Before the revolution, literacy rates in Russia were roughly
28% overall (but only 13% for women). Records claim that overall literacy rates soared to
56% in 1924 and to 75% by 1937.
4. Parents received a child allowance from the state, but only if married. Divorce was
discouraged and contraception was made illegal again. Women who had six or more children
were paid 2,000 roubles per year for five years as a reward from the State. Mothers of nine
or more children received a medal.
5. Students may answer yes or no, once they back their opinion up with a reason based on what
they have learned, for example: ‘Yes’, because Marx believed in equality amongst people, and
Stalin was providing women with the ability to still work, even with children; or ‘No’, because
some of the important advances towards equality made under Lenin were reversed and
women’s potential was again regarded in terms of their capacity to produce and raise large
families. Contraception was banned under Stalin and divorce was made difficult to achieve.
217

2. Most extraordinary was that such a trial took place at all.
3. The writer means that the event was a performance designed on purpose to make people
believe certain things and form certain opinions.
4. Three propaganda messages: as a warning to all existing and potential plotters and
conspirators within the Soviet Union; to discredit Trotsky abroad; to ‘solidify national
feeling in support of the government against foreign enemies’ (Germany and Japan).
5. Newspapers and radios were used to spread these messages.
6. Benefit: Gives the opinions of a Western diplomat on Stalin’s show trials. It explains how
propaganda was used during the trial.
Limitation: The writer was the US Ambassador at the time, and so he might be biased
against the USSR.

1. The Bolsheviks came to power when the provisional government that replaced Tsar
Nicholas II was overthrown in the October Revolution of 1917.
2. Russia became a communist state; religion was discouraged and Church property was
seized; the government took control of banks and factories; a peace treaty was negotiated
with Germany and Russia was taken out of World War I.
3. After Lenin’s death, a power struggle began between the senior members of the Party:
Lev Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Bukharin, Leon Trotsky and Josef Stalin. Trotsky was
the frontrunner. Stalin played the various Party members off against each other. He used
Kamenev and Zinoviev to expel Trotsky from the Party and the country. He then turned on
them, forced them out of their government positions and replaced them with his supporters.
4. Stalin wanted to carry out his policy ‘Socialism in One Country’: the plan to first strengthen
communism in the USSR before spreading it further afield. He introduced collectivisation,
gulags and Five-Year Plans.
5. Collectivisation was the joining of small, unproductive farms together to create large, state-
owned farms. Many farmers refused to surrender their land. Over 2.5 million kulaks (wealthy
independent farmers) were simply removed and sent to gulags, or forced labour camps.
6. The Five-Year Plans were sets of industrial targets (and policies designed to meet them)
over a period of five years. The First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932) focused on heavy industry
and the production of coal, oil, steel and electricity. The targets were mostly unrealistic but
improvements were made. The Second Five-Year Plan (1933–1937) had a continued focus
on industry but also on transport and the production of consumer goods. The Moscow
underground was built, as were canal and rail links. The Third Five-Year Plan (1938–1941)
was cut short due to the 1941 invasion by Germany; the focus switched to the production
of arms and ammunition.
7. (a) The Communist Party: he purged it to remove all those he believed might challenge his
authority. He held show trials to remove Communist Party leaders.
(b) Ordinary people’s lives: the NKVD kept an eye on ordinary people. They also ran the
gulags. People who were considered enemies of the state could be tortured or killed by
the NKVD or sent to one of the 30,000 gulags, which had extremely high death rates.
8. Propaganda made Stalin sound like a successful and beloved leader through the
publication of the Communist Party newspaper, through posters and art and statues, as
well as renamed cities and streets. His purges made it look as though he was dealing firmly
with enemies of the state.
218
9. Textbooks were rewritten to make Stalin’s role in the October Revolution and the Civil War
look more impressive. Stalin made school compulsory to combat illiteracy and improve
efficiency in the workplace. He also brought back exams, which had been removed during
Lenin’s rule. Before the revolution, literacy in Russia was at 28% overall (only 13% for
women). Records claim that this soared to 56% in 1924 and to 75% by 1937.
10. Women were encouraged to have many children. Those who had six or more were paid
2,000 roubles per year for five years as a reward from the State. Mothers of nine or more
received a medal. Women were important in the workforce, making up 44% of it by 1935.
Childcare was provided for working mothers.

3
1. Fill in the Gaps: Terror in Stalin’s Russia (page 140)
Solutions
NKVD; gulags; manual; million; purge; expelled; show; three; tortured; red; Trotsky.
2. Timeline: Communist Russia (page 140)

Any events in Communist Russia between 1917 and 1953. Check that the dates given are
correct and in the correct sequence. Examples are given below.
1917 October Revolution
1917–1922 Russian Civil War
1924 Death of Lenin and Stalin’s assumption of power
1927 Collectivisation introduced
1934–1938 Purges of the party and the military, show trials
1939 Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact signed
1941 Invasion by Germany
1953 Death of Stalin

1. Source: An extract from Lenin’s Testament
2. Lenin wrote this document to outline his vision for the future of communism.
3. Lenin thinks Stalin has unlimited authority concentrated in his hands and that he is not sure
whether Stalin will always be capable of using that authority with sufficient caution.
4. Lenin thinks Trotsky is distinguished by already proven outstanding ability and that he is the
most capable man in the present C.C. However, he is over-confident and too concerned
with administration.
5. Lenin believes the two qualities of the outstanding leaders may lead to a split.
6. Benefit: Shows Lenin’s opinions first-hand about Stalin and Trotsky.
Limitations: Lenin may have been biased towards Trotsky, having worked more closely with
him throughout the civil war, and this may have influenced his opinion of Stalin negatively.
219
Chapter 25: Life in Fascist Germany

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] Hitler is being presented as a strong leader, serious, godlike,
supported by his people, a hero and example to the youth. Historians can learn how Hitler was
being presented to people at the time, what the Nazi Party wanted the people of Germany to
think and also about the symbolism in use and design in 1930s Germany.

1. Any two: Political instability (five different governments between 1918 and 1922)
frustrated the Italian people and many began to believe that democratic parties were
getting them nowhere; the country was in debt as a result of the war and unemployment
was high; Italians were angered by the Paris Peace Conference, as they did not receive land
that they had been promised; communism was becoming popular, and many wanted a
political alternative to this.
2. Fascism is a form of nationalistic government that is a one-party dictatorship.
Dictatorship: when a country is controlled by one person who uses a variety of means such
as terror and propaganda to hold onto power.
3. Benito Mussolini founded the Fascist Party.
4. Italy and Germany.
5. Mussolini maintained control over Italy after 1922 by passing the Acerbo Law, which
meant the party with the most votes would get two-thirds of the seats in government. He
then ruled by decree from 1923 onwards, meaning he could make laws without going
through parliament.

1. The Weimar Republic was the German democratic regime after World War I. Problems
it faced were: its politicians were blamed for failing to restore Germany’s greatness,
and for the defeat of Germany. Germany was in an economic crisis, with high levels of
unemployment and inflation.
2. The Beer Hall Putsch is the name given to the Nazi Party’s rebellion in Munich in November
1923, which began in a beer hall. It was important in Hitler’s rise to power because Hitler
was sent to prison for it, and while in prison he wrote Mein Kampf, laying out all of his
Nazi beliefs and his vision for the future of Germany.
3. In Mein Kampf Hitler wrote about: communists and Jews as very real threats to Germany;
his ideas about racial purity; demanding an end to the Treaty of Versailles; his desire to gain
more territory for Germany (Lebensraum).
4. Hitler admired Mussolini’s Fascist Party and adopted many of its methods, such as the
salute, army and use of an emblem.
5. In the Wall Street Crash, the value of shares in the New York Stock Exchange suddenly
collapsed, throwing the US and connected economies into chaos. It was important in
Hitler’s rise to power because Germany suffered a Great Depression, which made the
Weimar government even more unpopular and paved the way for the people to demand a
change of leadership.
220
6. Hitler used propaganda to his advantage. He did this by using short simple slogans so that
everyone could understand. He played on people’s emotions to convince them to think in
certain ways.
7. Hitler established a dictatorship by creating a law called the Enabling Act in March 1933
that allowed him to rule by decree. The previous month the Reichstag had been set on fire;
Hitler blamed the communists, banned the Communist Party and gave the SA more power.
He created bodyguards known as the SS to attack opponents and voters to make sure the
Nazi party gained votes in the general election.

1. The Nazis tried to reduce unemployment by providing work for people in public works
schemes such as building motorways/Autobahnen or the Olympic Stadium. They also
banned trade unions and strikes.
2. Industry expanded under the Nazis: the motor industry grew, with affordable cars being
built such as the Volkswagen. Taxes were cut to promote private industry. Many companies
3
such as Siemens and Krupps grew as a result. The manufacturing industry boomed with
the renewed (and forbidden) production of ships, submarines, planes, weapons and
Solutions
ammunition.
3. The Nazis used education to their advantage by concentrating on young people; youth
groups were set up; textbooks were rewritten to glorify Hitler; teachers had to be members
of the Nazi Party; there was a picture of the Führer in every classroom.
4. The role of women in Nazi Germany was to stay at home to look after their family, and to
have as many children as possible so the population would grow. This was promoted by
the three Ks: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church).
5. Under the Nazis, a good German woman was meant to dress and style herself traditionally,
wearing peasant costumes with flat shoes and have her hair in plaits or buns. She was not
to wear make-up, dye her hair, wear trousers or smoke in public.

1. Joseph Goebbels’ role was as Minister for National Enlightenment and Propaganda: he was
in complete control of the press, radio, cinemas, theatres and art.
2. The Nuremberg Rallies were party rallies held in Nuremberg, Bavaria each year. Different
themes were promoted each year.
3. The Gestapo were the secret police set up by Hermann Göring and led by Heinrich
Himmler.
4. Terror was used to ensure Nazi control of Germany by sending critics of the regime or
anyone considered undesirable to forced labour camps. The SS killed the leaders of the SA
in an event known as the Night of the Long Knives because Hitler felt they were a threat
to him.
5. The Nuremberg Laws were laws made in 1935 for ‘the protection of German blood and
honour’. They affected the lives of Jews living in Germany because they removed the rights
of Jews, e.g. to be German citizens, to vote, to marry non-Jewish citizens and to hold
various jobs.
6. Kristallnacht, also called the Night of the Broken Glass, took place in November 1938 when
thousands of Jewish buildings (e.g. businesses and synagogues) were destroyed and at
least 100 Jews were killed.
221

2. The writer describes ‘hundreds of thousands of Nazis, all wearing their brown shirt
uniforms, all with arms raised to support their leader’.
3. The special significance of the 1933 rally was to mark the last day of the first convention of
the Nazi Party since Hitler assumed power.
4. Methods used to make an impression on the masses were military parades, illuminated
streets, gaily decorated houses and shops, a gigantic display of fireworks, lectures on Nazi
endeavours and achievements and three speeches by Hitler.
5. Benefit: Gives details about what the 1933 rally was like, e.g. attended by hundreds of
thousands of Nazis.
Limitation: it presents only a view of what journalists would have been allowed to see in
1933; it does not provide an overall view of life in Germany at the time.

1. Fascism began in Italy because Mussolini felt that a dictatorship was needed to solve Italy’s
problems, e.g. debt, unemployment, frustration at the peace treaty outcome. People turned
to it as they felt that democratic government had not been working.
2. Mussolini gained control of Italy by being appointed prime minster in 1922 by the king and
then passing the Acerbo Law (which meant the party with the most votes would get two-
thirds of the seats in government). He then ruled by decree from 1923 onwards, meaning
he could make laws without going through parliament.
3. Hitler rose to power by benefiting from the unpopularity of the Weimar government
and the Great Depression, when German banks and factories closed and unemployment
soared. The Beer Hall Putsch showed that Hitler was trying to bring about change. Hitler’s
public speaking abilities helped him rise to power. Hitler’s use of propaganda also helped.
The Reichstag fire helped to increase votes for the Nazi Party and provided an excuse to
ban communism and increase control.
4. Explanation needed to back up the answer. For example: very successful, because
unemployed people found work on the public works schemes, the motor industry
expanded and tax cuts to encourage private industry worked well.
5. Methods Hitler used to influence the young included: youth groups; textbooks rewritten
to glorify Hitler and the Nazi Party; and loyalty to the Fuhrer being taught in schools. The
effect was to indoctrinate children with Nazi ideas.
6. It was important to Hitler that German women raised and looked after a family because he
wanted Germany to have a high birth rate.
7. Opinion, with an explanation to back up the answer. For example: very successful, because
the ‘people’s radio’ meant that Hitler’s speeches could be heard by everyone; because posters
presented Hitler as a godlike figure and encouraged the admiration and support of the
people; and because the Nuremberg Rallies helped to present Germany in a positive light.
8. Hitler used terror to control the German population by forming a secret police, the
Gestapo. People were encouraged to report opponents or communists to them. Critics of
the regime and ‘undesirables’ were sent to forced labour camps.
222

1. Fill in the Gaps: Anti-Semitism (page 143)
Mein Kampf; Jewish; Nuremberg Laws; citizens; David; German diplomat; riot; synagogues;
concentration camps.
2. Timeline: Fascist Germany (page 143)

Any events from fascist Germany between 1919 and 1945.
1919 The NSDAP or Nazi Party was founded.
1923 The Munich rebellion known as the Beer Hall Putsch.
1929 The Wall Street Crash.
1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.
3
1933 The Reichstag Fire
Solutions
1937 Volkswagen begin manufacturing ‘the people’s car’
3. Crossword: Fascist Germany (page 144)

1 2 3
H I N D E N B U R G G
4
U B E
5
L E B E N S R A U M
E N T
6 7 8
F M A I D E N S B B I A
A E R Y T P
9
S W A S T I K A O D O O
10
C N W E N
11 12
I K R I S T A L L N A C H T U
13
S A R S R A C E R B O
M M Y H E E
14
P A N T I S E M I T I S M
F N R B
15
S T G O E B B E L S
S R
G
Across Down
1. President of the Weimar Republic. (10) 2. The ability to make laws without going through
[HINDENBURG] parliament. (4, 2, 6) [RULEBYDECREE]
5. ʻLiving spaceʼ: the plan to expand German 3. Hitlerʼs secret police. (7) [GESTAPO]
territory. (10) [LEBENSRAUM] 4. Mussoliniʼs first name. (6) [BENITO]
7. Nazi youth group for girls: the League of 6. A form of nationalistic government that is a
German _____________. (7) [MAIDENS] one-party dictatorship. (7) [FASCISM]
9. Emblem of the Nazi Party. (8) [SWASTIKA] 7. Adolf Hitlerʼs book, outlining his vision for the
11. The Night of the Broken Glass, when Nazi Party and for Germany. (4, 5)
thousands of Jewish properties were [MEINKAMPF]
destroyed. (13) [KRISTALLNACHT] 8. Nickname for the Nazi Sturmabteiling or 223
13. The law passed in Italy in 1923 that granted stormtroopers. (11) [BROWNSHIRTS]
Mussolini enormous power. (6) [ACERBO] 10. The town in Bavaria where regular Nazi Party

1. Source: Adolf Hitler’s book Mein Kampf (page 145)
2. Hitler wrote this document to explain his theory of a ‘master race’. He wants to convince
people (a) that such a thing as a ‘master race’ exists; (b) that the German people are an
example of this; (c) that a ‘master race’ can become weak and corrupted by mixing with
‘lower peoples’; and (d) therefore that Germany should bend ‘lower peoples’ to its will
(‘master and servant’) but not marry or mix with them.
3. The Aryan is responsible for all the human culture that we see before us today. This is a
biased opinion as Hitler wanted to convince people of the importance and superiority of
the Aryan race.
4. Sources like this present serious problems such as bias, exaggeration and opinion rather
than fact, because they are written by a person whose aim is to persuade others to join
their particular extremist way of thinking.
224
Chapter 26: The Causes of World War II

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] From Chamberlain’s speech we learn that the German
government was given until 11 o’clock on 1 September 1939 to say it would withdraw from
Poland. It had not done so, which caused Britain to declare a state of war. From the evening
newspaper of the same day, we can see that Britain is mobilising its troops, that France has
declared a ‘state of siege’ and that Danzig in the Polish Corridor has fallen to Germany and
Warsaw, Cracow and nine other towns are being bombed.

1. Hitler’s foreign policy aims were: to rebuild the German army and navy; to re-occupy the
3
Rhineland; to regain territory lost after World War I; and to unite all German speakers in an
expanded Germany under a policy called Lebensraum.
Solutions
2. Lebensraum means ‘living space’ for ethnic Germans. It is the policy of expanding into a
‘greater Germany’, a new German Empire that became known as ‘the Third Reich’.
3. Hitler tried to dismantle the Treaty of Versailles by reintroducing conscription and growing
the army beyond its Treaty limits. He then increased the size of the navy (past the Treaty
limits, thanks to the Anglo-German Naval Agreement) and created an airforce called
the Luftwaffe.
4. In 1936 Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland with orders to retreat if France sent its army
to meet them. It’s an important milestone on the road to war because Germany had
been forbidden to do exactly this, but got away with it because neither France nor Britain
responded. It gave Hitler more confidence.
5. The Anschluss was the joining together of Germany and Austria. It was achieved by the
Austrian chancellor being replaced by a Nazi chancellor who invited German troops to
enter Austria. The Nazi Party had strong support in Austria. An agreement was signed
absorbing Austria into the Third Reich.
6. The Sudetenland was the collective name for the regions of Czechoslovakia that had a
German-speaking majority. It had belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire until 1918,
when it became part of the new country of Czechoslovakia, under Czech rule.
7. Britain and France did not react to Hitler’s foreign policies. For example, they did not act
when he entered the Rhineland, or interfere when the Anschluss happened, or when
Germany annexed the remainder of Czechoslovakia, overstepping previous agreements.

1. France wanted to avoid war with Germany because the size of the German army was
unknown, and France believed that its fortification along its eastern border with Germany
(the Maginot Line) would be enough to deter Germany from invading.
2. Britain was opposed to using force in response to German actions because: many British
people felt that the Treaty had been too harsh on Germany; the memory of World War I
was still strong and the thought of another war so soon was awful; the Peace Ballot of
1934–1935 showed that millions wanted a pacifist approach.
3. The policy of appeasement was to agree to Hitler’s demands in the hope of avoiding war.
225

1. Mussolini, Hitler, Daladier and Chamberlain attended the Munich Conference. It took place
to discuss the issue of Czechoslovakia and the Sudetenland.
2. It was agreed – without consulting the Czechoslovakian government – that Czechoslovakia
would surrender the area of the Sudetenland to Germany.
3. The result of the Nazi takeover of Czechoslovakia was that appeasement was recognised as
a failure: Britain began to rearm itself, reintroduced conscription, and made agreements to
resist Hitler, allied with other countries, such as France and Poland.
4. Hitler and Stalin agreed in the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact not to attack each other
or help each other’s enemies for a 10-year period. In a secret clause, they also agreed to
partition Poland between them.
5. World War II began when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. Britain
announced a state of war that day and two days later both Britain and France formally
declared war on Germany.

2. The agreements were ‘symbolic of the desire of our two peoples never to go to war with
one another again’.
3. The method of consultation (meeting and discussions) would be used to deal with any
other questions in the future.
4. Chamberlain had returned from Germany bringing peace with honour for the second time
in Britain’s history.
5. Benefit: Shows how optimistic Chamberlain and others were at the time about the
outcome of the Munich Conference – that it meant Britain would never again be at war
with Germany.
Limitation: It tells us Chamberlain’s belief about the results of the Munich Conference
(rather than fact, as it turned out) and it is a politician’s speech to the British public and
therefore positive about the supposed achievements at the Conference.

1. The first open breach of the Treaty of Versailles was in 1935, when Hitler reintroduced
conscription, growing the German army beyond the Treaty limits.
2. Britain and France adopted the policy of appeasement because: they did not want to
risk another war so soon after World War I; they thought the Maginot Line would stop
Germany expanding westwards; the British people had voted for a pacifist approach; they
were more concerned about communism spreading from Russia, etc.
3. There was controversy over which countries did and did not attend the Munich Conference
because Germany, France, Britain and Italy made the decision about Czechoslovakia,
without Czechoslovakia being present.
4. For (a) Hitler: the pact meant that Hitler need not worry about the USSR reacting
aggressively from the east when he invaded and reclaimed the Polish Corridor.
For (b) Stalin: The Red Army had recently been purged and was not ready for war, and it
meant the USSR was safe from German attack for at least a decade.
5. This pact increased the likelihood of war because Germany and Russia had made a secret
agreement that they would partition Poland between them and that the Baltic states
would enter Russia’s ‘sphere of influence’.
226

3. (a) King George VI asked people to ‘stand calm, firm and united in this time of trial’.
(b) The task will be hard, as ‘there may be dark days ahead and war can no longer be
confined to the battlefield’.
(c) The benefits of a source like this for historians are that it shows what people were told
to do at the time by their monarch, and how they may have been influenced.

1. Timeline: The Outbreak of World War II (page 147)
Check that the dates given are correct and in the correct sequence. Examples are given below.
3
1933 Hitler withdraws Germany from the League of Nations
Solutions
1935 The Anglo-German Naval Agreement
1935 Conscription reintroduced in Germany
March 1936 Germany re-occupies the Rhineland
1936 The Rome–Berlin Axis with Mussolini
1938 The Anschluss
Sept. 1938 The Munich Conference
August 1939 The Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin
September 1939 The invasion of Poland
227
2. Key Terms: The Causes of World War II

Treaty of Versailles the peace treaty signed at the end of World War I, at Versailles, outside Paris
an agreement signed in 1935 which regulated the size of the German navy in
Anglo-German Naval Agreement
relation to the British navy
Luftwaffe the German airforce
Rhineland the region bordering France and Germany
Anschluss the joining of Germany and Austria together in the Third Reich
Sudetenland the majority German-speaking regions of Czechoslovakia
Maginot Line France’s system of fortification along its eastern border with Germany
Appeasement agreeing to Hitler’s demands in the hope of avoiding war
a conference held in Munich in September 1938 to discuss the issue of
Munich Conference
Czechoslovakia and the Sudetenland
an agreement made between Hitler and Stalin committing to a 10-year period
Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact when they would not attack each other or help each other’s enemies. It also
contained a secret clause: an agreement to partition Poland between them
‘living space’ for ethnic Germans; the policy behind the expansion of
Lebensraum
German territory
when it is made compulsory for men aged 18 and over to join the military for a
Conscription
period of time

1. Source: Hitler and Stalin in Pictures (page 148)
1. Primary visual sources.
2. The purpose of the Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was: to have to a 10-year period
when they would not attack each other or help each other’s enemies; and a secret clause
containing an agreement to partition Poland between them.
3. Any details from Source A, for example: Hitler and Stalin, guns behind their back, legs tied
together, path says Eastern Frontier, ‘Someone is taking someone for a walk’ meaning
‘which of them is tricking the other?’, oil fields in the distance, etc.
4. Students may come away with different messages, for example: the message is that they
are joined but ready to defend themselves if needs be, or to shoot each other in the back/
betray each other, etc.
5. Any details from Source B, for example: Hitler and Stalin, groom and bride, swastika and
Soviet hammer and sickle, ‘Wonder how long the honeymoon will last’ meaning this is an
unstable union, etc.
6. Students may come away with different messages, for example: the pact is represented as
a wedding between the two countries, but that they are in the honeymoon period/early
days only and it can’t last.
7. Benefit: They show people’s opinions at the time – a distrust of the pact.
Limitation: These were created in English-speaking countries (possibly Allies, later) and so
probably contain bias, etc.
228
Chapter 27: People and Nations: World

War II
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The public in Allied countries feared that German bombing
campaigns would come to their cities. The first poster suggests that continued support of
the Allied forces was the best protection against that. The second poster depicts Nazism as a
shadowy monster/airplane mix, clambering over the horizon and crushing cities beneath it. The
monster is being opposed by a single aircraft labelled ‘Freedom’. In both cases, the dread of
Nazi attacks is acknowledged (or encouraged) and the armed forces are shown as the only hope
for freedom.
3
Solutions
1. (a) At sea: better submarines and torpedoes, as well as developments in anti-submarine
technology: ASDIC (sonar) and radar. Aircraft carriers helped to control the seas.
(b) On land: Panzer tanks, including the Tiger tank, were developed by Germany. The Allies
developed dummy tanks and amphibious tanks. Improvements were made to grenades,
pistols, machine guns, e.g. MG 42.
(c) In the air: Hurricanes and Spitfires used Rolls Royce engines. The US developed the
B-29 Superfortress long-range bomber. Germany invented the first fighter jet, called
the Messerschmitt. The V1 and V2 long-range rockets were invented.
2. The US feared that Germany would be the first to invent the atomic bomb, so an intensive
research project codenamed the Manhattan Project was begun and the atomic bomb was
successfully tested in 1945.
3. (a) Civilians: War came to civilians in a way it hadn’t before; cities (e.g. Warsaw, Dresden,
Coventry, Leningrad) were destroyed, 38–55 million civilians were killed.
(b) Soldiers: Fighting was no longer confined to a particular area and units and fronts
could move rapidly. The new technology and its greater destructive power meant that
World War II killed roughly 20 million soldiers.

1. Blitzkrieg is a tactic of surprise attack beginning with heavy bombing of an area by the
German air force, followed by rapidly advancing Panzer tanks and finally by the infantry.
2. Blitzkrieg tactics were new when Poland was conquered. The German Luftwaffe took the
Polish air force by surprise on the ground and destroyed it, then destroyed transportation
lines. Panzer tanks then cut the Polish army off from its supplies and resources. German
infantry completed the defeat of the weakened army.
3. The Phoney War was a kind of waiting game on the Western front, when no fighting took
place for eight months even though the British and French were facing the Germans, who
were waiting behind their fortification, the Siegfried Line.
4. The Maginot Line was the Allied series of fortifications along the French–German border.
5. Germany invaded France by going around the end of the Maginot Line and using tanks to
roll through the wooded, hilly terrain of the Ardennes, which the French thought would be
impossible to cross.
229
6. France was easily defeated in 1940 because it was caught by surprise. The sudden
advancement of Germany drove a wedge between the British Expeditionary Force and the
French army. The BEF soldiers were pushed back to Dunkirk and trapped. The French forces
collapsed as the Germans advanced.
7. Operation Dynamo was the Allied evacuation of about 35,000 soldiers from the beaches at
Dunkirk over the course of nine days.
8. Vichy France was the unoccupied ‘free zone’, where a Nazi puppet government was set up
in the town of Vichy.

1. Operation Sea Lion was the planned invasion of Britain by Germany.
2. German aircraft: ME 109s and ME110s. British aircraft: Hurricanes and Spitfires.
3. Britain won the Battle of Britain because (any three): The Germans switched their focus
to London, which gave the RAF time to reorganise; radar gave British advance warning of
German air raids; Spitfires were better than the German planes; German planes could not
stay long in British airspace before having to return to refuel; German losses (of planes and
airmen) were greater, etc.
4. The Blitz was the bombing of British cities at night-time. It lasted for eight months, until
May 1941.
5. Life for people in wartime Britain was difficult. Thousands of homes were destroyed, and
children from the cities were sent to stay with families in the countryside. Women entered
the workforce and fill the roles that had been left vacant by men who had gone to war.
There were food shortages and ration books were introduced for tea, milk, eggs, sugar,
butter, etc.

1. Operation Barbarossa was the codename for Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union,
beginning on 22 June 1941.
2. Hitler invaded the USSR because he wanted to expand his Lebensraum to the east; because
Russia had been industrialising quickly and had oilfields; because he hated communism
and wanted to destroy it; and because to Hitler the Slavic peoples (including Russians) were
naturally inferior and should be defeated by Aryans.
3. The winter of 1941 had a disastrous effect on the German invasion. The Germans were
not prepared for the extreme low temperatures and many froze to death. Petrol froze and
engines wouldn’t start and the better-equipped Soviet army counterattacked.
4. The Battle of Stalingrad began in the summer of 1942. German forces approached
Stalingrad, while the Red Army was told to defend it at all costs. The German Sixth Army
and the Red Army fought each other for each building. In the winter of 1942–1943, the
Germans were cut off from supplies and began to starve. In February 1943, 91,000 Sixth
Army soldiers surrendered.
5. It was a significant turning point because it was the first major defeat for the Germany
forces on land, and showed that Hitler could be beaten, which inspired others.
230

1. At Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack without declaring
war and attempted to destroy the entire American Pacific fleet. The result was that the US
joined World War II and sent troops and weapons to fight the Axis powers in Europe, the
Pacific and North Africa.
2. The US President at the time was Franklin D. Roosevelt.
3. The Battle of the Atlantic was when German U-boats torpedoed Allied ships to prevent
supplies reaching Britain from across the Atlantic. From 1942, the US navy began guarding
Atlantic shipping and added more men and supplies to the war effort.
4. The impact of the US entering the war was that the Allies now had more men, supplies
and help than before. This would help the Allies win the war.

1. Operation Overlord was the codename for the landing of roughly 156,000 US, British and
3
Canadian troops on five beaches in Normandy, France on D-Day.
2. The D-Day landings took place as part of Operation Overlord on 6 June 1944, when over
Solutions
7,000 ships and landing crafts invaded France, landing on five beaches codenamed Utah,
Omaha, Juno, Gold and Sword. The landings were a success because most of the German
troops were stationed in Calais where they thought the invasion was going to happen.
3. After the liberation of Paris, Allied successes included: destroying German war production
in cities such as Hamburg and Berlin and in the Ruhr Valley; Operation Bagration (the Red
Army driving the Germans westwards); and victory at the Battle of the Bulge.
4. The bombings damaged Germany’s war production and killed a large number of civilians,
including almost 25,000 in Dresden alone in an immense firestorm.
5. The Battle of the Bulge was the final offensive, again through the Ardennes; however, the
Germans were exhausted and were defeated by January 1945. They had thought they
could repeat the success of the 1940 attack.

1. World War II drew to an end when German soldiers were unable to halt the Russian
and Allied troops. Many German cities such as Berlin and Dresden were destroyed. In
March 1945, the Allies crossed the River Rhine into western Germany. The USSR began
to attack Berlin. Hitler committed suicide and was succeeded by Admiral Dönitz, who
surrendered. Japan surrendered in August 1945, after the US dropped atomic bombs on
two Japanese cities.
2. Reasons the Allies won the war: the ‘Big Three’ alliance of Britain, the US and the USSR;
Germany was weakened by fighting a war on two fronts; the Allies gained control of the
air; the Red Army defeated the German army on land; and Hitler interfered too much with
his generals’ military tactics.
3. Proportion of civilian to military deaths:
(a) Poland: 5,620,000 civilian deaths ÷ 240,000 military deaths = 23.41. Proportion
(roughly): 23 civilians : 1 soldier. More than 23 civilians were killed for every soldier.
(b) USSR: 15,200,000 civilian deaths ÷ 11,400,000 military deaths = 1.33. Proportion:
4 civilians : 3 soldiers. Four civilians were killed for every three soldiers.
The USSR, Poland and Germany had the highest number of casualties, in that order.
[Note: The Russian death toll in World War II was over four times that of any
other nation.]
231
4. Impact of the war on:

(a) Germany: death toll, loss of loved ones, land and cities were destroyed, trials of war
criminals and executions, etc.
[Note: Chapter 29 will cover the division of Germany, compensation, etc., but some
students may be aware of this already.]
(b) Europe: The EEC was set up in 1957, many cities destroyed, huge death toll, loss of
loved ones, millions of refugees/displaced people, industries had to be rebuilt, countries
in Eastern Europe came under USSR control, etc.
(c) The US and USSR: Had become the most powerful countries in the world; tensions
would soon develop, leading to the Cold War.
(d) The wider world: The United Nations was established in 1945, replacing the League
of Nations.

2. Britain and France linked together ‘will defend to the death their native soil, aiding each
other like good comrades to the utmost of their strength’.
3. Any five: they will fight in France; on the seas and oceans; in the air; on the beaches; on
the landing grounds; in the fields and in the streets, in the hills, etc.
4. If Britain or a large part of it ‘were subjugated and starving, then the Empire beyond the
seas, armed and guarded by the British fleet, would carry on the struggle’.
5. Benefit: Shows the determination of the British prime minister to resist Nazi rule, and also
that Churchill felt that the help of the US would be needed.
Limitation: It is a speech by the British prime minister intended to inspire people not to lose
hope, but to continue fighting until the end. It qualifies as propaganda, is obviously biased,
is extremely low on detail and is high on emotion.

1. World War II was a new kind of war as both sides refined their weapons and technology,
and also developed new ones (tanks, aircraft, rockets, the atomic bomb, etc.). Fighting
no longer had to be confined to particular areas as in World War I. The new technology
was highly mobile and so units and ‘fronts’ could move very rapidly. This new kind of war
would reach further and affect even more people than World War I had.
2. Blitzkrieg worked by surprising a country with an attack, beginning with heavy bombing of
an area by the German air force (Luftwaffe), followed closely by Panzer tanks and finally by
the infantry.
3. After eight months of the Phoney War, Germany invaded France rapidly, using Blitzkrieg
tactics. They avoided the Maginot Line by using Panzers to roll through the wooded, hilly
terrain of the Ardennes, which the French had thought impossible to cross.
4. The Battle of Stalingrad was a turning point in the war as it was the first major defeat for
the Germany forces on land, and showed that Hitler could be beaten, which inspired others.
5. Thousands of homes and businesses were destroyed in the air raids. Children were
evacuated to the countryside. Approximately 7 million women entered the workforce.
Foods such as sugar, butter and bacon became rare and ration books were introduced for
every citizen. By 1942, tea, milk, eggs and cheese were also rationed. The Dig for Victory
campaign took place, etc.
6. US entry to the war benefited the Allies as it increased the size of their forces and provided
them with more weapons and resources.
232
7. The D-Day landings broke down German defences on the beaches, built artificial harbours to
bring in tanks and trucks and established a pipeline for fuel. Due to this success, by August
the Allies had stopped the Germans at Falaise, and Paris was liberated on 25 August.
8. Check that the dates are correct and in the correct sequence. Examples given below.
September 1939 The invasion of Poland
May 1940 The invasion of France
August 1940 The Battle of Britain
September 1940–May 1941 The Blitz
June 1941 Operation Barbarossa
December 1941 The US enters the war
August 1942–February 1943 The Battle of Stalingrad
June 1944 The D-Day landings
3
Solutions
1. Matching: World War II Leaders (page 151)
Leader Image Fact
Hitler Became Chancellor of Germany in 1933
Stalin Succeeded Lenin in 1924
Chamberlain Became Prime Minister in 1937
Mussolini Prime Minster of Italy, 1922–1943
Churchill Became British Prime Minister in 1940
Roosevelt President of the United States, 1933–1945
233
2. Timeline: World War II (page 152)

Check that the dates given are correct and in the correct sequence. Examples given below.
September 1939 Invasion of Poland
April 1940 Germany occupies Norway and Denmark
May 1940 Invasion of France begins
May 1940 Evacuation from Dunkirk
June 1940 German forces enter Paris unopposed
August 1940 Battle of Britain begins
June 1941 Operation Barbarossa begins
December 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbor
August 1942 Battle of Stalingrad begins
February 1943 Battle of Stalingrad ends in German surrender
May 1943 Axis powers in North Africa surrender
June 1944 D-Day landings
August 1944 Paris liberated
December 1944 Battle of the Bulge
February 1945 Dresden firebombed
May 1945 Victory in Europe Day
August 1945 Victory over Japan Day
3. Crossword: World War II (page 153)

1
M
2 3
A D D
4
G A E O
5 6
H I R O S H I M A B L I T Z K R I E G
N P I F
7 8 9
O M H V E S I
10
T P A T R I O T I C E V T G
N B R A A H
11
H V I C H Y F R A N C E L T
A O N U I
12 13
T U D C A E N I G M A
14
B L I T Z S Y E T G
A N I R
15
N B A R B A R O S S A
M N D
16
O V E R L O R D
Across Down
234
5. The first Japanese city destroyed by the atom 1. Line of fortifications along the French–German
bomb (9) [HIROSHIMA] border (7) [MAGINOT]

1. Source: Evacuation (page 154)
2. To help keep them safe from the night-time bombings in the cities.
3. Hitler.
4. He is pointing to the cities.
5. The mother might be tempted to take them back, as then they would be living with her.
6. The Ministry of Health.
7. Benefit: Shows that the government understands how difficult it was for parents to
evacuate their children, and also plays on their fears by suggesting that keeping children in
the cities is exactly what Hitler would want.
Limitation: It is a British poster intended to influence the public’s actions, so it counts as
propaganda, and it is also likely to be exaggerated.
3
Solutions
235
Chapter 28: Special Study: Genocide

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The Book of Names lists everyone who entered the Auschwitz-
Birkenau extermination camp, from camp records. The Wall of Names in Paris lists the
names and dates of birth of the 76,000 French Jews who were deported and murdered. The
documentary film Shoah consists of nine hours of interviews with survivors, witnesses and
perpetrators (e.g. Nazi guards and administrators) at Chelmno, Treblinka and Auschwitz camps
and at the Warsaw ghetto. As such, it is a valuable and extensive primary audiovisual source on
the Holocaust.

1. Genocide: the attempt to eliminate entire peoples or religious or ethnic groups.
Dehumanisation: treating people as though they were somehow less than human.
2. Great numbers of Native Americans were killed in the nineteenth century due to various
factors: unfamiliar European diseases such as measles, whooping cough and influenza;
malnutrition resulting from tribes being driven from their land and traditional food sources;
during the Gold Rush villages were ambushed and their people slaughtered; and several
wars broke out between tribes and settlers.
3. The Armenians were targeted by the Turks because the government was trying to unify
all the Turkish people in a new state with one religion and one language. Armenians were
Christian and didn’t belong within the new concept of a Turkish state. They were accused
of siding with Turkey’s enemy, fellow Christian state Russia, and called traitors.
4. The Armenians were slaughtered in a combination of massacres, forced deportations, death
marches into the Syrian desert and also by disease or brutality in concentration camps.
5. Genocide took place in Cambodia because the Khmer Rouge (followers of the Communist
Party) aimed to eliminate Buddhists and ethnic minorities within Cambodia, as part of their
idealised vision of their ‘pure’ country.
6. The Khmer Rouge killed up to one-quarter of the population by starvation, disease and
torture in forced labour camps. Over 17,000 people are thought to have died in Tuol Sleng
prison alone, and mass executions were carried out at hundreds of sites called killing fields
all across Cambodia.

1. Holocaust: the Nazi attempt to systematically wipe out Europe’s entire Jewish population.
Shoah: Hebrew word meaning ‘catastrophe’, used to refer to the Holocaust
Ghetto: a part of a city where a minority group lives, due to social, legal or economic pressure.
2. Before the outbreak of war, the Nazis targeted the Jewish people using the discriminatory
Nuremberg Laws from 1935 onwards and the event known as Kristallnacht in 1938.
3. Over eight million Jews lived in Nazi-occupied Europe.
4. The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing squads that executed ‘anti-German elements’ (Jews,
local resistance fighters, government officials and others) in German-occupied territories.
5. The Wannsee Conference is where the method of ‘the Final Solution’ was decided in
January 1942.
236

1. At first, concentration camps were forced labour camps, but from 1942 special extermination
camps (death camps) were also constructed. Four examples: Dachau in Germany; Auschwitz-
Birkenau in Poland; Majdanek in Poland; Chelmno in Poland; Treblinka in Poland, etc.
2. In concentration camps people were dehumanised. Their belongings were taken from them on
arrival and anybody who was unwell or unable to work was killed immediately. Women, men
and children were separated. Prisoners’ heads were shaved and each had a number tattooed on
their forearm. Some prisoners were used for medical experiments without their consent, etc.
3. Soviet soldiers were the first Allies to encounter concentration camps as they pursued the
German forces westwards. They found Majdanek camp in eastern Poland nearly intact on
23 July 1944. Auschwitz was liberated on 27 January 1945. Medics tried to save prisoners,
but many were too weak even to digest food. British, Canadian, American and French
troops also liberated camps. By May 1945, all 20,000 camps had been liberated.
4. An estimated six million Jews were killed; millions of others were systematically killed,
3
including Poles and other Slavic people, Roma, LGBT people, communists and prisoners
of war; generations were wiped out; large-scale emigration by Jewish survivors; a
Solutions
strengthening of a shared Jewish identity.
5. Student’s opinion answer. Students might address the following:
Jewish religious belief (see Genesis, Exodus…) is that God promised the land of Israel to
the Jewish people. They had experienced persecution in Europe since the Middle Ages, but
the Holocaust was such a shattering trauma that the idea of a Jewish state as a permanent,
safe homeland became urgent.

2. Elie Wiesel describes the SS officer as having brought ‘the smell of the Angel of Death’ in
with him. He was tall, in his thirties, with fleshy lips and ‘crime written all over his forehead
and his gaze’.
3. The prisoners had to work, and if they didn’t they would go ‘straight to the chimney. To
the crematorium’.
4. The only word that had real meaning was ‘chimney’ because it was not an abstraction,
they could see it: ‘it floated in the air, mingled with the smoke’.
5. Benefit: Describes the emotions and thoughts of someone who was in a concentration camp.
Limitation: A statement may be less reliable due to fear.

1. European expansion into North America – whether to find gold, escape religious
persecution or start a new life – led directly to the destruction of Native American
communities and livelihoods, especially in the nineteenth century.
Effects: An estimated population of 10 million Native Americans fell to under 300,000 by
the early twentieth century; only 500 tribes remain in the US today; Native Americans still
face major challenges such as poverty, cultural losses and discrimination.
2. The Ottoman Empire had been weakening and losing territory, and nationalist groups
within the empire had caused increasing instability. As Christians with their own language,
Armenians didn’t fit into Turkish nationalists’ idea of the new Turkey and in fact there had
been previous massacres. Armenia had also made a recent bid for independence. During
World War I, the Armenian people were accused of being traitors and siding with their
fellow Christians, Russia – the enemy.
237
Effects: More than 1.5 million ethnic Armenians were killed, as well as many Assyrians
and Greeks; all traces of Armenian cultural heritage, including masterpieces of ancient
architecture and remarkable libraries and archives, were destroyed.
3. Students might suggest that the Turkish state is embarrassed by the atrocities, or claims
that it was a military conflict, part of World War I, and not a genocide.
[Note: The Turkish government admits the large number of Armenian deaths, but debates
the number and says it was legitimate armed conflict, not genocide, or that they were
deportations, not death marches. Many citizens disagree with their government’s stance
on this.]
4. Genocide took place in Cambodia because the Khmer Rouge (followers of the Communist
Party) aimed to eliminate Buddhists and ethnic minorities within Cambodia, as part of their
idealised vision of a ‘pure’ country.
Effects: Between 1.7 and 3 million Cambodians died in the Khmer Rouge’s killing fields,
roughly one-quarter of the population.
5. The Nazis set up Jewish ghettos to isolate Jews from the non-Jewish population. This made
it easier to control the Jews as a group and also to deport them as a group later.
6. Life in the ghettos was difficult. The ghettos were closed off by high walls and barbed-
wire fences and the gates were guarded. Food and fuel shortages led to a high mortality
rate, especially in winter, and the overcrowding and unsanitary conditions encouraged the
outbreak of disease.
7. In concentration camps people were dehumanised. Their belongings were taken from them
on arrival and anybody who was unwell or unable to work was killed immediately. Women,
men and children were separated. Prisoners’ heads were shaved and each had a number
tattooed on their forearm. Some prisoners were used for medical experiments without
their consent, etc.
8. An estimated six million Jews were killed; millions of others were systematically killed,
including Poles and other Slavic people, Roma, LGBT people, communists and prisoners of
war; generations were wiped out; large-scale emigration from Europe by Jewish survivors;
a strengthening of a shared Jewish identity.
9. The genocides studied in this chapter have these traits in common: a negative focus on a
minority group; dehumanisation; led by governments/the State; concentration camps and/
or other segregation from the main population; extermination.
10. Governments blamed targeted groups, sometimes used propaganda against them,
outlawed religions/removed certain rights, segregated the targeted groups, sent them to
forced labour camps, etc., before mass murders began.
11. September 1935 The Nuremberg Laws
November 1938 Kristallnacht
September 1939 The outbreak of World War II
October 1939 The formation of ghettos
December 1941 The creation of extermination camps
July 1944 The liberation of the concentration camps began (completed May 1945)
238

1. Matching: Genocide in History (page 156)
Genocide of Native Americans Armenian Genocide Cambodian Genocide
United States Turkish government 1975
Over 9 million since the fifteenth century Two million in 1915 Disease
Disease Disease Killing fields
Gold rush Christian Khmer Rouge
500 tribes remaining Communism
European explorers One-quarter of the population
3
2. Timeline: Nazi Persecution of the Jewish People (page 156)
Solutions
Check that the dates given are correct and in the correct sequence. Examples are given below.
1933 Nazi book burning of ‘un-German’ books
1933 First concentration camps (forced labour)
1935 Nuremberg Laws
1938 Kristallnacht
3. Matching: The Holocaust (page 157)

The Final Solution: the Nazis’ official plan to exterminate the Jewish population of Europe.
Einsatzgruppen: mobile killing squads that followed the German army east and performed mass
executions of ‘anti-German elements’.
Genocide: the attempt to eliminate entire peoples or religious or ethnic groups.
Ghetto: part of a city where a minority group lives, due to social, legal or economic pressure.

1. Source: An Irish Prisoner of the Nazis (page 157)
1. Secondary source (written by someone else from interviews with Harry Callan).
2. The foremen used hoses, a plank of wood or a metal bar, whatever was to hand, to beat
the prisoners.
3. Witnessing the beatings of prisoners affected Harry greatly. He can still hear the cries of
grown men being beaten. He cried every night for the first two weeks of that hell of a
camp. He became acclimatised to the beatings.
4. Harry and his fellow Irish prisoners thought that there must have been something wrong,
when there was a day with no beatings.
5. One benefit: gives an account of what life was like for an Irish prisoner of war in a
concentration camp during World War II. Provides information about what life was like in a
concentration camp.
One limitation: as a secondary source, some details may not be accurate as it was written
after the events happened, based on Harry’s eye witness accounts as an old man.
239
Chapter 29: The Cold War

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The top image shows the Western Powers offering the hand
of friendship to the Soviets at the end of World War II. But this has now been replaced by the
two sides arm-wrestling and it has become a test of strength. This cartoon implies that the
West wanted peaceful relations with the East and therefore the responsibility for the tensions
between them lay with the East.
The second image shows the American eagle and Russian bear on opposite sides of a deep
gulf. This wide gulf is being filled with deepening suspicions and irresponsible statements.
This cartoon is more neutral and does not lay blame on either side. It clearly points to mutual
statements and suspicions on both sides as the causes of the Cold War.

1. Superpowers: the most powerful economic and military states in the world: the US and
the USSR.
Cold War: the period of tension between the superpowers and their respective allies after
World War II. It did not lead to direct military conflict.
2. The US was a democracy, with different political parties, free elections and a free press. The
Soviet Union was a single-party communist dictatorship.
3. Stalin believed that Britain and the US had deliberately delayed the D-Day landings so that
the Soviets would suffer more damage by fighting the Nazis alone. The US refused to share
the secrets of the atomic bomb with the Soviets.
4. The Iron Curtain was the line dividing Europe into a democratic West and a communist
East after World War II. Stalin wanted a buffer zone of loyal states in Eastern Europe to
protect the Soviet Union from future invasion.
5. President Truman announced that the US would support other countries to resist the
spread of communism.
6. The policy of containment was the US attempt to stop the spread of communism during
the Cold War. The US accepted it was impossible to remove communism where it had
already been established, but would try to limit or contain its spread.
7. Students can answer on either side here once they back up their answer with arguments
based on the events described in this topic.

1. After World War II, the Allies divided Germany into four separate zones of occupation,
each governed by one of the Allies.
2. The Soviets wanted a permanently weakened Germany that would never again be a threat.
The others wanted a strong, prosperous, democratic Germany that would be an obstacle
to communism and be the economic anchor of Europe.
3. The Western Allies introduced a new currency – the Deutschmark – to their zones of Germany
and sectors of Berlin in the hopes of reviving the economy. Stalin refused to allow the new
currency in his zone. He hoped to force the others out of their three Berlin sectors (and so out
of East Germany altogether) by cutting off all road, rail and canal links to the outside.
240
4. The Western Allies decided to supply the city by air but avoid provoking a direct military
confrontation with the Soviets. They took a chance that Stalin would not shoot down
their planes.
5. After almost a year, when it was clear that the Allies could not be forced out of the city,
and in fact were bringing in more cargo than ever before, Stalin ended the Berlin Blockade.
6. (a) Germany was permanently divided into East Germany (the German Democratic
Republic, or GDR) and West Germany (the Federal Republic of Germany, or FRG).
(b) The Western Allies formed a military alliance in 1949 to oppose the Soviets: the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
(c) The Soviets developed their own atomic bomb in 1949 and in 1955 set up their own
military alliance in Eastern Europe, called the Warsaw Pact.

1. Korea was divided along the 38th parallel. The North was communist, backed by the
Soviets, and the South was allied to the US.
3
2. June 1950.
Solutions
3. The US sent troops to support the South and push back the communist invaders as part of
their policy of containment.
4. The Chinese sent an army to support the North Koreans when they believed the US was
going to invade China.
5. President Truman refused to attack China because that was likely to bring the Soviets into
the conflict and he did not want to start World War III.
6. (a) Korea was permanently split between North and South.
(b) It showed that containment could work. The South did not become communist and
war did not breakout between the superpowers.
(c) Asia became divided between the superpowers: the USSR and China became allies in
the defence of North Korea, while the US gained new allies in South Korea, Japan, the
Philippines, etc.

1. A communist revolution led by Fidel Castro overthrew the US-backed Cuban government
in 1959.
2. The US cut off trade with Cuba.
3. After the failed invasion by anti-Castro Cuban exiles (planned and executed by the US),
Castro appealed to the Soviet Union for help in defending Cuba. This suited Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev, because the US had placed missiles in Turkey that were within range of
Soviet cities; now he could do the same not far off the US coast.
4. When US planes observed missile bases being built in Cuba, the US imposed a naval
blockade on Cuba to prevent Soviet ships delivering nuclear missiles.
5. In return for the Soviets removing the missiles from Cuba, the US agreed not to invade
Cuba and to remove their missiles from Turkey.
6. In order to reduce tensions, a telephone hotline was set up between Moscow and
Washington to deal with potential crises as and when they arose. The Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty was agreed by the superpowers and others, which banned atomic testing on land,
sea or in space.
241

1. X: Nikita Khrushchev. Y: John F. Kennedy
2. The two men are arm-wrestling and sweating heavily. They are each seated on a nuclear
missile (marked ‘H’ for hydrogen bomb) and each has a finger over the button that will
detonate under his rival.
3. The cartoon highlights the level of danger and tension that exists between the two leaders
(and the superpowers).
4. Yes. The two are clearly struggling, and by portraying them as arm wrestling while having
their fingers on the button and sitting on nuclear missiles, it suggests that even a little slip
would be disastrous.
5. No, it is a neutral commentary on the dangers the world faced, as neither leader is
portrayed in a particularly heroic or villainous way.

1. The Viet Minh forces: local communist fighters, led by Ho Chi Minh, who had already
driven the Japanese from the north of the country.
2. Due to their policy of containment, the US had financially aided the French in their
war against the Viet Minh. They also sent aid and troops to help the South after the
North invaded.
3. Johnson increased the number of US troops (up from 16,000 to 500,000) and sent them
into direct combat against the communists
4. (a) The US used chemicals to destroy the jungles, burned villages where Vietcong guerrillas
were believed to be hiding and bombed the North heavily.
(b) The Vietcong adopted guerrilla tactics. They attacked in small groups, hid in the jungles
and disrupted their opponents’ supply lines.
5. The US could not deal effectively with the Vietcong tactics and instead used dangerous
chemicals to destroy the jungle cover, heavily bombed and burned villages. They did not
win the support of the Vietnamese people. At home, the anti-war movement was gaining
momentum; eventually President Nixon had to accept defeat and bring the US troops home.
6. The US was much less willing to send its troops overseas to fight communists after the
defeat in Vietnam.

1. The main objective of Soviet policy in Eastern Europe after World War II was to keep
control of the states in the Eastern Bloc.
2. The Soviets used economic (Comecon), political (Cominform) and military (Warsaw Pact)
means to keep the states in line.
3. When countries tried to break free of Soviet control, the Soviet Union used force against
the people, for example in Hungary in 1956 or in Czechoslovakia in 1968.
4. The West recognised Hungary as part of the Soviet sphere of influence and was unwilling
to risk a war for the Hungarian Uprising.
5. Local governments were unwilling to see thousands of their people killed in a futile and
isolated attempt to resist Soviet control.
242

1. 1985.
2. Gorbachev believed radical reforms were necessary because the economy was in crisis and
they were spending too much on the military.
3. Glasnost (meaning ‘openness’): Gorbachev’s policy to open up discussion in Soviet society:
political prisoners were freed, censorship was relaxed and people were encouraged to
suggest new ideas to fix the economy.
Perestroika (meaning ‘restructuring’): Gorbachev’s policy to reform and open up the Soviet
economy by allowing some private ownership of business and land.
4. Gorbachev met President Reagan several times and built a new relationship based on
trust. They made important nuclear disarmament agreements, which dramatically reduced
nuclear weaponry and tensions between East and West.
5. After Gorbachev declared in 1988 that the Soviet army would no longer be used to
keep communists in power, local communist governments were overthrown in protests
3
during 1989.
6. Students can agree or disagree with this statement once they provide reasons to support
Solutions
their contention.

1. The US was a democratic, capitalist country, whereas the Soviet Union was a single-party
dictatorship and a communist country.
2. The Soviets wanted a buffer zone in Eastern Europe to protect them against future
invasions. They imposed communist governments on the countries of the Eastern Bloc and
enforced control through economic, political and military means.
3. The US adopted the policy of containment, which meant they would try to prevent
communism spreading by giving financial and military aid to states that were
resisting communism.
4. The Berlin Blockade (June 1948–April 1949).
5. Both sides in the Cold War spent billions every year to build bigger and more powerful
nuclear weapons that could wipe out the other side.
6. The Korean War was significant in the greater Cold War because it proved to the US that
containment could work, and that they could use their military power to stop the spread of
communism without starting World War III.
7. In return for the Soviets removing the missiles from Cuba, the US agreed not to invade
Cuba and to remove its missiles from Turkey. In order to reduce tensions between them,
the governments set up a telephone hotline between Moscow and Washington to deal
with potential crises when they arose. A Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was agreed by the
superpowers and others that banned atomic testing on land, sea or in space.
8. Their tactics made the Vietnamese people resent the US forces and the Vietcong received a
lot of support from local civilians.
9. The Soviet Union maintained its control of Eastern Europe by threatening to use force on
any state that tried to leave the Eastern Bloc.
10. Reform was needed because the Soviet economy was in crisis and could not afford the cost
of the Cold War.
11. Gorbachev proposed the opening of society (glasnost) by returning certain freedoms
to the people and the restructuring of the economy (perestroika) by allowing more
private ownership.
243
12. After Gorbachev declared in 1988 that the Soviet army would no longer be used to
keep communists in power, each of the local communist governments was overthrown
in protests over the course of 1989. The Berlin Wall fell in November 1989, and various
states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia, Ukraine and others) began to declare their
independence from the USSR in 1991.
13. Students are to write one sentence about each of these events. Note that they will be
obliged to look some up independently.
1946 Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech
1947 The announcement of the Truman Doctrine
1948–1949 The Berlin Blockade
1953 The end of the Korean War
1956 The Hungarian Uprising
1961 The building of the Berlin Wall
1962 The Cuban Missile Crisis
1968 The Prague Spring
1975 The Fall of Saigon
1989 The Fall of the Berlin Wall

1. Key Terms: The Cold War (page 160)
the most powerful countries in the world after World War II (the Soviet Union and the
Superpowers
United States)
The Cold War the long period of heightened tension between the superpowers and their allies
where the state controls all the property, industry and services and freedoms (of election,
Communist country
of the media and of the individual) are limited
one where individuals are free to acquire wealth, own private property and profit from
Capitalist economy
businesses with little to no interference from the government
a system of government under which there are various political parties, people can vote
Democracy
in elections and free media and free speech are protected
The line leading from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic that divided the
The Iron Curtain continent into an eastern part subject to strong Soviet influence and a western part of
independent capitalist economies
a US policy that aimed to halt the spread of communism and contain it to the countries
Containment
where it was already established
the Eastern European countries that were under the control of Moscow (Poland,
Satellite states
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria)
the competitive research and spending by the superpowers to build bigger and more
Arms race
powerful nuclear weapons that could wipe out the other side
Gorbachev’s policy to open up discussion in Soviet society: political prisoners were freed,
Glasnost
censorship relaxed and people were encouraged to suggest new ideas to fix the economy
Gorbachev’s policy to reform and open up the Soviet economy by allowing some private
Perestroika
ownership of business and land
244
2. Two Sides (page 161)
Event Western Powers Eastern Powers

Action Reason Action Reason
Supplied West Berlin Refused to allow the Cut off all road and rail Wanted to force the
from the air for nearly Soviets to push them links to West Berlin Western allies out
a year out of Berlin; did not of the city and unite
Berlin Blockade
want to look weak; all of East Germany
did not want to allow under communist rule
communism to expand
Sent troops to support Policy of containment: China sent troops The Chinese wanted
the South after the to oppose the to support the to prevent a US
Korean War North’s invasion expansion of North after the US invasion of China
communism to non- threatened to invade
3
communist countries China
The US set up a naval The US could not Soviet missiles were NATO missiles in
Solutions
blockade around the allow Soviet nuclear being stationed Turkey could reach
Cuban Missile island to prevent the missiles so close to it in Cuba the USSR; Cuba was
Crisis missile bases from communist and might
being completed have to resist another
US invasion
The US sent funds and They wanted to China and the USSR They wanted
troops to support the prevent the South supplied the North to support the
Vietnam War South Vietnamese becoming communist Vietnamese with communists without
funding and weapons risking war with the US
but sent no troops
Nothing to help They were not Sent troops to crush Refused to allow
Hungarian
the protestors prepared to risk a war the uprising Hungary to leave the
Uprising
over Hungary Eastern Bloc
Massive increase in They wanted to Sought to reduce Could no longer
military spending pressurise the Soviets tensions through arms afford the Cold War
End of the Cold
by making them reduction treaties in the midst of an
War
spend money they did economic crisis
not have to compete
245

1. Source: Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech (page 162)
2. Churchill says he admires the ‘valiant’ Russian people and his ‘wartime comrade’ Stalin.
3. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic.
4. ‘In the British Commonwealth and in the United States, where communism is in its infancy.’
5. According to Churchill, the Russians want the ‘fruits of war’ and ‘the indefinite expansion
of their power and doctrines’, but without going to war.
6. They admire strength above all.
7. Yes. In the years following this speech, Russia would seize control of countries throughout
Eastern Europe and support communist movements all around the world.
8. Many people in Britain and the US would have been alarmed that Churchill seemed to be
suggesting that a new war was coming, so soon after World War II. However, as he had
been right about the threat posed by the Nazis in the 1930s, many people would have
listened to him.
9. Benefit: It gives a clear insight into Churchill’s thinking at the time and is a key document in
the understanding of the emergence of the Cold War after World War II.
Limitation: As a political speech, it is very one-sided and gives us no insight into how the
Soviets were thinking.
2. Source: Khrushchev’s Autobiography (page 164)

2. Bomber bases and missiles.
3. Turkey, Italy and West Germany.
4. While visiting Bulgaria, Khrushchev had the idea of installing nuclear warheads in Cuba
before the US could find out about them.
5. According to Khrushchev, because Cuba was a socialist country and an example to the rest
of Latin America.
6. Two reasons: to protect Cuba from the US; and to redress the imbalance with the US over
the positioning of missiles (to give the Americans ‘a little of their own medicine’).
7. Students can agree or disagree with Khrushchev as long as they back up their position with
a good explanation.
8. Benefit: It allows us to understand Khrushchev’s motivation (or what he says was
his motivation).
Limitation: As it was written in 1971, long after the crisis that nearly destroyed the world,
he might feel the need to justify himself and he may not be fully honest.
246
Chapter 30: An Important Decade: The

1960s in Europe and the World
TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The Huntsville Times emphasises the human achievement of
making it into space (‘Man Enters Space’) and the left-hand column notes the US believed it
was close to also achieving this success. It is only on the smaller headline on the right that they
mention it was a Soviet officer.
The Daily Worker makes it a success for communism (‘A Communist in Space’) and notes that the
Soviets were ‘wild with joy’ and were preparing a hero’s welcome for him. The right-hand column
text (not visible here) also maintains that the US had little chance of making it to the moon.
3
There is an obvious bias in perspective in the newspapers. The Huntsville Times is probably an
Solutions
American paper, given the emphasis on the US point of view. The title ‘Daily Worker’ would
suggest that this newspaper is sympathetic towards or pro-communism.

1. So that they could ‘prove’ the superiority of their political system over their opponent’s by
developing the best technology.
2. Sputnik, in 1957.
3. Yuri Gagarin.
4. Kennedy committed the US to landing a man on the moon because the Soviets had beaten
them in the earlier parts of the space race.
5. Neil Armstrong.
6. The US had succeeded at the final, hardest goal of the space race; it was a huge
propaganda victory.
7. Aside from the propaganda victory of having been the first country to put a man on the
moon, five more Apollo missions went to the moon, and there were significant advances in
satellite and communications technology.

1. Before the Civil Rights Movement, African-Americans were treated as second-class citizens.
A century before that, many had been slaves. They were discriminated against in many states
in education, housing, public facilities, employment, policing, the court system and voting.
2. The Civil Rights Movement used non-violent protest: protest marches and boycotts of
businesses; using the media to highlight discrimination; and attacking discrimination laws
in the courts.
3. The 1960s saw various groups take to the streets to challenge political leaders and demand
change in their societies and they copied the tactics of the Civil Rights Movement.
4. Any of those listed on page 423 is acceptable.
5. Most of the protest movements adopted similar tactics to those of the Civil Rights
Movement. They organised marches to bring people out on the streets. They published
magazines and books to raise awareness of their demands for change and keep people
informed of developments in the campaign. They lobbied politicians to change laws.
247

[Note to prompt/aid discussion] The 1950s dresses are all below the knee, multi-coloured, with
various patterns and full skirts. The 1960s were all a single colour (‘monochrome’) and were
much shorter, above the knee. They were also cut closer to the body. The 1960s dresses would
suggest that greater comfort and freedom were becoming more central in how women chose
their clothing and what was designed for them.
The body language is also quite different in the two pictures: matching/conforming (1950s)
vs individualistic and more active (1960s).

1. Young people of the 1960s were better educated than previous generations due to free
education and had far more money to spend than their parents had at the same age.
2. Youth culture is the term given to the tastes in music, fashion and entertainment
developed by young people in the 1960s.
3. It sounded very different and addressed topics such as love, sex, drugs, personal freedom
and politics.
4. They believed it encouraged socially unacceptable behaviour among young people.
5. 1960s fashion featured bright, swirling colours and very different, playful styles. The
miniskirt arrived for women. For men, psychedelic tie-dye shirts, long hair and beards
replaced the traditional, conservative short hair, shirts and trousers. These new fashions
symbolised the rejection of their parents’ values.
6. They were better educated, wealthier and had more freedom than the generations who
went before them.

1. The overall competition between the superpowers included competition over which had
the better technology. The technology first developed for the space race was later used to
improve missiles and satellites for military use and to advance technology in other areas
such as communications and computing.
2. The US worried that the Soviets had achieved technological and military superiority in the
Cold War.
3. NASA launched the Gemini and Apollo missions to develop the technology needed to
reach, land on and return from the moon and built the Saturn V rocket to carry the Apollo
spacecraft out of Earth’s orbit and towards the moon.
4. African-Americans were treated as second-class citizens. They were discriminated against in
many states in education, housing, public facilities, employment, policing, the court system
and voting.
5. Any three from the list on page 423 is acceptable.
6. Young people were better educated than previous generations due to free education and
had a lot more money to spend than their parents had at the same age.
7. (a) It sounded different and addressed topics such as love, sex, drugs, personal freedom
and politics.
(b) It featured bright, swirling colours and very different styles. It included psychedelic tie-
dye shirts, long hair and beards replaced the traditional short hair, shirts and trousers
on men and the miniskirt for women.
8. Young people wanted to be express through fashion and music that they had different
values and attitudes to their parents’ generation.
248

1. Key Terms: The 1960s (page 167)

Competition between the superpowers during the 1960s over who would be the first to
Space race
get into space, send a man to the moon and so on
Competition between the superpowers to develop the biggest and most effective
Arms race
weapons systems during the Cold War, especially in nuclear weapons
Sputnik First satellite into orbit in 1957, made by the Soviets
Apollo 11 The space craft that carried the first men to the moon
3
Dr Martin Luther King Leader of the African-American Civil Rights Movement
Protest marches, boycotts of businesses, using the media to highlight discrimination and
Non-violent protest
Solutions
attacking discriminatory laws in the courts
Civil Rights Movement In the US, the campaign for equal treatment by African-Americans
The campaign against sexism and for gender equality by women during the 1960s
The women’s movement
and 1970s
The gay rights movement The campaign for equality and an end to discrimination against LGBTQ people
Youth culture Young people’s taste in music, fashion and entertainment
Baby boom The significant increase in the birth rate after World War II
Musicians who produced popular music aimed at teenagers which sounded different to
Pop stars
the music of their parents
The miniskirt An iconic fashion item of the 1960s that symbolised women’s sexual liberation
249

1. Source: President Kennedy on the Space Race (page 169)
2. Kennedy claims it would have a huge impact on people deciding ‘which road they should
take’ between ’freedom and tyranny’ (meaning the political values of the US or USSR).
3. The US didn’t lack resources or talent, but had ‘never made the national decisions or
marshalled the national resources required for such leadership’.
4. Kennedy wants to set long-term goals with an urgent deadline schedule and manage the
national resources and time to fulfil these goals.
5. The end of the decade (1969).
6. ‘No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more
important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or
expensive to accomplish.’
7. Benefit: This is a key document in the space race and helps us understand how and why
the US became committed to the moon landings.
Limitation: On its own it doesn’t tell us if the US was successful in meeting Kennedy’s
challenge. We need more information to fully understand the document’s importance.
2. Source: ‘I Have a Dream’ Speech (page 170)

2. He is still not free, a century after the US Civil war. He is crippled by discrimination, poverty
and segregation.
3. ‘The whirlwinds of revolt’ (unrest) will continue; ‘there will be neither rest nor tranquility in
America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights’.
4. ‘On the high plane of dignity and discipline’; without violence, bitterness or hatred.
5. That the nation’s creed as stated in the Declaration of Independence (‘We hold these truths
to be self-evident: that all men are created equal’) will become a reality in America. That
within their lifetimes, his children will be judged only by the content of their character and
not by the colour of their skin.
6. Either a yes or no answer is suitable here. Students can point to the successes of the Civil
Rights Movement or the continued discrimination faced by African-Americans to support
their answer.
7. Benefit: It lays out a clear vision for the Civil Rights Movement and an America that would
emerge if racial equality were achieved.
Limitation: It does not reveal how successful this campaign was; the reader needs more
information to assess this.
250
Chapter 31: European Integration

TEXTBOOK ANSWERS
[Note to prompt/aid discussion] A European historian researching the history of European
integration might find it difficult to use sources (government records, newspapers, memoirs,
etc.) from another country if they do not speak the language. The EU recognises 24 official
languages used in the 28 member states.

1. The Cold War was taking shape as a potential threat to Europe.
2. These leaders had personal experience of war and of fascism. They were determined to
prevent a return to the extremism and destruction of the previous generation.
3
3. The Cold War posed a problem that they felt could only be resolved by working together.
The continent was devastated after the war and economic cooperation would help their
Solutions
countries to recover. The US would lend its support to an ally against communism and
wanted Europe to be a strong partner in trade and in values.
4. Any of the reasons given is valid, once students explain their reasons for selecting it. There
should be a comparative element in a good answer.

1. The Benelux Agreement was important because it showed that the abolition of tariffs on
imports and exports could be achieved and was successful (it tripled trade in a decade).
2. It was to administer the Marshall Plan funds, encourage economic cooperation and raise
living standards in Europe.
3. The European Convention on Human Rights guaranteed the basic rights of all citizens in
Europe to democracy, free speech, a free media and protection from torture or unfair trials.
If a citizen felt their rights had been violated by their own government, they could take a
case to the European Court of Human Rights.
4. France proposed setting up the ECSC to minimise any threat from a re-emerging
West Germany.
5. The European Coal and Steel Community: the coal and steel industries of France, West
Germany, Italy and the Benelux states were put under a single High Authority.
6. It was different in that the member states handed over some of their sovereignty to an
outside body. The ECSC could make decisions that would be binding on all its members.

1. The ECSC had been such a success that its six members wanted to extend it to other areas
by setting up the European Economic Community.
2. (a) The Commission runs the EEC day-to-day and implements the treaties. It is made up of
nominees by the member states: the commissioners.
(b) The Council of Ministers is where national ministers meet regularly to discuss common
issues and make decisions.
(c) The European Parliament represents the people of Europe. Since 1979, its members
have been directly elected and it has become as powerful as the Commission and
the Council.
(d) The Court of Justice rules on interpretations of the treaties and on disputes between
the other institutions and member states.
251
3. The common market is a free trade area without restrictions (tariffs, custom duties) on
trade on all goods amongst members. It also has common external tariffs for goods
coming into the free trade area.
4. The ‘Four Freedoms’ are freedom of movement of money, people, goods and services
amongst member states.

1. The French president, Charles de Gaulle, believed that Britain was too close to the US and
the Commonwealth.
2. Spain, Portugal and Greece had been military dictatorships until the 1970s, while Poland
and the other countries of the Eastern Bloc had been under communist rule until the start
of the 1990s.
3. After communism collapsed, the EC loaned the countries in Eastern Europe money to
stabilise their economies and promised them membership.
4. Check that the dates and sequence of events are correct.
1958 West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg
1973 Britain, Ireland and Denmark
1981 Greece
1984 Spain and Portugal
1995 Austria, Sweden, Finland
2004 The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Slovenia,
Malta and Cyprus
2007 Romania and Bulgaria
2013 Croatia

1. The Single European Act created the Single Market: a single economic area that would
remove all the remaining barriers to the movement of money, people, goods and services
amongst the member states.
2. The Maastricht Treaty created the European Union (EU), the single currency (the euro) and
the Social Charter (more protections for workers). It removed the veto power of member
states in many areas and gave more power to the European Parliament.
3. The Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice reformed EU institutions in preparation for
the its expansion to include Eastern Europe.
4. Any three successes detailed on page 435 are acceptable here.
5. Any three issues detailed on page 435 are acceptable here.
6. Students may argue that it has been a success or failure, once they provide valid reasons
for their answers.

1. Ireland joined the OEEC in 1948 and the Council of Europe in 1949.
2. Ireland was not invited to join the ECSC or the EEC when they were founded.
3. Britain was applying in 1961, and as it was Ireland’s largest trading partner, Ireland felt it
had to join alongside Britain.
4. France vetoed Britain’s membership in 1961 and 1967, which meant that Ireland was not
able to join until 1973.
252
5. Any two of the ways listed on page 437 are acceptable here.
6. Ireland has opposed moves towards a common defence policy and a common tax rate for
businesses and also rejected referendums in 2001 and 2008, both of which later passed
with changes.

1. Konrad Adenauer, Robert Schuman and Alcide de Gasperi.
2. The legacy of World War II, US support, the Cold War, the need for economic
reconstruction.
3. Europeans created the European Convention of Human Rights and the European Court of
Human Rights to safeguard human rights in the wake of World War II.
4. The OEEC was set up to distribute the Marshall Aid funds, the Benelux Treaty created free
trade between the countries involved and the ECSC promoted cooperation on coal and steel.
5. Sovereignty is the independent power of a state. Membership of the ECSC and the EEC
3
both required countries to agree to share their sovereignty with other states.
6. The European Economic Community was established in the Treaty of Rome in 1957.
Solutions
7. The structures of the EEC were designed to encourage cooperation and close relationships
by getting the governments and politicians of the member states working together. Policies
such as the common market, the single currency and the Four Freedoms were intended to
bring the economies and people of the EU together.
8. The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 created the European Union (EU), the single currency and
the Social Charter. It removed the veto power of member states in many areas and gave
more power for the European Parliament.
9. (a) Any two: economic prosperity; peace; free trade; social spending; greater rights
for workers.
(b) Any two: some feel it is more distant from the people; they worry they are losing their
national identities; there have been failures to develop a common foreign policy; big
gaps still exist between member states.
10. Check that the dates given are correct and in the correct sequence. Students must also
write a sentence about each event.
1948 The OEEC
1949 The Hague Congress
1949 The founding of NATO
1957 The Treaty of Rome
1973 Ireland joined the EEC
1986 Spain joined the EEC
1986 The Single European Act
1989 The fall of the Berlin Wall
1992 The Maastricht Treaty
1999 The introduction of the euro
253

1. Key Terms: European Integration (page 173)

Sovereignty a country’s independence and power.
a free trade area created by eliminating restrictions (tariffs, customs duties) on trade on
The common market all goods amongst members. It has common external tariffs for goods coming into the
free trade area.
removal of the restrictions on the movement of money, people, goods and services (the
Freedom of movement
‘four freedoms’) amongst member states of the EU.
looks after the day-to-day running of the EU and implements the treaties. It is made up
The European Commission
of member states’ nominees, the commissioners.
intended to represent the people of Europe. Since 1979 its members have been
The European Parliament
directly elected.
national ministers meet regularly to discuss common issues and make decisions. It is the
The Council of Ministers
most powerful of the EU institutions.
The European Court rules on interpretations of the treaties and on disputes between the other institutions
of Justice and member states.
The euro the EU single currency, created by the Maastricht Treaty and launched in 1999
The Treaty of Rome signed in 1957, created the EEC
The Single European Act signed in 1986, created the Single Market
The Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992, created the EU and considerably advanced European integration

1. Source: The European Convention on Human Rights (page 174)
2. The Declaration was aimed ‘at securing the universal and effective recognition and
observance of the Rights’ it details.
3. The aim of the Council of Europe is the achievement of greater unity amongst its members.
4. By an effective political democracy and a common understanding and observance of
human rights upon which the fundamental freedoms depend.
5. A common heritage of political traditions, ideals, freedom and the rule of law.
6. It is a rejection of the ideology of fascism that had been at the root of World War II.
Its emphasis on the rights of peoples and minorities is a reflection of the impact of the
Holocaust and the millions who had died in the war.
7. Benefit: It is a clear statement of the values of the states that signed it in 1949.
Limitation: It is very aspirational (tells us what it hopes for) but provides no info on how this
is to be achieved.
254
2. Source: The Schuman Declaration (page 175)

2. The ‘coming together of the nations of Europe requires the elimination of the age-old
opposition of France and Germany’. He said this because they were the biggest economies
in Europe and their peoples had been on opposite sides of wars for centuries.
3. The French government proposed that ‘Franco-German production of coal and steel
as a whole be placed under a common High Authority, within the framework of an
organization open to the participation of the other countries of Europe’.
4. The pooling of coal and steel production will ‘provide for the setting up of common
foundations for economic development as a first step in the federation of Europe’.
5. Coal and steel are the key materials used in the manufacture of weaponry and
ammunition, so to pool and oversee this production binds the countries together.
6. The European Coal and Steel Community.
7. Benefit: It helps us understand Schuman’s thinking and the reasoning behind the setting up
3
of the ECSC.
Limitation: As this source dates from the very beginning of the ECSC, it can’t tell us
Solutions
how it worked in practice, and further sources would be needed to gain a full picture
of the ECSC.
3. Source: 1961 Election Poster (page 176)

2. The poster claims that, if Ireland joins the EEC (any three): employment in industry,
transport and agriculture will be under threat; farm price guarantees and subsidies would
be dismantled; jobs will be lost to foreign workers; land will be sold to foreign buyers.
3. Labour will ensure that the people’s concerns are put before those of profit.
4. The Irish Congress of the Trade Unions opposes membership of the EEC.
5. Students can argue either side here, once their points are backed up with examples
and evidence.
6. The image of a mill being closed symbolised lost jobs and industry. The link with the hated
Act of Union with Britain was very effective. It played on the fears of people across Irish
society (farmers to workers) and makes an appeal to an outside authority (the Trade Unions
Congress) to support its arguments.
7. Benefit: It shows us there was considerable debate in Ireland over joining the EEC, and the
particular fears that people had.
Limitation: This poster is clearly biased, as it is trying to make people afraid and win votes
for the Labour Party.
4. Source: 1972 Pro-EEC Advertisement (page 178)

2. It suggests that Ireland will be completely cut off and isolated if it does not join the EEC.
3. Any three: Ireland will have: declining industries and agriculture; soaring unemployment
and no resources to deal with it; no future for its children, who will not be able to seek
work on the continent; complete isolation on the edge of Europe.
4. Ireland will be a member of the most prosperous community the world has ever seen and
will be offered help, friendship and a bright future.
5. The prosperity created by membership.
255
6. The visual imagery is very stark and clearly communicates what will happen to Ireland if it doesn’t join
the EEC. The message of the text is not very positive; it mainly focuses on the negative impacts on
Ireland of being outside the EEC. There are three points based on the dangers of not joining and only
one putting forward a positive reason for joining.
7. Benefit: It shows us there was considerable debate in Ireland over joining the EEC, and the
particular fears that people had.
Limitation: This poster is clearly biased, as it is trying to make people afraid so they will vote
for EEC membership.
256

Inspire Teacher&#39;s Resource Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Inspire Teacher&#39;s Resource Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Inspire Teacher&#39;s Resource Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3 Solutions

Chapter 1: The Nature of History –

Checkpoint 1.2 (page 3)

Checkpoint 1.3 (page 5)

Checkpoint 1.4 (page 7)

Working with the Evidence (page 8)

Checkpoint 1.6 (page 10)

Understanding History questions (page 12)

Exploring History questions (pages 12 and 13)

SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK ANSWERS

2. Using a Timeline (page 2)

How many years passed between:

3. Centuries Task (page 2)

Century Start Year End Year

4. Timeline of Your Life (page 3)

5. Crossword: The Historian (page 4)

6. Match the Meanings: The Historian (page 5)

Working with the Evidence

Chapter 2: The Nature of History –

Checkpoint 2.2 (page 17)

Checkpoint 2.3 (page 21)

Checkpoint 2.3 (page 23)

Working with the Evidence (page 23)

Understanding History (page 24)

Exploring History (page 25)

SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK ANSWERS

2. Timeline: Irish Archaeology (page 8)

3. Matching: Archaeology (page 8)

Working with the Evidence!

Chapter 3: Ancient Ireland

Checkpoint 3.3 (page 32)

Checkpoint 3.4 (page 34)

Understanding History (page 35)

SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK ANSWERS

Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age

2. Key Terms: Ancient Ireland (page 13)

Key Term Explanation

3. Ogham Alphabet (page 14)

Working with the Evidence!

2. Source: News Report of an Archaeological Discovery from

Chapter 4: Culture and Society in Early

Checkpoint 4.2 (page 42)

Working with the Evidence (page 42)

Checkpoint 4.3 (page 43)

Checkpoint 4.4 (page 45)

Understanding History (page 46)

SOURCES AND SKILLS BOOK ANSWERS

2. The Life of an Early Christian Irish Monk (page 19)

3. Matching: Early Christian Artefacts (page 20)

4. Key Terms: Early Christian Ireland (page 21)

Across Working with the Evidence! Down

Chapter 5: An Ancient Civilisation:

Checkpoint 5.1 (page 50)

Checkpoint 5.2 (page 53)

Checkpoint 5.2 (page 54)

Checkpoint 5.3 (page 57)

Checkpoint 5.4 (page 59)

Checkpoint 5.5 (page 61)

Inspire Teacher's Resource Book

Inspire Teacher's Resource Book

Inspire Teacher's Resource Book