1/30/2015

PEOPLE BEHIND

 Innocenzo Manzetti
 Antonio Meucci
 Johann Philipp Reis
 Elisha Gray

TELEPHONY  Alexander Graham Bell

ECE145P-2  Thomas Edison
Fiber Optics and Telephony

TELEPHONE STANDARD TELEPHONE SET

 an apparatus of reproducing sound,

especially that of the human voice, at a
great distance, by means of electricity;
consisting of transmitting and receiving
instruments connected by a line or wire
which conveys the electric current

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BELL SYSTEM 500-TYPE

STANDARD TELEPHONE SET
ROTARY DIAL TELEPHONE

 Basically a simple analog transceiver

designed with the primary purpose of
converting speech or acoustical signals to
electric signals

BELL SYSTEM 302-TYPE BELL SYSTEM 2500-TYPE

 telephone with hand crank magneto, fixed  touch-tone telephone

microphone, hand-held

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE

IP TELEPHONE
QUALITY OF TRANSMISSION

 Received volume
 Relative frequency response of the
telephone circuit
 Degree of interference

FUNCTIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE

TELEPHONE SET
 Notify the subscriber when there is an
incoming call.
 Provide a signal to the telephone network
verifying when the incoming call has been
acknowledged and answered.
 Convert speech energy to electrical
energy.
TELEPHONE SET
 Incorporate some method of inputting and
sending destination telephone numbers
from the telephone set to C.O. switch via
the local loop.
 Regulate the amplitude of the speech
signal the calling person outputs onto the
telephone line.
 Incorporate some means of notifying the
C.O. when a subscriber wishes to place an
outgoing call.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE
TELEPHONE SET
TELEPHONE SET
 Ensure that a small amount of the transmit
signal is fed back to the speaker, enabling
talkers to hear themselves speaking.
 Provide an open circuit condition to the local
loop when not in use and closed circuit
when in use.
 Provide a means of transmitting and
receiving call progress signals between the
central office switch and the subscriber,  Tip (green) – used to transmit the signal
such as on and off hook, busy, ringing, dial  Ring (red) – used to receive the signal far-end
pulses, touch-tone signals, and dial tone.  Slave (yellow) – used as a spare or for special-
purpose applications

PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE Telephone Transmitter

 Transmitter/Microphone  Carbon Transmitter

 It converts acoustical energy into electrical
energy by means of a carbon granule
transmitter
 a sound-to-electrical signal transducer
consisting of two metal plates separated by
granules of carbon
 has the advantage of simplicity and the ability
to generate a relatively large signal without
amplification
 poor audio quality

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Carbon Transmitter Telephone Transmitter

 Electret Condenser
 Has a vibrating diaphragm that effectively
changes the plate spacing in a permanently
charged capacitor consisting of electrodes on
both sides of a layer of plastics that has a
permanently stored electrical charge

PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE

 Receiver/Speaker  Switch Hook (Plunger)

 It converts electrical signals to acoustical signal  A DPST switch placed across tip and ring
understandable by human

 On-Hook: handset in idle condition

 Off-Hook: headset is lifted up

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PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE

 Dialer  Ringer
 enables the subscriber to input telephone  Device that converts electrical signals from C.O. to
number of the party being called an audible signal to notify the subscriber by an
incoming call
 Equalizers
 Combinations of passive components that re used to
regulate the amplitude and frequency response of
the voice signals
 Hybrid Coil
 Convert a two-wire circuit into four-wire and vice
versa

CALL PROGRESS AND TONE

PARTS OF THE TELEPHONE
SIGNALS
Tone or Signal Frequency Duration/Range
Dial tone 350 Hz plus 440 Hz Continuous
697 Hz, 770 Hz, 852 Two of eight tones
Hz, 941 Hz On, 50 ms min
DTMF
1209 Hz, 1336 Hz, Off, 45 ms min
1477 Hz, 1633 Hz 3 s max
700 Hz, 900 Hz, Two of six tones
1100 Hz On, 90 ms min
MF
1300 Hz, 1500 Hz, 120 ms max
1700 Hz
Open/closed switch On, 39 ms
Dial pulses
Off, 61 ms
480 Hz plus 620 Hz On, 0.5 s
Station busy
Off, 0.5 s

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CALL PROGRESS AND TONE

DIALLING METHODS
SIGNALS
Tone or Signal Frequency Duration/Range  Dial Pulsing or Pulse Dialling
480 Hz plus 620 Hz On, 0.2 s  Defined as a momentary on-hook condition that
Equipment busy
Off, 0.3 s causes loop making and breaking from the telephone
20 Hz, 90 Vrms On, 2 s set dialer toward the central office
Ringing
Off, 4 s
440 Hz plus 480 Hz On, 2 s
Ring-back
Off, 4 s
Receiver on- Open loop Indefinite
hook
Receiver off- DC current 20 mA, min
hook 80 mA, max
Receiver left-off 1440 Hz, 2060 Hz, On, 0.1 s Make – circuit closed/off-hook
hook alert 2450 Hz, 2600 Hz Off, 0.1 s Break – circuit opened/on-hook

Pulse Dialling Pulse Dialling

 Nominally: Example:
 break period = 61 ms  What is the minimum time required to dial
 make period = 39 ms the 7-digit telephone number 395-4258
 Pulse Period = 0.1 s/pulse using a rotary type telephone set?

 Interdigital Delay = 0.5 s

 Interdigital Delay – idle period separation

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DIALLING METHODS DTMF Dialling

 Multifrequency Dialling or DTMF

Dialling
 Dual-Tone Multifrequency originally called as
Touch-Tone
 A simple two-to-eight encoding scheme where
each digit is represented by the linear addition
of two frequencies.

Plain Old Telephone System

THE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT
(POTS)
 the simplest and most straightforward form of
telephone service.
 bi-directional, or full duplex, voiceband path with
limited frequency range of 300 to 3400 Hz: in
other words, a signal to carry the sound of the
human voice both ways at once;
 call-progress tones, such as dial tone and ringing
signal;
 subscriber dialing;
 operator services, such as directory assistance,
long distance calling, and conference calling
assistance;

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Local Subscriber Loop Local Subscriber Loop

(Local Loop) (Local Loop)
 Provides a means of connecting a
telephone set at a subscriber’s location to
the closest telephone office

Local Subscriber Loop

On the Local Loop
(Local Loop)
 Main Component Parts That Make Up
 Carries voice signal both ways a Traditional Local Loop
 Feeder Cable (F1)
 It carries signalling information both
 Largest cable used in a local loop
ways: dialling pulses or tones to the
central office from the network to the  Serving Area Interface (SAI)
subscriber  A cross-connect point used to distribute the larger
feeder cable into smaller distribution cable
 Copper wire is preferred over optical fiber
 Distribution Cable
 A smaller version of a feeder cable containing less
wire pairs

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On the Local Loop On the Local Loop

 Distribution Cable and Drop-Wire Cross-Connect
 Subscriber or Standard Network Interface (SNI) Point
 Device that serves as the demacration point between  Location where individual cable pairs within a
local telephone company responsibility and distribution cable are separated and extended to the
subscriber responsibility for telephone service subscriber’s location on a drop wire
 Drop Wire
 The final length of cable pair that terminates at the
SNI
 Aerial
 A portion of the local loop that is strung between
poles

Attenuation On the Local Loop Attenuation On the Local Loop

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Attenuation On the Local Loop

Attenuation On the Local Loop
Loading Coils

 Loading Coils
 Use to decrease the attenuation, increase the
line impedance, and improve transmission
levels for circuits longer than 18,000 ft. -
Cancels capacitance that inherently builds up
between wires with distance.
 Specified by the addition of letter codes A, B, C,
D, E, F, H, X, or Y, which designate the distance
between loading coils and by numbers, which
indicate the inductance value of the wire gauge.

CENTRAL OFFICE CENTRAL OFFICE

 A central location where subscribers are  Primary Functions:

interconnected, either temporarily or on a
permanent basis
 To provide battery (DC voltage) to a telephone.
This DC voltage is used to operate the
telephone and to determine when a subscriber
has gone off or on-hook.
 To provide ringing voltage.
 To provide dial tone.
 To accept the digits dialled.
 To provide connection to subscribers.
 Supervise the calling process

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THE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT THE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT

 Tandem Office
 Local Exchange Carrier (LEC)
 A Class 4, or Tandem, central office telephone
 A regulatory term in telecommunications for so-
exchange used to interconnect local exchange
called local telephone company.
carrier offices for long distance communications
in the Public Switched Telephone Network.  International Gateway Facilities
 Trunk Circuit (interoffice trunk)  Consists of international transmission, switching
and network management facilities which
 Connection between C.O.
serves as point of entry and exit in the
 Tandem Trunk(intermediate trunk) Philippines of international traffic between the
national network and points outside the
 Truck connecting tandem office and any other
Philippines.
C.O.

Transmission Parameters Bandwidth Parameters

 Bandwidth parameters  Attenuation distortion

 Attenuation distortion
 Envelope delay distortion
 The difference in circuit gain experienced at a
particular frequency with respect to the circuit
 Interface parameters
gain at reference frequency.
 Terminal impedance
 In-band and out-of-band signal power  Also called as frequency response, differential
 Test signal power
gain and 1004-Hz deviation
 Ground isolation  Envelope Delay Distortion
 Facility parameters
 The difference in phase shifts with respect to
 Noise measurements
frequency that signals experience as they
 Frequency and phase distortion
propagate through a medium.
 Amplitude distortion
 Nonlinear distortion

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Interface Parameters
 Electrical protection of the telephone
network and its personnel
 Standardization of design arrangements
Facility Parameters
 Includes potential impairments to data
signal due to the telephone company
equipments
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Interface Parameters
 600Ω – station equipment impedance over the
usable voice band
 20 MΩ dc and 50 kΩ ac – minimum station
equipment isolation from ground
 0 dBm – maximum transmitted signal power for
private-line circuit
 Circuit gain at 3000 Hz is 3 dB below the specified
in-band signal power
 Signal must be received at the Telco office at -
12dBm
Facility Parameters
 Impulse Noise
 Characterized by high-amplitude peaks (impulse) of
short duration having an approximately flat spectrum
 Gain Hits and Drop-Outs
 Gain Hits – a sudden, random change in the gain of a
circuit resulting in a temporary change in the signal
level.
 Caused by noise transients (impulses) on transmission
facilities during the normal course of a day.
 Drop-Out – decrease in circuit gain of more than
12dB lasting for more than 4 ms.
 Caused by deep fades or by switching delays.
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Facility Parameters Facility Parameters

 Phase Hits
 Sudden, random changes in the phase of a signal.
 Phase Jitter
 A form of incidental phase modulation that occurs at
a 300-Hz rate or lower.
 Single-Frequency Interference
 Presence of one or more continuous, unwanted tones
within a message channel – called spurious tones.
 Often caused by crosstalk or cross-modulation
between adjacent channels due to system
nonlinearities.

Crosstalk Crosstalk

 Any disturbance created in a

communications channel by signals in
other communications channels.
Nature of Crosstalk
Intelligible Crosstalk
Particularly annoying and objectionable
because the listener senses a real or fancied
loss of privacy.
Unintelligible Crosstalk
Does not violate privacy but still annoying

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Crosstalk Crosstalk
 Coupling Crosstalk

 Primary Types  Electromagnetic coupling between two or more

physically isolated transmission media.
 Nonlinear Crosstalk
 Types of Coupling Crosstalk
 Direct result of nonlinear amplification in analog
system.  Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
 Occurs at the transmit end of a circuit and
 Transmittance Crosstalk
travels in the opposite direction as the signal
 Caused by inadequate control of the transfer in the disturbing channel.
characteristics or transmittance of networks –
 Far-end crosstalk (FEXT)
(frequency response of a transmission system,
poor filter design, or poor filter performance)  Occurs at the very far end receiver and is
energy that travels in the same direction as
the signal in the disturbing channel.

SIGNALING SIGNALING
 Provides the means for operating and Signaling Messages are divided into:
supervising a telephone communications  Alerting
system.  Indicate a request for service, such as going off hook or
ringing the destination telephone.
 Main Functions of Signalling
 Supervising
 To help the switching equipment provides
 Provides call status information, such as busy or ring-back
connection signals.
 To announce incoming calls.  Controlling
 To supply dial tone  Provide information in the form of announcement.

 To send the busy signal  Addressing

 Provide the routing information.

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SIGNALING TECHNIQUES SIGNALING TECHNIQUES

 Loop Start Signaling
 Provides a way to indicate on-hook and off-hook
conditions in a voice network.
 Used primarily when connecting from the telephone
set to a switch
 Loop Start Signaling
 Provides a way to indicate on-hook and off-hook
conditions in a voice network.
 Used primarily when connecting from the telephone
set to a switch

SIGNALING TECHNIQUES
SIGNALING TECHNIQUES
Loop Start Signaling
 Ground Start Signaling
 Used in a switch-to-switch connection
 Similar operation with loop start signaling method

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SIGNALING TECHNIQUES
 Common Channel Signaling System
 High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)-based message
oriented signaling systems
Switching
 Method of connecting one telephone set to
another by bringing one pair of wires from
each telephone to a central location where
a connection can be made for a certain
period of time between any two
subscribers.
1/30/2015
Signaling System 7
 A packet-switched data network linking
C.O. to each other, to long-distance
switching centers, and to centralized
databases used for many applications
 Allows much more data to be sent more
quickly, and less interface
 Uses dedicated 64 kbps data channels
Types of Switching Systems
 Manual Switching (1870’s until 1975)
 Uses switchboards
 Calls are manually switched using patchcords and
jacks
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Types of Switching Systems Types of Switching Systems

 Strowger System (step-by-step switching)
 Developed by Almon B. Strowger in 1989
 Aka SxS switch
 Stepping process continued until all the digits of the
telephone numbers were entered
 Uses a relay which is called the stepping relays

Types of Switching Systems Types of Switching Systems

 Common Control Switching
 Aka crossbar system (XBAR)
 Method by a common control unit
 Select a closed path through electromechanical
switching
 Utilizes a switching matrix externally managed by
common control to route telephone calls

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Types of Switching Systems Types of Switching Systems

Crossbar Switching Types of Switching Systems

Major Functional Area  Electronic Switching System (ESS)

 Line Equipment  A digital computer based system capable of
 Recognizes a request for service from the customer end and controlling matrices that connect analog signals as
starts the request for dial tone well as digital signals
 Switching Network
 Provides path for dial tone and a path for call completion.
 Common Control Equipment
 Performs the vital coordinating functions of the whole
system
 Trunk Equipment
 Interface between the facility and the switching office
maintaining the connection.

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Types of Switching Systems Electronic Switching System

ESS Parts
 Central Control Section
 Coordinates the system operation
 Permanent Memory
 Stores programs such as restrictions, features, etc.
 Temporary Memory
 Serves as type of electronic scratch pad.
 Line Sensor
 Senses each line a few times per second to determine whether
the line is busy or idle
 Switching Network
 It contains mostly of relays and drivers.

Subscriber Line Interface

SLIC Functions
Card
 Battery: the 48 Vdc supply
 Circuit board that connects a local loop to the central
 Overvoltage Protection: protection against lightning and
office other high-voltage transients
 Ringing: the 100V, 20Hz ac ringing voltage connected to
the line by a relay on the line card.
 Supervision: monitoring the line for on- or off-hook
conditions
 Coding: for digital switches, analog-to-digital conversion
take place here, at the interface between the analog loop
and the digital switch.
 Hybrid: the local loop is a two-wire circuit with signals
travelling in both directions on the same pair, and the rest
of the network is usually four-wire. Conversion is done.
 Testing: Checking of the line for opens, shorts, and so
forth.

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LOSSES Insertion Loss

 Insertion Loss  Caused by the transmission of a gain element to a
transmission medium
 Net Loss
 It is the ratio of the power delivered from a source
 Transducer Loss
to a load, to the power delivered from the same
 Return Loss source to the same load through a transducer

Net Loss Transducer Loss

 The ratio of the signal power at the input and the  The ratio of the maximum power available from a
output of the channel source to the power delivered by that source to a
load through a transducer

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Return Loss Return Loss

 Measure of the match between the two
impedances on either side of a junction point
 Echo Return Loss (ERL)
 The weighted power-average loss at the reflection point.

 Singing Return Loss

 Same as ERL but over a considerably narrow band near an
edge of the voice band.

Transmission Loss Plans Example

 Via-Net Loss  Calculate the via net loss (VNL) of a
 Loss to be introduces to avoid “singing” phenomenon telephone signal that takes place 3 ms to
reach its destination for an acceptable
amount of echo.

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Overall Connection Loss

FDM TELEPHONY
(OCL)
 Employs SSB or SSBSC modulation
technique
 4 kHz spectrum is allocated to each
conversation
 Allows small guard bands between
channels

AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy

Group
Mastergroup U600
Consists of 12 LSB signals
60 kHz to 108 kHz range Consists of 10 supergroups

Supergroup Has 600 voice channels

Consists of 5 groups Occupies 564 kHz to 3084 kHz
Has 60 voice channels Has a bandwidth of 2520 kHz
Occupies 312 kHz to 552 kHz

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AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy
Mastergroup L600
Consists of 10 supergroups
Has 600 voice channels
Occupies 60 kHz to 2788 kHz
Has a bandwidth of 2728 kHz
AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy
1/30/2015
AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy
Jumbogroup
Consists of 6 mastergroups
3600 voiceband channels
Superjumbogroup
Consists of 3 jumbogroups
10,800 voiceband channels
DIGITAL TELEPHONY
 Digital telephony is the use of digital
electronics in the provision of digital telephone
services and systems.
 Since the 1960s a digital core network has
almost entirely replaced the old analog
system, and much of the access network has
also been digitized.
 Digital telephony was introduced to provide
voice services at lower cost, but was then
found to be of great value to new network
services such as ISDN that could use digital
facilities to transfer data speedily over
telephone lines.
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DIGITAL TELEPHONY Time-Division Multiplexing

DS-1
 Has one sample (8 bits) from each 24 telephone
channels plus one framing bit.

Time-Division Multiplexing Digital Local Loops

Framing Bits Integrated Service Digital Network

 Used to enable the receiver to determine which
bit is being received at a given time.
(ISDN)
 Designed to allow voice and data to be sent in
the same way doing the same lines.
 Allows the telephone system to be completely
digital from end to end.

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Integrated Service Digital

Primary Access Point
Network (ISDN)

Types of Connection in ISDN D-Channel

 Used for common-channel signalling, that is, for
 Primary Access Point setting up and monitoring calls.
 Used by large users with a data rate of 1.544
Mbps
B-Channel
 Can be used for voice or data, or combined, to
 Includes 24 channels with a data rate of 64
handle high-speed data or digitized video
kbps each
signals.
 Has one D channel and two B channels

Integrated Service Digital

ISDN Access
Network (ISDN)

Types of Connection in ISDN

 Basic Interface
 Used for connecting individual terminal
through a basic access rate of 192 kbps
Users have two 64 kbps B-channels for
voice or data, one 16 kbps D channel,
and 48 kbps for network overhead.

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ISDN Access
Terminal Equipment (TE)
 A functional device that connects a customer site
to ISDN services
 Includes computers, telephones, facsimile
machines and videoconferencing units
 TE1 has built-in ISDN interface while TE2 devices
do not have native ISDN compatibility
TERMINAL ADAPTER (TA)
 Interface adapters for connecting one or more TE2
(non-ISDN) devices to an ISDN network
 Acts as ISDN DCE, serving a function equivalent to
protocol or interface converters
ISDN Access
Line Termination (LT)
 Provides physical interface function
between C.O. and local loop lines
Exchange Termination (ET)
 Routes data to an outgoing channel or C.O.
users
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ISDN Access
Network Termination Type 2 (NT2)
 Intelligent devices responsible for the user’s side
of the connection to the network, performing such
functions as multiplexing, switching or ISDN
concentration
 It would likely be in the form of a PABX, LAN
router or switching hub
Network Termination Type 1 (NT1)
 Physically connect the customer site to the carrier
side of the connection, performing such functions
as signal conversion and maintenance of the local
loop’s electrical characteristics
ISDN Access
Reference Points
 R reference point
 Provides interface between a non-ISDN device
(TE2) to terminal adapters (TA)
 S reference point
 Provides interface between an ISDN compatible
device (TE1) to network termination (NT2)
 Provide the 2B + D data rate at 192 kbps
 T reference point
 Separate the network provider’s equipment from
user equipment
 Interface between NT2 and NT1
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Symmetrical Digital
ISDN Access
Subscriber Line (SDSL)
Reference Points  A one pair version of HDSL
 U reference point  It provides full duplex to support 768 kbps
 Interface between common carrier subscriber in each direction using a hybrid or echo
loop and the C.O. switch, media interface canceller to separate data transmitted to
between NT1 and C.O.
data receive
 V reference point
 Media interface between LT and ET

Asymmetrical Digital Asymmetrical Digital

Subscriber Line (ADSL) Subscriber Line (ADSL)
 A data communications technology that
enables faster data transmission over
copper telephone lines than a
conventional voiceband modem can
provide  Downstream (to the subscriber): 1 to 8
Mbps
 Uses one twisted pair to support 6 Mbps
sent downstream to the customer and 640  Upstream (from the subscriber): 160 to
kbps sent upstream over a distance of up 640 kbps
to 12,000 feet
 Spectrum is above 25 kHz
 Two variations: G.DMT and G.Lite

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ADSL Spectrum
Very High Speed Digital
Subscriber Line (VDSL)
 Uses one pair of wires to support 25 Mbps
downstream for distances up to 3,000 feet
from the RT or 51 Mbps downstream for
distances up to 1,000 feet
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High Speed Digital Subscriber
Line (HDSL)
 Uses two twisted pair (one transmit one
receive) to support 1.544 Mbps at a full
duplex at a distance of up to 12,000 feet
from the RT
 It uses a 2BIQ line encode if ISDN or
suppressed carrier version of QAM called
carrierless-amplitude phase (CAP)
Broadband ISDN
 Uses much larger bandwidths and higher
data rates.
 Has a data rate of 100 to 600 Mbps
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DATA RATES DATA RATES

 Symmetric  Asymmetric
Upstream Downstream Maximum
System
Maximum Rate Rate Distance (ft)
Upstream Downstream
System Distance Carrierless 64 kbps 1.544 Mbps 8,000
Rate Rate
(ft)
Amplitude
High Bit Phase (CAP 640 kbps 6.312 Mbps 12,000
1.544 Mbps 1.544 Mbps 12,000
Rate ADSL)
HDSL 2.048 Mbps 2.048 Mbps 12,000 Discrete 176 kbps 1.544 Mbps 18,000
Single Line 1.544 to 1.544 to 2.048 Multitone
10,000 224 – 260 kbps 6.312 Mbps 12,000
(SDSL) 2.048 Mbps Mbps (DMT ADSL)

ISDN Rate
128 kbps to 1 600 kbps to 7 18,000 to
128 kbps 128 kbps 18,000 Adaptive
(IDSL) Mbps Mbps 25,000
(RADSL)
12.96 Mbps 4,500
Very High Bit
1.6 to 2.3 Mbps 25.82 Mbps 3,000
Rate (VDSL)
51.84 Mbps 1,000

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