ARTICLE IN PRESS

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Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

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Library & Information Science Research

How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for
information literacy skills development
Heidi Julien a,⁎, Susan Barker b
a
School of Library and Information Studies, University of Alberta, 3-20 Rutherford South, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2J4
b
Department of Secondary Education, University of Alberta, 341 Education South, Edmonton, Alberta Canada T6G 2G5

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online xxxx This study examined the relationship between curricula in secondary-level science classrooms, which
support development of information literacy skills, and actual student skills. A vast body of research reflects
deep concern with the level of information literacy skill development among secondary and post-secondary
students. But even when educational curricula mandate skill development, many students are unable to
demonstrate sophisticated information searching and critical evaluation skills. The findings of this study,
which we based on analyzing information seeking tasks and conducting interviews with students in three
biology classes in a large urban high school, demonstrated a similar lack of skills. Pressure on teachers to
“teach to examinations”—that is, to focus on substantive content rather than on information literacy skills
and information literacy skills deficits among teachers themselves—is a possible explanation for these results.
The study is of particular interest to teachers of the curriculum applicable in the study context, but the
broader implications of repeated indications of gaps in students' information literacy skills are a significant
indicator that schools must assume a larger responsibility for information literacy instruction. Leaving skill
development to the post-secondary environment will not ensure that citizens are sufficiently skilled to
participate fully in 21st century life, in workplaces or in their personal life contexts.
© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction discouraged from developing their own explorations and explana-

In an information society, where access to information and critical
evaluation of that information is central to economic and personal
well-being, information literacy skills are as essential as basic reading
and writing. The term “information literacy” is used in this paper to
refer to the set of skills required to identify information sources,
access information, evaluate it, and use it effectively, efficiently, and
ethically. This study was motivated by a recognized gap between the
importance placed upon information literacy skills, generally within
the literature on information literacy and particularly with respect to
students' expected skill levels, and the actual skills that students are
able to demonstrate. Thus, despite clear evidence that sophisticated
information literacy skills are beneficial to academic success, students
are generally unsophisticated information seekers in academic
contexts. From a disciplinary perspective, our interest focused on
high school science students, because as an inquiry-based field of
study, it would seem logical that information seeking skills, including
critical evaluation of information, would be carefully inculcated.
When science is presented as a stable body of knowledge, learners are
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: heidi.julien@ualberta.ca (H. Julien), susan.barker@ualberta.ca
(S. Barker).
tions of observed phenomena (Schwab, 1962), thus inquiry
approaches to teaching science are advocated around the world.
Learning outcomes associated with inquiry dimensions of science
include generating a hypothesis, developing a plan for gathering data,
and constructing evidence based on data (e.g., Schwab, 1962). The
main goal is to acquaint students with investigative procedures used
by scientists and to develop decision-making skills. If information
literacy can be viewed as the ability to effectively locate, select, and
evaluate needed information then there is much in common with the
principles of scientific literacy and the skills needed to be a
scientifically literate person. For example, DeHart Hurd (1998, p.
414) states that a scientifically literate person “recognizes that
scientific literacy is a process of acquiring, analyzing, synthesizing,
coding, evaluating and utilizing achievements in science and
technology in human and social contexts.” Moreover, information
literacy is embedded in the principles and processes of science and
thus by highlighting and including such tasks in science inquiry in the
classroom, a much more “authentic” experience of science can be
provided. All the recent research literature indicates that whilst the
importance of scientific inquiry and its relationship with scientific
literacy is clear, the means to achieve it is not (Schwartz, Lederman, &
Crawford, 2004). Crawford (2000) similarly emphasized that teachers'
ideas and practice about inquiry are varied and complex. It is perhaps
not surprising that school science students often begin investigations

0740-8188/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008

Please cite this article as: Julien, H., & Barker, S., How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information
literacy skills development, Library & Information Science Research (2009), doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 H. Julien, S. Barker / Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
with sparse and disorganized background knowledge and should first
conduct background library or Internet research (Windschitl, 2008).
Windschitl views such tasks as “supporting activities” that help
prepare students to participate more meaningfully in the core
activities of inquiry by acquainting them with necessary concepts,
ideas, and skills.
2. Problem statement
Information literacy skills are critical for full participation in
contemporary Western societies; accessing and evaluating informa-
tion are basic skills required for success in work and personal contexts.
Science classrooms where students follow an inquiry model of
learning are an ideal environment in which to develop information
literacy. The question explored in this study is this: Developing
information literacy skills has been mandated by school curricula, but
do those mandates lead to demonstrable skill development? Such skill
development cannot be left solely to post-secondary educational
institutions because not all citizens attend these institutions, nor do all
students in these institutions receive effective instruction. It is
therefore important to ensure that students leaving secondary
schooling are equipped with basic information literacy skills.
3. Literature review
Widespread concern about a lack of searching skills and critical
information evaluation skills, particularly among students, is evident
in the literature (Branch, 2003; Brown, 2001; Coiro, 2003; Kinzer &
Leander, 2003; Leu, 2002; Schmar-Dobler, 2003; Todd, 2004; Topping,
Valtin, Roller, Brozo, & Dionisio, 2003). Studies of high-school students
working in science courses have found that they have difficulty
evaluating the veracity and objectivity of information (Adams, 1999).
In addition, this client group demonstrates significant preference for
the Internet and electronic resources over print resources (Barranoik,
2001; Jones, 1999; Shenton, 2007). Students also demonstrate poor
search skills, which include selecting search terms, evaluating web
sites, and appropriately citing sources (Barranoik, 2001; Fidel, Davies,
& Douglass, 1999; Scott & O'Sullivan, 2005). Lorenzen (2001) found
that high-school students lacked evaluation skills, and Brem, Russell,
and Weems (2001) also found that high-school students were unable
to distinguish credibility in web sites. This last study revealed no
higher-level thinking (metacognition) on the part of students when
they assessed credibility or accuracy. Furthermore, high-school
biology students' reading of scientific documents is done superficially,
according to Brill, Falk, and Yarden (2004). Heinström's (2006)
research demonstrates that many students are simply seeking a
“right” answer; these students tend to judge relevance on the basis of
convenient access and superficial criteria. She focuses on motivation
as the most significant variable in students' searching behavior. Jones
(1999) also identified minimal effort as a key driver of high-school
biology students' information seeking. He found that high-school
biology students preferred the Internet because they appreciated the
speed of information access and the variety of information found.
Lorenzen (2001) uses Perry's (1970) developmental scheme to explain
students' approaches to research by referring to the stage of high-
school students' thinking in which all viewpoints are viewed as
equally valid and in which seeking answers from authorities is
particularly valued. Furthermore, other research demonstrates that
most students learn to use the Internet informally, such as from
friends, who themselves are not likely to be sophisticated users
(Vansickle, 2002).
These research findings are not dissimilar from those reported for
sixth-grade students, whose skills have been described as naïve
(Wallace & Kupperman, 1997), and those reported for undergraduate
students. For example, limited information search skills among
undergraduates were identified by O'Brien and Symons (2007).
Please cite this article as: Julien, H., & Barker, S., How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information
literacy skills development, Library & Information Science Research (2009), doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
Information seeking that prioritizes ease and convenience and that
demonstrates unsophisticated searching skills was also found by
Urhquhart and Rowley (2007). Maughan (2001) identified a signifi-
cant gap between expressed confidence in information literacy skills
and actual skill level assessed through a longitudinal survey of skills;
these findings were confirmed by O'Hanlon (2002), who also used a
proficiency test to assess skill levels among undergraduates. Taken as
a whole, then, the research literature on information literacy skills
among students demonstrates that students' skills are generally
lacking.
4. Local educational context
The study was conducted in Canada, in the province of Alberta. The
Alberta Education curriculum (http://www.edc.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curricu-
lum/bySubject/) is mandated in all public schools in the province; it
clearly supports development of research, or information literacy, skills.
The provincial curriculum is supported by a document, “Focus on
Inquiry” (Alberta, 2004), which indicates that “inquiry-based learning
is…a way to achieve the goals of the Alberta programs of study, since
inquiry-based learning is a component of all Alberta curricula” (p. ix).
“Focus on Inquiry” notes that in inquiry-based learning classrooms,
“data and information are actively used, interpreted, refined, digested
and discussed” (p. 4). An “inquiry model” includes “retrieving,” which
incorporates the statement, “develop an information retrieval plan;
locate and collect resources; select relevant information; evaluate
information; and review and revise the plan for inquiry” (p. 10). The
specific skills that students require to successfully “retrieve” are fully
explicated and are essentially sound information searching and
evaluation skills. An appendix to this document, specifically aimed at
grade 11 and grade 12 students (thus, particularly relevant to the
participants in this study), articulates numerous methods for evaluating
relevance and reliability of information sources. In addition, the required
grade 11 and 12 biology curriculum (Alberta Learning, 1998), to which
study participants are subject, include skill development in evaluating
processes or outcomes. The specific skills articulated include the ability
to “establish criteria to judge data or information; consider conse-
quences and biases, assumptions and perspectives; …and, evaluate and
assess ideas, information and alternatives” (p. 5). Again, these skills are
consistent with standard information literacy skills. Further, the biology
curriculum (Alberta, 1998) includes the following expectations for high-
school students' experiences and learning:
• understand that scientific language is precise and specific terms may
be used in each field of study;
• research, integrate, and synthesize information from various print
and electronic sources regarding a scientific question;
• apply given criteria for evaluating evidence and assess the authority,
reliability, scientific accuracy, and validity of sources of information;
• research, integrate and synthesize information from various print
and electronic sources regarding a practical question;
• research, integrate, and synthesize information from various print
and electronic sources regarding a given question, problem, or issue;
and
• select information and gather evidence from appropriate sources
and evaluate search strategies.
Finally, the Alberta curriculum supports the development of
information and communication (ICT) skills (Alberta, 2008), which
are absolutely consistent with information literacy skills as under-
stood more broadly (Appendix A), and which are embedded into
subject areas.
Thus, the context in which this study was conducted is an
interesting example of high-school curricula emphasizing the need
to develop information literacy skills. As discussed above, our question
was: To what extent does the curricular mandate for information
literacy translate into actual skills in high-school biology students?
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H. Julien, S. Barker / Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
5. Research questions
Further operationalization of our research question resulted in the
following specific questions:
• How do high-school students in grades 11 and 12 biology classes
locate and critically analyze scientific information relevant to their
learning for these classes?
• What criteria do students currently use to evaluate scientific
information found in their textbooks and in popular media,
including the Internet?
• What aspects of scientific information are deemed trustworthy by
students?
• What characterizes scientific information that students evaluate to
be relevant and worthy of serious attention?
• How do students understand the ways in which they have come to
develop the evaluative criteria they apply? For example, have the
criteria they apply come from classroom instruction, from personal
experience, or from other sources?
5.1. Procedures
The study design was qualitative, triangulating data from two
methods: Analysis of an in-class task assignment with questions
relating to students' process of information seeking, and semi-
structured interviews with students. The study participants included
students from three grade 11 and 12 high-school biology classes in one
multicultural urban public high school. The school provides compre-
hensive programming to approximately 1300 students from across the
large city in which it is situated. The school population includes many
different ethnic groups, and students range from academic to autistic.
Most students in the study were 15 to 17 years of age. Participants
were asked to conduct a real-time information searching task
assignment (Appendix B) designed by the classroom teacher to be
consistent with regular learning outcomes. The task was completed
mainly during class time and was supervised by the classroom
teacher, as would be the case for any other classroom activity; 82 task
assignments were completed. In addition, semi-structured interviews
were done with 24 students in these classes. The interviews used a
critical-incident technique (see Urquhart, Light, Thomas, Barker,
Yeoman et al., 2003), focusing on the information seeking and
information evaluation that occurred during the classroom task.
Interviews were conducted by the authors and a research assistant
and were held in the teaching classroom on a non-instructional day.
The interviews lasted between 10 and 15 minutes. Interview questions
are provided in Appendix C. Interviews were transcribed for analysis.
Ethics approval was provided by the University of Alberta Faculties of
Education, Extension and Augustana Research Ethics Board. Care-
givers/parents and students provided separate consent for participa-
tion in the task and in the interview. Analysis of the task data
(students' answers to questions) and of the interview data was
conducted qualitatively without software; themes were identified
inductively primarily by a single coder (a research assistant), with
discussion and input from the study authors. Thus, final coding was
done by multiple coders.
In addition to the triangulation of data sources, trustworthiness of
the study design and results was addressed by applying standards of
quality for qualitative research. Credibility was confirmed by the
classroom teacher in discussion following the study (i.e., the study
results “rang true”), and by contextualization of the study within the
local educational curriculum. Transferability is addressed by the
study's focus on a classroom task that was consistent with regular
class work, and the detail provided about the local context. General-
izability beyond the local context cannot be certain, except that results
were consistent with those reported broadly in the literature.
Evidence for dependability is evident in the consistency of findings
Please cite this article as: Julien, H., & Barker, S., How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information
literacy skills development, Library & Information Science Research (2009), doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
3
in both sources of data. Finally, the use of multiple coders and quotes
from student interviews to illustrate findings help to ensure the
confirmability of the results (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Limitations of the
study include the geographic limits of data collection, although those
are necessary to compare local curricular mandates with student
performance.
6. Results and discussion
Data are reported for all three classes, unless noted differently.
Findings from the in-class task were generally consistent with
research results reviewed above. Overall, 59% (66 of 112) of the
information sources identified were Internet-based. Thus, the Internet
was the most frequently used source for the students' research.
Students reported that they used the Internet in general and to access
a specific site, such as Wikipedia. Google was the most-used search
engine. The largest proportion of students' responses to why they
turned to the Internet most often (35%) focused on perceived
relevance of information found (e.g., answers the task questions).
Accuracy of information was identified by comparing multiple
resources for consistency in information provided (42%) and perceived
credibility (such as noting that references were provided), noted by
48% of respondents in one of the three classes. Relevance was assessed
according to whether the information found answered the task
question to be addressed (41% of responses); i.e., by topical relevancy.
Students reported skimming information for relevant key terms in
order to assess relevancy. The largest proportions of participants
stated that they learned how to select information for science classes
by experience with school projects (38%), and through non-academic
personal experience (29%).
Interviews revealed that students see Google as being “the”
Internet, and they use these two terms interchangeably, seeing them
to be one and the same thing. Google is the main information finding
tool for all sources of information for school and home (i.e., for
academic and for personal information seeking). This finding is
consistent with the overall popularity of Google among the general
population (Burns, 2008). Students in this study prefer the Internet
because it is perceived as convenient and familiar, and searching by
key word is easy. As Natasha (all names are pseudonyms and all quotes
are reported verbatim) states, “Well, I'm — it's more reliable than
going to the library and trying to find a book...'cause it takes less time.”
Robert noted, “Well it's much more convenient than, you know, you
want to do something else with your time. If you get the information
right here, you can finish the task quicker.” It was thus surprising that
few students mentioned “cutting and pasting” text from websites to
save time. Kendra stated that the Internet is “a lot more easy to access
whereas the library and the textbooks we have to go to the library.”
However, these students' searching skills are unsophisticated: In
general, students search by pasting the assignment question or task
directly into the search box, scanning the first three or four web sites
that appear for matching key words, and comparing the content of
these top sites for consistency. Interestingly, Wikipedia is used and
liked by many of the students, although there was an uneasy tension
as students commented that though Wikipedia is often the first
webpage listed from a Google search it is widely recognized by them
as not being a valid source of information. Jimmy said, “Wikipedia was
just another place to compare because Wikipedia is an open source.
And then so, being an open source it is not exactly always reliable.”
Some students mentioned that university sites are reputable and
reliable, and they try to use information from these sites for school
purposes. Class textbooks specific to the program being studied are
also viewed as valuable because the students express faith in the
teacher and in the school. Andy said, “Well I used it [a textbook]
because I knew it would be reliable. If the school would give it to us
and it not be reliable...then that would kind of be defeating a bunch of
purposes.” However, students report that their textbooks are not easy
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4 H. Julien, S. Barker / Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
to use. In addition to Internet sources, other sources of information,
such as encyclopedias, are used rarely.
Consistent with the task data, in interviews students pointed to
school projects and personal experience as the sources of their skill
development. Overall, when asked directly, students expressed
confidence in their information finding and evaluation skills. Carrie
noted, “I usually just click the first one and read it, and then I'll click a
couple more and if they all say kind of the same thing then — I'll keep
that, because you're getting it from multiple sources, so chances are
it's real.” Eva stated, “I guess just basically from years of experience I
can tell whether or not something is reliable or not reliable.” Robert
said, “If Wikipedia's not first, then I just go with the first site Google
gives me.” Chandra stated, “I just Googled it and then I compared
between different pages to see how accurate it was and then I went
with the one that showed up the most.” Allison said, “I use the
University of Berkeley site ‘cause they're a generally trusted university
name and you can assume that you can trust the research they've
done.” Overall, the students revealed unsophisticated evaluation
skills. Understanding of critical evaluation criteria such as authority,
accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage was not evident from the
students' comments.
Students reported that their primary search strategy is keyword
searching. While this approach is useful for new vocabulary (e.g.,
“podcasting”), when there is no thesaurus, when searching results in few
hits, or when a known item is sought (e.g., specific author), there are
significant limits to the value of keyword searches. The students in this
study are unfamiliar with the benefits of searching by controlled
vocabulary to improve comprehensiveness and precision. In addition,
these students are apparently unaware of how search engines identify
potentially relevant sources. Thus, the limitations of searching by Google,
and of searching with only one search engine, are not understood.
The school is very multicultural and has a Mandarin language
program. One student for whom English was not his first language and
who was a recent immigrant to Canada could not easily articulate
what he had done to find information, and he had searched the
Internet using English key words rather than in his native Mandarin
language.
7. Conclusion
It is clear that despite unambiguous curricular mandates to
develop information literacy skills among the students who partici-
pated in this study, actual skill levels are underdeveloped. The “Focus
on Inquiry” document (Alberta, 2004), which explicates sound
information searching skills, is clearly insufficient to ensure that
students are learning these skills. Actual classroom practices and
teachers' understanding and attitudes were not explored in this study,
so their relationship to the results reported here remains uncertain.
Perhaps the teachers believe that students simply learn these skills on
their own, or perhaps they lack this skill set themselves and are
therefore unable to teach it to their students. We are using the data to
develop recommendations and strategies to help teachers promote
good practice in finding and evaluating information. A key challenge is
being able to demonstrate that by developing such skills students will
gain a better understanding of the content they are searching for and
thus will perform better in exams. Since information seeking skills are
not directly assessed in the provincial exams, even when such
objectives are listed in the curriculum, they are unlikely to be taken
seriously by teachers. This observation was made by a science teacher
at a science council workshop where this study was discussed. Such
assessment-led teaching is not confined to Alberta and is a common
practice worldwide.
Science lends itself very well to discussions about the construction
of knowledge and validity of information students may find on the
Internet. For example, the tentative nature of scientific knowledge is a
critical issue to address when developing information seeking skills in
Please cite this article as: Julien, H., & Barker, S., How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information
literacy skills development, Library & Information Science Research (2009), doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
Table 1
Links between information-literate information seeking, and scientific inquiry
Information seeking task Science inquiry (partly adapted from
Windschitl, 2008)
Goal: Finding credible information to Goal: Developing defensible explanations
meet an identified need of the way the natural world works
Elicit prior knowledge Elicit prior knowledge and organize what
we know and what we'd like to know
Plan search strategy (identify key words, Generate hypothesis
appropriate synonyms and combinations,
identify possible credible sources)
Execute search strategy (iteratively, Seek evidence to support or refute the
according to results) hypothesis
Evaluate information found according to Construct an argument
standard criteria
Communicate or present results as Communicate findings
required
science. A student in our sample who used his “grandmother's
encyclopedia” to find information for all school tasks and personal
interests irrespective of the topic had not considered why he might
need to use more contemporary resources. The 11th edition of
Encylopedia Britannica published in 1911 presents quite a different
view of the world than we see today; the word “biome” (the topic of
the students' science task) would not even be included, and this
source would contain many descriptions of biological phenomena that
would today be considered incorrect; e.g., the structure of the cell
membrane. In order to counter these concerns, teachers could present
relevant information from historical and contemporary resources to
demonstrate how knowledge and understanding has changed and
why recent resources have the potential to be more accurate. An
excellent example of such a task is presented by Warren (2001), who
uses scientific knowledge about scurvy from a number of periods in
history in a role-play activity.
The trustworthiness of information that the students accessed for
this study was predominantly viewed in terms of the site or resource
rather than by evaluation of the content. For example, university sites
were mentioned as being valid, but sites which have a domain name
such as “angelfire.com” were considered by one student to suggest
unreliability. Evaluating information on websites by examining
domain name only is a risky practice, and students need to be better
equipped at evaluating content. In addition, teachers need to describe
to students how search engines work and the way in which websites
are ordered. A simple task would be to present a search to the class
using two or more different search engines to demonstrate just how
serendipitous the process is.
We see that overall, students gave less emphasis to the process of
finding information than to the end product of the search. Indeed,
Barranoik (2001) indicated that her work with biology high-school
students showed that they were more concerned with the content and
that teachers should give more emphasis to the process of information
searching. In our study, many students found it hard to recall precisely
what they had done or why, despite specific questions addressing the
process in their assignment. Rarely are such questions asked of
students despite increasing evidence of the benefits of metacognition
(Brem et al., 2001). In a science context, drawing parallels between
information seeking and science inquiry could benefit teachers and
students, with each potentially reinforcing the other. The process of
information seeking is remarkably similar to the stages of science
inquiry, despite being considered by Windschitl (2008) to be a subset
or complementary activity to science inquiry.
Those students for whom English is not a first language should be
encouraged to search in their native language, to use the opportunity to
highlight any differences that may arise from searching in different
languages, and to consider the significance this has for science. For new
immigrants, searching in their own language may help their under-
standing in specific content areas and could give them a break from the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H. Julien, S. Barker / Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 5

constant demands of having to translate everything. In addition, C.2 Students will seek alternative viewpoints, using information
searching in a first language may help parents and guardians under- technologies.
stand the demands of the task and thus participate in homework. Specific outcomes:
Presenting the task as a question to answer is a good way to start.
4.1 Consult a wide variety of sources that reflect varied viewpoints
Teachers might also consider using a constructivist approach, eliciting
students' prior understanding about the topic and information on particular topics.
seeking process. One of the possible ways in which information 4.2 Evaluate the validity of gathered viewpoints against other
seeking may be related to science inquiry is presented in Table 1. Such sources.
a side-by-side comparison may be a useful teaching tool.
Our next steps include interviewing teachers to explore their own C.3 Students will critically assess information accessed through the use of
information seeking and information literacy skills. Williams and a variety of technologies.
Coles (2007) interviewed teachers in the United Kingdom and found Specific outcomes:
that teachers lack information literacy skills, especially searching and
4.1 Assess the authority, reliability and validity of electronically
evaluation skills. Asselin (2005) found that a lack of time to teach
accessed information.
information literacy is a significant barrier for teachers. Perhaps it is
inappropriate to expect teachers to deliver curriculum in areas where 4.2 Demonstrate discriminatory selection of electronically
their own skills require significant development without providing accessed information that is relevant to a particular topic.
significant professional development. We are using the outcomes
from this study to identify ways of developing more sophisticated F.4 Students will become discerning consumers of mass media and
research and information evaluation skills for students and teachers. electronic information.
Undoubtedly, information literacy needs to be explicitly addressed in Specific outcomes:
the classroom. In scientific disciplines, scientific literacy and informa- 4.1 Discriminate between style and content in a presentation.
tion literacy are inextricably linked. Perhaps if students (and teachers)
4.2 Evaluate the influence and results of digital manipulation on
had a better understanding of science inquiry they would acquire a
our perceptions.
more solid conceptual understanding of information literacy (not
necessarily of specific techniques and skills). Scientific inquiry as a 4.3 Identify and analyze a variety of factors that affect the
pedagogical approach is recognized as being problematic to teachers authenticity of information derived from mass media and electro-
and students and attributed to lack of consistent and contemporary nic communication.
philosophy within curricula and to limitations of teacher knowledge
and experience (Schwartz et al., 2004). However, teaching students
Appendix B. Biology 20 biome assignment
skills in searching for and evaluating information has the potential to
help them better understand the nature of science and scientific
A biome is a broad, regional type of ecosystem characterized by
knowledge, in addition to helping them learn more widely applicable
distinctive climate and soil conditions and a distinctive biological
information literacy skills for use in daily life. The value of these skills
community adapted to those conditions.
is unchallenged, but significant challenges to inculcating them remain.
Major world biome
Acknowledgments • Taiga
• Tundra
This research was funded by the Centre for Research in Youth, • Temperate deciduous forest
Science Teaching and Learning (CRYSTAL-Alberta), funded by the • Desert
Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada. Thanks to our • Marine
research assistants, Sarah Polkinghorne and Heather Kenney. We also • Grassland
appreciate the cooperation of the classroom teacher, and the • Rain forest
participation of the students.
In a group of two find the following information about the major
world biomes. Create a table for the listed biomes of the world. In the
Appendix A. Selected ICT outcomes mandated by the province of table you must have the following information:
Alberta curriculum
• Synonyms
• Areas found in world/Canada
ICT outcomes, Division 4
• Precipitation amount
• Average temperature
C.1 Students will access, use and communicate information from a
• Soil conditions
variety of technologies.
• Unique features
Specific outcomes:
• Typical producers
4.1 Plan and perform complex searches, using more than one • Typical Consumers
electronic source. • Major Limiting Factors
4.2 Select information from appropriate sources, including primary • Adaptations of organisms to limiting factors
and secondary sources. This should be done in point form and should not be more than
4.3 Evaluate and explain the advantages and disadvantages of three typed pages. You will have time to use the library for your
various search strategies. research. Keep in mind the following questions that you will need to
4.4 Communicate in a persuasive and engaging manner, through answer about your research:
appropriate forms, such as speeches, letters, reports, and multi- 1. Where did you look information on biomes?
media presentations, applying information technologies for con- 2. What information sources did you use for the biome assignment?
text, audience and purpose that extend and communicate Please write these in the order you used them.
understanding of complex issues. 3. How did you decide what information to use?

Please cite this article as: Julien, H., & Barker, S., How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information
literacy skills development, Library & Information Science Research (2009), doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 H. Julien, S. Barker / Library & Information Science Research xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
4. How did you know that the information you used was accurate?
5. Thinking about the information you used, what made you decide to
pay attention to it and decide that it was relevant to the assignment?
6. Thinking about why you decided to use the information you
selected, how did you know how to make your decisions?
7. How and where did you learn to select information for science
assignments? For example, did you learn in school to use certain
criteria for those decisions, or did you learn from your own
personal experiences, from a friend, family or from someplace else?
Appendix C. Interview questions
1. Please think about the last time you needed information related to
your learning in biology class. Can you describe that?
2. What information did you need?
3. Where did you try to get that information?
4. Why did you use those sources?
5. Were these sources useful in giving you the information you
needed?
6. When you think about each of those sources, what makes them
useful or not so useful to you?
7. How did you come to apply the evaluation criteria you've identified
(i.e., how did you develop your ideas about what constitutes a
potentially useful information source for this purpose)?
8. Are these sources ones you would normally use for biology class?
For your other science classes? For other purposes (e.g., for
personal interest or for help solving a personal problem)? Why or
why not?
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