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WS TDG 35 Floor Diaphrams in Timber Buildings 09-20
WS TDG 35 Floor Diaphrams in Timber Buildings 09-20
Floor Diaphragms in
Timber Buildings
Technical Design Guide issued by Forest and Wood Products Australia
04
01 09
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BCA Compliant Design and Construction Guide
Technical Design Guide issued by Forest and Wood Products Australia
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for Townhouse Buildings Timbe
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Design and construction guide for BCA compliant
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Technica
sound and fire-rated construction l Desi
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ed by n
Forest
and Woo
Technical Design Guide issued by Forest and Wood Products Australia d Prod
ucts
Australia
1 Introduction 4
2 Terminology 5
3 Displacement Incompatibilities 7
References 31
Floor diaphragms transfer horizontal forces to the lateral load-resisting system. Horizontal
loads, such as wind, applied to the façade will be transferred as line loads to the edges
of the diaphragms. Horizontal loadings cause inertia forces to develop within the flooring
system that have to be carried to the frames, walls or lift shafts and stairway cores.
Differences in the behaviour of the lateral load-resisting systems (deformed shape, discontinuous
geometry, difference in stiffness) induce additional transfer forces in some diaphragms. Roof and
floor diaphragms also carry gravity loads and they link all vertical structural elements together. It is of
paramount importance that diaphragms maintain their force transferring and linking behaviour before,
during and after any horizontal loadings.
The connection to the lateral load-resisting system can be the weak link in diaphragm design.
As discussed in the next section, this force transfer can be compromised by displacement
incompatibilities typical of jointed-ductile systems.
conn
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In this Guide, the horizontal action is considered to be caused by horizontal loads such as wind load.
The first part of the Guide presents the terminology, concept and design of timber diaphragms with
their connections to the lateral load-resisting system (LLRS).
The second part reviews a design example of a timber–concrete diaphragm and its connections to the
LLRS. The diaphragm is subjected to the wind load applied perpendicular to its long side.
For the calculation of timber concrete composite diaphragms, engineers prefer a grillage method with
the use of analysis software. Further information on this grillage method or equivalent concrete truss
method can be found in Strut and Tie Seminar Notes1.
An equivalent truss model is recommended for calculating timber diaphragms. Further information can
be found in An equivalent truss method for the analysis of timber diaphragms2.
New alternative connections and further details including their behaviour in experimental test and also
cost comparison can be found in Design of Floor Diaphragms in Multi-Storey Timber Buildings3, and
Seismic design of floor diaphragms in post-tensioned timber buildings4.
Diaphragms can be made from many different materials – plywood panels, stressed-skin
panels, timber concrete composite floors, cross-laminated timber (CLT), solid floor panels,
structural insulated panels – but their main components can be grouped as follows (see
Figure 1.1):
• plate element
• chords
• collectors/struts
• connections to the lateral load-resisting system.
The simplest method to design diaphragms is the horizontal steel girder analogy, where the web is
made by the plate element and the flanges consist of the chords. The plate element with possible
openings transfers the horizontal shear forces. Several single floor elements may have to be linked
together and forces carried around openings or re-entrant corners. The resultant shear forces have
to be collected and conveyed to the lateral load resisting system via the collectors or struts. The
connection of the collector to the lateral load-resisting system has to be designed properly, as it is an
essential part of the load path into the foundations.
As shown in Figure 2.1 and according to Malone and Rice5, the following terminology is suggested:
• Strut: receives shear from one side only
• Collector: receives shear from both sides
• Chord: perpendicular to the applied load and receives axial tension and compression forces.
For regularly shaped floor geometries, i.e. rectangular, without big openings or re-entrant
corners, timber-only diaphragms can be designed by using the girder analogy. This implies
that the shear is taken by the web (diaphragm sheeting) and the bending is taken by the
flanges (diaphragm chords). Even though the girder analogy may not be strictly appropriate
for deep beams with anisotropic materials, tests have shown that flange stresses are smaller
than using that approach, providing a conservative design.9,10 Furthermore, shear stresses
develop uniformly over the web, instead of the parabolic shape found in steel girder webs.
Diaphragms can be designed as simply supported or continuous beams, providing that the span-to-
depth ratio is greater than 2. For aspect ratios smaller than 1, the girder analogy is quite conservative,
as the sheeting and joists contribute substantially in the bending resistance. Considering the high
depth of the diaphragm, the chord forces will be small.11 Different authors provide an upper limit for
the span-to-depth-ratio, as the diaphragm may become too flexible. If floors are running over internal
supports and the different diaphragm parts on each side are connected, they can be analysed as a
continuous beam.
As shown in Figure 5.1, diaphragms with simple plan geometries can be calculated by considering a
girder analogy, where the bending is taken by the chord elements in form of tension or compression
forces and the uniform shear is taken by the plate element.
M ql 2
T (5-1)
= −C = =
h 8h
The shear flow along the edges of the diaphragm is:
V ql
v (5-2)
= =
h 2h
where:
q = the lateral load applied to a horizontal diaphragm
l = the span of horizontal diaphragm
h = the width of horizontal diaphragm
V = the shear force applied to a diaphragm
M = the design moment of diaphragm.
The loading of the diaphragms is normally considered as distributed uniformly along the length of
the diaphragm. This is the wind load transferred from the façade, or the inertia forces generated
by the mass of the floor itself. In the case of multi-storey structures, vertical offsets can introduce
concentrated loads. Openings, re-entrant corners, offsets or concentrated horizontal forces will disturb
the shear flow and locally higher stresses might arise.
The distribution of forces into the lateral load-resisting system depends on the flexibility of
the diaphragm, i.e. rigid or flexible diaphragms. A diaphragm is considered to be flexible if
its deformation is more than twice the average inter-story drift at that level.
In the case of rigid diaphragms, the transferred forces depend on the stiffness of the diaphragm with
respect to the global stiffness of the lateral load-resisting system. In the likely case that the centres of
stiffness and mass are not coincident, torsional effects have to be taken into account.
To define whether the diaphragm is rigid or flexible, the deflection calculation for both the vertical LLRS
and the diaphragm is required. For flexible diaphragms (Figure 6.1) the load can be determined by
using a tributary area approach.
Depending on the geometry, timber diaphragms often behave somewhere between these two extreme
cases. It remains the designer’s choice of which approach to use: to calculate both to obtain an
envelope; to use a beam on elastic support approach (beam and elastic support have the stiffness
characteristics of the diaphragm and lateral load-resisting system respectively); or to use a finite
element method.
The beam-on-elastic-support approach is valid as long as the stiffness of the diaphragm and the
lateral load-resisting system are similar. The finite element method allows study of the shear stress
distribution over the whole plate element, but requires much more effort in modelling and running the
simulation.
Δ1 = flexural deflection of the diaphragm considering the chords acting as a moment resisting couple
Δ2 = deflection due to shear in the panels
Δ3 = deflection of the diaphragm due to fastener slip
Δ4 = deflection of the diaphragm due chord connection deformation.
Equations for the determination of these contributions are provided in NZS 3603.12
5ql 3
Δ (8-1)
1 =
192EAB 2
ql
(8-2)
Δ 2 =
8GBt
(1+ a)men
(8-3)
Δ 3 =
2
∑δ s x
(8-4)
Δ 4 =
2B
where:
q = lateral load applied to a horizontal diaphragm
l = span of horizontal diaphragm
E = elastic modulus of chord member
A = section area of the chord
B = distance between diaphragm chord member
G = shear modulus of the diaphragm sheathing
t = thickness of the diaphragm sheathing
m = number of the sheathing panels along the length of the edge chord
en = fastener slip resulting from the shear force V
a = aspect ratio of each sheathing panel given in the NZS 360312
x = distance of the splice from the origin
δs = splice slip in the chord.
Figure 10.1: Dragging forces on walls from drift in structure with north–south forces resisted
by frames.
In this section, timber-only floors running perpendicular to the lateral and gravity frames are
considered. The floor elements have to transfer vertical gravity forces and horizontal shear forces to
the beam, which acts as a collector or strut. For floors sitting between the beams, gravity loads can
be transferred by a timber corbel, a pocket in the main beam or steel hanger brackets. The horizontal
shear forces can be transferred directly by nailing or screwing the sheeting panels to the beam (see
Figure 11.1).
Figure 11.1: Suggested floor-to-frame connections (floor joists flush with beam): a) floor joist
on corbel; b) floor joist in pocket; c) steel bracket/hanger.
Where the floors sit on the beams, gravity forces are transferred by direct contact. Shear forces can
be transferred by using fully threaded screws at 45° angle or by connecting the sheeting to blocking
elements, which are again joined to the beam by screws or steel plate elements (see Figure 11.2).
Figure 11.2: Suggested diaphragm to frame connections (floor joists on top of beam):
e) floor joist sitting on beam – additional blocking required; f) SIP panel on beam;
g) solid timber floor on beam.
Where the horizontal load acts perpendicular to the frame, the whole building will undergo a certain
drift (depending on the lateral load-resisting system in this direction) and hence the frame will have to
rotate out of plane. As indicated in Figure 11.3, it is suggested to leave a construction gap between
the floor elements and the beams (also useful for construction tolerance and variances in ambient
conditions). This will allow the beam to rotate, without damaging the timber floor or the connection to
it. The connection between the beam and the floor also needs to transfer the dragging force to rotate
the frame out of plane.
The formation of gaps at the beam–column joint produces frame elongation. The diaphragm must
be able to extend. This behaviour has to be allowed for without a brittle tearing of the plate element,
as it would cause permanent damage and compromise the shear transfer. The flexibility of the timber
elements and the low stiffness of the steel connections allow for two simple design solutions for
engineered timber floors:
Solution 1: Concentrated gap (see Figure 11.4, blue details):
As the required deformation in the floor level occurs only at the beam–column joint, a joint between
two adjacent floor panels should be positioned accordingly. This joint needs special detailing, whereas
other panel joints can be designed normally.
For floor setups with sheeting panels and slender joists, only the lower part of the joist should be
connected, so that the joist can bend along its height, but still guarantees shear transfer (see Figure
11.5a). If a different floor setup is used where the joist are too stiff, special steel elements can be
used. These should allow the panels to move apart from each other, but still transfer shear forces (an
example is shown in Figure 11.5b). Appropriate gaps in the floor finishing and the wall linings have to
be provided to allow these deformations to occur.
Figure 11.4: Sample design for a concentrated floor gap (blue) and spread gaps and panel
elongation (red). Solutions for a timber-only engineered floor.
Figure 11.5: a) Lower flange connection; b) connection with thin steel plate; c) upper flange
connection.
* Given the possibility of using oversized holes in the timber and relatively flexible dowel connection, the
rotation of the wall normally can be accommodated for limited drift ratios.
If uplift of the walls is not allowed by the connection and the collector/strut beam is also attached to
other vertical elements, such as columns (see Figure 12.3a), the beam and the diaphragm will both
need to bend. This can be tolerated if the collector beam is flexible enough (i.e. because of its small
section or a long span to the next vertical restraint). The additional re-entering force resulting from
bending should be considered when designing the wall.
As in frame structures, the connections between the floor diaphragm, the collector beam and the wall
itself have to transfer not only the shear flow from diaphragm action, but also the drag force from the
out-of-plane deformation of the wall. This will occur when the horizontal load act perpendicular to the
walls and the whole structure deforms in the out-of-plane direction of the walls. Construction gaps
between the floor and the walls must accommodate the displacement incompatibility.
Figure 12.4: Construction gap between the floor and the wall to allow for rotation:
a) undeformed state; b) deformed state.
Figure 13.3: Suggested connection between the concrete topping and timber beams.
In wall structures with TCC floors, the force transfer occurs between the wall and the collector beam
and is unaffected by the presence of the concrete topping. The connection between the diaphragm
topping and the collector/strut beam should be designed as described for frame structures.
If no slotted solution can be adopted for the wall connection, an eventual out of plane bending of
the beam has to be considered. Again, if the span to the next vertical restraint is large enough, the
bending should be accommodated in the concrete topping without excessive cracking. The additional
re-centring force in the wall should be considered, as it might give substantial contribution.
The use of concrete diaphragms in structures that undergo beam elongations cause several
complications and special detailing is required13,14. The suggestions provided in this Guide have not
been fully tested and should be applied with proper engineering judgment.
To design the TCC diaphragm, a strut and tie model as per Section 7 “Strut and Tie
Modelling” of the AS 3600 Australian Concrete Code has been adopted. For this design
example, only the design for the wind load applied perpendicularly to the long side of the
building has been carried out. For wind loads perpendicular to the short side of the building,
only a conceptual strut and tie model is shown.
The uniformly distributed loads on the windward and leeward façades (Figure 14.1 and Figure 14.2)
for a wind load have been applied on a four metre grid. The resultant forces are transferred by a
collector beam running on the inner side of the staircase into the post-tensioned walls. The 100 mm
concrete topping is reinforced with a ductile mesh (Ø6.75 mm Grade 500 rebars on 200 mm centres
with a resulting reinforcement area of 179 mm2 per metre width).
Wind loads at ULS:
( )
p = pwindward + pinternal h
(14-1)
1 ( m m )
p = 0.35 kN 2 + 0.21kN 2 3.6m = 2.0 kN
m
load on windward façade (14-2)
2 ( m m )
p = 0.25 kN 2 + 0 kN 2 3.6m = 0.9 kN m load on leeward façade (14-3)
The loads applied to the edge of the diaphragm are carried over compression struts into the collector
beam. Several chord beams along the depth of the diaphragm are taking the tension forces, in this
way the forces can be kept relatively low.
Figure 14.1: Strut and tie model for wind loads on the windward façade.
Figure 14.2: Strut and tie model for wind loads on the leeward façade.
There is no unique strut and tie model for a given geometry and load scenario. A minimum of
experience is required to set up a well-balanced model, as incomplete or not well elaborated models
might lack of equilibrium at the nodes, undergo excessive deformation or require load redistribution
because after concrete cracking.
The conceptual strut and tie model for a wind load perpendicular to short sit of the building is depicted
in Figure 14.3.
Figure 14.3: Strut and tie model for wind load perpendicular to the short side of the building.
The concrete topping is reinforced by a D500DL72 ductile mesh (reinforcing in both direction made
of Grade 500 reinforcing bars), which also satisfies the minimum reinforcement for crack control for
shrinkage and temperature effects as per Clause 9.4.3 in AS 3600:
( )
= 75% ⋅ 1.75− 2.5σ cp bD ⋅10−3 = 0.75⋅1.75⋅100mm ⋅1000mm = 131mm2
A (14-4)
s,min
where
As,min = minimum reinforcement area
σcp = average intensity of effective pre-stress (0 MPa in this case)
b = width of the diaphragm (taken as 1 m)
D = depth of the concrete topping.
As shown in Figure 14.1 and Figure 14.2, the maximum force in the ties is 12+14.4 = 26.4 kN along
the collector beam running parallel to the wall. Along the collector beam, two additional Ø10 Grade
300 reinforcing bars are placed.
(14-5) 102 ⋅ π
Fnt
= φ st
Af y
= 0.8⋅ ⋅ 300 = 48kN ≥ F * = 26.4kN ∴OK
4
where:
Fnt = nominal tension capacity of steel tie
A = area of the tension reinforcement
Φst = capacity factor for tension struts (0.8).
All other ties have forces of maximum 5.4 kN; therefore, a single leg of the ductile mesh with a Ø6.75
mm Grade 500 rebar provides enough strength to transfer the tension forces.
6.752 ⋅ π
F = φ st Af y = 0.8⋅
(14
nt
mm2 ⋅ 500 N mm2 = 14.3kN ≥ F * = 5.4kN 6)
4
To guarantee the force transfer in the tension ties, the reinforcing bars and the ductile mesh have to be
placed with the required overlapping as provided by the code or the manufacturer.
(14-7)
Fnc
= φ st β s 0.9 f conc
ʹ Aconc
where
Fnc = nominal compression capacity of concrete strut
f’conc = compressive strength of concrete
Aconc = cross sectional area at one end of the strut, considering the thickness as the depth
of the diaphragm slab (see AS 3600 Australian Concrete Code for more detail)
βs = efficiency factor for concrete struts
Φst = capacity factor for compression struts (0.6).
Considering the maximum force in a strut of only 20kN and a thickness of the slab of 100 mm, all
struts are easily verified. Detailed verifications of the struts and the nodal areas are left to the reader.
The reinforcement plan for the concrete diaphragm is shown in Figure 14.4. Appropriate overlapping
of the reinforcing bars and the mesh has to be guaranteed.
The force transfer between the diaphragm and the wall can be realized in different ways. Two design
solutions, which are also compatible with the gravity force transfer, are shown. Since the uplift and
rotation of the wall is negligible for this design, no special detailing for the connection between the
floor and the lateral load-resisting system is required.
Solution 1– Direct Connection between Concrete Slab and Wall
Solution 1 consists in a diaphragm force transfer via coach screws fixed directly to the LVL post-
tensioned wall. These are then integrated in the concrete slab when it is cast into place. The floor
elements are sitting on corbels or fixed by steel hangers that are directly connected to the wall. The
design of the latter is not shown here.
The diaphragm force to be transferred into the wall is 46.4 kN (26.4 kN from the ties and 20 kN from
the strut). This force is transferred from the concrete topping to the wall through 6 Ø12 coach screws
(Figure 14.5).
According to clause C4.2 of AS 1720.1:2010, and considering an effective timber thickness of
beff = 2 x tp = 192 mm and embedment strength of f’pj = 17 MPa, the connection capacity is as follows:
t (14-8)
P
≥ 8D = 8⋅12mm = 96mm
⎧b f ʹ D ⎫
(14-9) ⎪ eff pj 2 ⎪ ⎧19.6kN ⎫
Qsk = Qskp = min ⎨ ⎬ = min ⎨ ⎬ = 10.6kN
⎪15 f ʹ D 3 ⎪ ⎩10.6kN ⎭
⎩ pj ⎭
where:
tp = penetration length of fastener
Qsk = characteristic capacity for a laterally loaded single bolt in a joint system
Qskp = system capacity for fasteners loaded perpendicular to the grain
f’pj = characteristic value for bolts bearing perpendicular to grain
The second member in the connection is the concrete slab, which can be considered as stiff; hence,
the factor for side plates (k16) can be taken as 1.2.
N dj ≥ N *
(14-10)
N dj = φ k1k13k16 k17nQsk = 0.8⋅1.14 ⋅1.0 ⋅1.2 ⋅1.0 ⋅ 6 ⋅10.6kN = 69.6kN ≥ N * = 46.4kN
where
Ndj = design capacity for joints under direct load
k1 = 1.14 for wind loads as per Clause 2.4.1.1.
k13 = 1.0 factor for end grain effects
k16 = 1.2 factor for side plates
k17 = 1.0 factor for multiple fastener effect.
The strength of the coach screws embedded in the concrete can be checked according Australian
Code AS 2327.1:2003 Composite structures. Part 1: Simply supported beams.
Solution 2 – Connection between Concrete Slab and Wall via Strut/Collector Beam
An alternative solution consists in a transverse LVL beam running parallel to the wall, fixed with bolts to
it. The diaphragm forces are transferred via notched connections from the concrete topping into the
timber beam (Figure 14.6). For the gravity loads, the floor joists are connected to the transverse beam
by steel hangers. The connection of the beam to the wall is designed for the combination of gravity
and horizontal wind loads.
Figure 14.6: Transverse beam with notches for the diaphragm force transfer.
and hence the gravity force on the beam considering a tributary area approach is:
4m
F (14-12)
= p ⋅ A = 6.7 kN m2 ⋅ ⋅ 7m = 94kN
2
R* = 46.4 2 + 94 2 = 105 kN
(14-13)
94
ϑ = arctan = 63.7
(14-14)
!
46.4
M16 bolts are used to connect the beam to the wall. A joint group JD3 is assumed for the connection
in LVL elements. The thickness of the connected members is 90 mm for the beam and 225 mm for
the wall. Since the Australian Timber Code AS 1720.1:2010 does not provide the situation of a force
transferred on an angle to the grain in between two members running at 90° to each other, as a
conservative approach the resultant force is applied perpendicularly to the beam.
Considering beff = 2 x 90 mm = 180 mm and f’pj = 17 MPa the connection capacity is:
⎧b f ʹ D ⎫
⎪ eff pj 2 ⎪ ⎧24.5kN ⎫
Q Q min
(14-9)
sk
= skp
= ⎨ ⎬ = min ⎨ ⎬ = 16.3kN
⎪15 f ʹ D 3 ⎪ ⎩16.3kN ⎭
⎩ pj ⎭
A connection with 8 M16 bolts is chosen to transfers the load from the beam into the wall:
N dj ≥ R*
(14-10)
N dj = φ k1k16 k17nQsk = 0.8⋅1.14 ⋅1.0 ⋅1.0 ⋅8⋅16.3kN = 119 ≥ R* = 105kN
A different way to connect the collector beam to the wall could be by using inclined fully threaded
screws; this is, however, not covered here.
To transfer the diaphragm force from the concrete topping into the beam, two notched trapezoidal
connections are provided (Figure 14.7). More information on the design of these connections can be
found in the WoodSolutions Technical Design Guide #30:Timber Concrete Composite Floor Systems.
Qk = 0.95 × 90 − 2 = 83.5kN
(14-17)
where:
Qk = characteristic strength of the TCC connection in shear
1. Bull, D.K. and R. Henry, Strut and Tie. Seminar Notes. Technical Report No.R57., in Bulletin of
the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering. 2014, The New Zealand Concrete Society.
Canterbury Earthquake Royal Commission 2012.
2. Moroder, D., et al. An equivalent truss method for the analysis of timber diaphragms. in
Proceedings of the Tenth Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering -Building an Earthquake-
Resilient Pacific. 2015. Sydney, Australia.
3. Moroder, D., et al., Design of Floor Diaphragms in Multi-Storey Timber Buildings. International
Network on Timber Engineering Research. Bath, England, 2014.
4. Moroder, D., et al., Seismic design of floor diaphragms in post-tensioned timber buildings, in World
Conference on Timber Engineering. 2014: Quebec City, Canada.
5. Malone, R.T. and R.W. Rice, The Analysis of Irregular Shaped Structures - Diapghragms and Shear
Walls. 2012: McGraw Hill.
6. Diekmann, E.F., Diaphragms and Shear Walls, in Wood Engineering and Construction Handbook,
K.F. Faherty and T.G. Williamson, Editors. 1995, McGraw-Hill: New York. p. 8.1-8.68.
7. Malone, R.T. and R. Rice, The Analysis of Irregular Shaped Structures Diaphragms and Shear
Walls. 2011: McGraw Hill Professional.
8. Vogt, T., J. Hummel, and W. Seim. Timber framed wall elements under cyclic loading. in 12th World
conference on timber engineering, Auckland. 2012.
9. Smith, P.C., D.J. Dowrick, and J.A. Dean, Horizontal timber diaphragms for wind and earthquake
resistance. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 1986. 19(2): p. 135-
142.
10. ATC, Guidelines for the design of horizontal wood diaphragms. Vol. ATC 7. 1981, Berkeley,
California: Applied Technology Council.
11. Prion, H.G.L., Shear Walls and Diaphragms, in Timber engineering, S. Thelandersson and H.J.
Larsen, Editors. 2003, J. Wiley: New York. p. 383-408.
12. Standards New Zealand, Timber Structures, in NZS 3602:1993. 1993, Standards New Zealand:
New Zealand.
13. Bull, D.K., Understanding the complexities of designing diaphragms in buildings for earthquakes.
Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 2004. 37(2): p. 70-88.
14. Standards New Zealand, 1170.5 Supp - Structural Design Actions Part 5: Earthquake Actions -
New Zealand - Commentary. 2004b: Wellington, New Zealand.
Australian Standards
AS 1720.1, Timber structures, in Part 1: Design methods. 2010, Standards Australia: Australia.
AS 1170.2:2002 Structural Design Actions Part 2: Wind Actions. 2002, Standards Australia, Australia.
AS 2327.1:2003 Composite structures, Part 1: Simply supported beams 2003, Standards Australia,
Australia.
AS 3600 Concrete structures, 2009, Standards Australia, Australia.
The symbols and letters used in the Guide are listed below:
a aspect ratio of each sheathing panel given in the NZS 3603.12
A section area of the chord
A area of the tension reinforcement
Aconc cross sectional area at one end of the strut, considering the thickness as the depth
of the diaphragm slab as per AS 3600
As,min minimum reinforcement area
b width of the diaphragm (taken as 1 m)
B distance between diaphragm chord member
beff effective width of member in joint assembly
D depth of the concrete topping
en fastener slip resulting from the shear force V
F gravity force on the beam
Fnt nominal tension capacity of steel tie
Fnc nominal compression capacity of concrete strut
F* design action in tension
f’conc compressive strength of concrete
f’pj characteristic value for bolts bearing perpendicular to grain
fy yield strength of steel
G shear modulus of the diaphragm sheathing
h diaphragm width
l length of diaphragm
k1 modification factors for duration of load given in AS 1720.1
k13 nail connector factor for end grain effects given in AS 1720.1
k16 nail connector factor for plywood or metal side plates given in AS 1720.1
k17 nail connector factor for multiple fastener effect given in AS 1720.1
m thickness of the diaphragm sheathing
M design moment of diaphragm
Ndj design capacity for joints under direct load
N* design action for joints under direct load
P wind load at ULS
P1 wind load on windward façade
P2 wind load on leeward façade
p factored gravity load
q uniformly distributed horizontal load
Qk characteristic strength of the TCC connection in shear
Qsk characteristic capacity for a laterally loaded single bolt in a joint system
Qskp system capacity for fasteners loaded perpendicular to the grain