CHEMISTRY REVISION

(in alphabetical order)

Acid (strong/weak): Substance that undergoes (complete/incomplete) ionization in water to

produce hydrogen ions – strength of an acid refers to its degree of ionization in water
- Hydrochloric acid is monobasic while sulfuric acid is dibasic OR number of hydrogen
ions (concentration) in the sulfuric acid is twice that in hydrochloric acid
Alloy: A mixture of metal and one or more other elements (metals or non-metals)
- Structure of pure metal: Pure metal consists of atoms closely packed together in an
orderly arrangement which allows the layers of atoms to slide over each other easily.
Thus, pure metal is soft and weak.
- Structure of alloy: Alloys are stronger and harder because the presence of foreign atoms
of a different size disrupts the regular arrangement of atoms preventing the layers of
atoms from sliding over each other
- Alloys are harder and stronger than pure metal, thus they are more useful
Ammonia
a) HABER PROCESS
+ Manufactured industrially by the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas in
ratio 1:3. This is a reversible action. The ammonia gas formed is removed from the
mixture of gases as liquid ammonia and the unreacted gases are recycled.
+ Raw materials: Nitrogen gas (fractional distillation of liquid air); hydrogen gas
(cracking of crude oil)
+ Finely-divided iron as catalyst, at 450 degrees Celsius, pressure 200atm

b) Remove ammonia from mixture of gases: i) Liquefaction; ii) Bubble the mixture of gases
through water and ammonia will dissolve in water. The gas collected would be a mixture
of nitrogen and hydrogen.

c) Uses
- Produce fertilizers (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate)
- Cooling agent in refrigerators
Air and Atmosphere
1. Air composition
- 78% nitrogen
- 21% oxygen
- Noble gases (argon as main constituent)
- Carbon dioxide
 2. Pollutants
Pollutant Source Harmful effect
Carbon Incomplete - Carbon monoxide
monoxide combustion of competes with oxygen to
carbon-containing bind irreversibly to
fuels haemoglobin in the blood
to form
carboxyhaemoglobin
- Decreased level of oxygen
in blood  Headache,
dizziness, nausea
- Death from lack of oxygen
Sulfur oxide Volcanic eruption; - Breathing difficulties due
(acidic gas) Combustion of sulfur- to irritation of respiratory
containing fossil fuels system, aggravate asthma
attacks
- Reduces growth of plant
- Reacts with oxygen and
moisture in the air to form
sulfuric acid, which
dissolves in rain water and
falls to the ground as acid
rain
Oxides of Lightning activity; - Damage the lungs
nitrogen Internal combustion - Acid rain: Reacts with
(acidic gas) in engines (at high moisture and oxygen in the
temp, inert gas air to form nitric acid,
nitrogen reacts with which dissolve in rain
nitrogen in the air) water and making acid rain
 Corrodes marble
(limestone), metal
structures, and
buildings and statues
- Acidifies soil, killing
vegetation and aquatic life
- Reacts with other air
pollutants to form ozone –
Photochemical reaction
resulting in the formation
of photochemical smog
Greenhouse CO2 (not a pollutant): - Increase in greenhouse
Preventive measure
- Use oxygenated fuel for
combustion
- Use a mixture of fuel and
oxygen (air) in suitable
proportions to enable
complete combustion
- Use catalytic converters in
vehicles: The catalysts
(platinum, rhodium) convert
CO and oxides of nitrogen
to carbon dioxide gas and
nitrogen gas
- Acidic exhaust can be
treated with a wet mixture of
calcium carbonate/calcium
oxide to neutralize acidic
gas  Harmless salt, easily
disposed
- Flue gas desulfurization
- Reduction, restriction in the
sulfur content in fuels
- Lower temperature or
burning fuel in power
stations/factories
- Pass waste gases through
wet CaO/CaCO3
- Use catalytic converter in
vehicles
- Reduce amount of fossil
gases Burning of carbon- effect leads to global fuels burnt
containing fuels and warming + Save electricity
compounds - Melting of polar ice caps: + Reduce usage of air-
Methane: Bacterial Rise in sea level, some conditioners and electrical
decay of vegetable lands submerged under equipment
material water, flood in low-lying + Avoid using cars/vehicles
CFC and oxides of regions that have a large carbon
nitrogen - Drastic changes in climate footprint – carpool, public
(droughts, deserts, famines) transport/walk
- Reduce amount of CFCs and
oxides of nitrogen formed
(refer below)
CFCs Aerosol propellants, - Break down ozone - Use less/ban aerosols
(carbon, cleaning solutions, molecules to form oxygen containing CFCs
chlorine, cooling agents in molecules and deplete - Use less air-conditioner
fluorine) refrigerators and air ozone layer - Use less disposable items
conditioners and in - Allow more ultra-violet made of foam plastic
foam packaging light to penetrate earth’s - Ban/use less cleaning
atmosphere solvents consisting of CFCs
- Incidences of skin cancer,
eye cataracts, eye problems
Ozone Photochemical - Irritation of respiratory - Reduce production and
reactions between system emissions of carbon
oxides of nitrogen, - Coughing, throat irritation monoxide and oxides of
carbon monoxide and - Aggravation of asthma nitrogen from vehicles eg
volatile organic carpool, public transport
compounds in
presence of sunlight
Unburnt Internal combustion - Some are carcinogenic Reduce the amount of fossil fuels
hydrocarbon of engines (cause cancer) with burnt (save electricity)
s prolonged exposure
- Fire hazard
- Involved in formation of
photochemical smog

- UV radiation in the atmosphere breaks down CFCs to form chlorine atoms (radicals). The
radicals break down ozone to form chlorine oxide and oxygen gas. The chlorine oxide is
unstable and other free oxygen atom will steal away the oxygen from the chlorine atom.
The remaining chlorine atom attacks more ozone molecules, repeating the process several
thousand times  Continue to exist in the atmosphere for some time
Bonding (ionic and covalent)
1. Difference
- Ionic: Metal and non-metal
- Covalent: Non-metals
 - State at room temp: Solid VS gas or volatile liquid

2. Melting/boiling point
- Covalent bond: Simple molecular structure. There are weak intermolecular Van der
Waals forces of attraction between the molecules. Little energy is required to overcome
the intermolecular forces, hence the low melting point.
- Ionic bond: Giant ionic/crystal lattice structure. There are strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely-charged ions. A large amount of heat energy is required
to overcome forces of attraction, hence the high melting point.
- More bonds  More energy needed to overcome the bonds eg. Nitrogen is a very
inert/unreactive gas, each nitrogen molecule has 3 covalent bonds joining 2 nitrogen
atoms, a lot of energy is required to break these bonds

3. Electricity conductivity
- Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in aqueous/molten state but not in solid state. In
the solid state, the ions are held in rigidly together in fixed positions in a crystalline
structure and are unable to move freely. Only in molten states or in aqueous solution, the
ions are mobile and are capable of conducting electricity.
- Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity. They exist as molecules. There is
absence of mobile charged particles.

4. Solubility
- Ionic compounds are soluble in water, not in organic solvents
- Covalent compounds are soluble in organic solvents, not water
Bonding (metallic)
1. Bonding
- 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons  Form normal covalent/ionic bonds with neighboring atoms
in solid metallic crystal
- The metallic atoms readily lose valence electron(s) to form positively charged ions with
stable noble gas configuration. These electron(s) are loosely held between spaces
between positive ions
- Metallic bond: There are strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive
metal ions and the ‘sea of delocalize electrons’

2. Structure
- Positive ions are held in fixed positions. They cannot move but vibrate about their fixed
positions.
- Giant metallic structure. Metals are lattice of positive ions in fixed position surrounded
by a ‘sea of delocalized electrons’

3. Properties
 a) Melting/boiling point: Metals are lattice of positive ions in fixed position surrounded
by a sea of delocalized electrons. There are strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons. A large amount of
energy is needed to overcome this force, hence the high melting and boiling points.
b) Electrical conductivity: Metals conduct electricity in molten or solid state due to
presence of mobile electrons which carry electrical charges
c) Good conductors of heat
d) Metals consist of atoms closely packed in orderly arrangement. Metals are malleable
(rolled into wires) and ductile (drawn into wires without breaking). This is because
when a force is applied onto a piece of metal, the layers of atoms in the metal can
slide over each other without breaking.
Bonding (macromolecular, nanoparticle)
1. Compare structure of carbon nanotube and diamond
Nanotube Diamond
Layers of hexagonal rings of C atoms Tetrahedrally arranged atoms
wrapped into a cube
Each carbon bonded to 3 other carbons Each carbon bonded to 4 other carbons
Definite size to molecules/are tubular No fixed size/no tubular structure
Delocalized electrons (conduct electricity) No delocalized electrons

2. Giant covalent structure/macromolecular structure

a) Made from many atoms covalently bonded to form a giant three-dimensional structure;
ALL are insoluble in any solvent (water/organic solvents)

b) Diamond
i) Structure: In a diamond crystal, each carbon atom is strongly bonded covalently
to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement
ii) Properties: Very hard, resistant to high temperature and chemical attack (high
melting point), non-conductor of electricity, insoluble in all solvents
iii) Uses: Jewelry, in saws and drills for cutting/drilling

c) Silicon, Silica
i) Structure
ii) Properties: Insoluble in all solvents
iii) Uses

d) Graphite
i) Structure: Each carbon atom forms a strong covalent bond with 3 other carbon
atoms to form flat, hexagonal rings in layers (sheets of carbon atoms called
graphene). Weak Van der Waals exists between the layers; hence they can easily
slide over each other.
 ii) Properties: Soft and slippery; can conduct electricity due to the mobile electrons;
high melting point
+ Explanation (electricity conductivity): Each carbon atom is only bonded to 3
other carbon atoms and thus can only make use of 3 valence electrons in bonding.
The 4th valence electron per carbon atom can move freely along the layer. Hence,
graphite can conduct electricity due to the presence of mobile electrons.
+ Explanation (melting point): Graphite has a macromolecular structure. There
are strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms within the layer which requires a
lot of energy to overcome these forces, hence the high melting point.
iii) Uses: Lubricant to reduce friction in engines; in pencils (layers of black graphite
deposited on paper); electrodes in batteries

3. Allotropes (Different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state)
a) Fullerene
- Large surface area to volume ratio  Used as industrial catalyst to speed up chemical
reactions

b) Buckminsterfullerene
i) Structure: Hollow spheres consisting of 60 carbon atoms (formula: C60), each
carbon atom strongly covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms (two single
bonds, one double bond)
ii) Property: Conduct electricity – each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other
carbon atoms so only 3 out of 4 valence electrons are used in bonding. There are
mobile electrons present.
iii) Uses: Form spheres around other molecules to deliver drugs to certain areas of the
body

c) Nanotubes
i) Structure: Layer of hexagonal rings wrapped into a cube
ii) Properties:
+ Conduct electricity because there are mobile electrons
+ Hard because there are covalent bonds extended throughout the structure
iii) Uses: Very high length to diameter ratio (long and thin), able to conduct
electricity  Used in nanotechnology, electronics, strengthen other materials
(adding strength without adding weight)
Catalytic converter
- Stainless steel chamber to prevents corrosion with passage of hot gasses passing through
- Ceramic tubes withstand high temperatures
- Catalyst: Platinum, rhodium – coated on ceramic tubes
- Heat: Cause oxides of nitrogen to react with carbon monoxide
- Unburnt hydrocarbons are converted by combustion to carbon dioxide and water vapour
 - Vehicles fitted with catalytic converter cannot use leaded petrol as lead coats the catalyst
and make them ineffective
Extraction of Metals
1. Extraction of metals
- Group I (more reactive) metals  Electrolysis
- Metals from Zinc downwards  Carbon/Carbon monoxide
- Metals from Iron downwards  Hydrogen
- Use of electricity for electrolysis is very costly/use more energy

2. Extraction of iron
- Raw materials: Haematite (iron ore), coke – added to produce heat (reaction with oxygen
is exothermic) and produce carbon monoxide to reduce iron ore, limestone
- Hot air blown through pipes from the bottom – maintain high temperature, source of
oxygen to react with coke
- Produce key reducing agent (CO) – Produce carbon dioxide (reaction requires heat) and
carbon monoxide  produce molten iron  remove acidic properties (sand/silicon
dioxide) – thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate to produce basic calcium oxide
to react with acidic silicon dioxide
+ Iron flows to the bottom of furnace and is tapped off (bottom tap)
+ Waste gases (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen) escapes through the top
- Iron ore contains impurities (sand and clay). Limestone is decomposed by heat to from
basic calcium oxide to react with acidic silicon dioxide in sand to form slag (calcium
silicate). Slag flows to the bottom and tapped off (2nd bottom tap) – used in making roads.
Gas identification
1. Hydrogen: Effervescence observed. Colorless, odorless gas evolved. Gas extinguishes
lighted splint with a pop sound. Hydrogen gas evolved.
2. Carbon dioxide: Effervescence observed. Colorless, odorless gas evolved, turned moist
litmus red and forms a white precipitate with aqueous calcium hydroxide. Carbon dioxide
gas evolved.
3. Ammonia: Effervescence observed. Colorless, pungent gas evolved, turned moist red
litmus blue. Ammonia gas evolved.
Explanation of the properties of different types of bonding
Graph
- Trend: The concentration of (something) increases/decreases linear from (something) to
(something)
Indicator
1. Methyl orange: (low to high pH) red to yellow, neutral – orange
2. Phenolphthalein: (low to high pH) colorless to pink
Gas identification
1. Hydrogen: Effervescence observed. Colorless, odorless gas evolved. Gas extinguishes
lighted splint with a pop sound. Hydrogen gas evolved.
2. Carbon dioxide: Effervescence observed. Colorless, odorless gas evolved, turned moist
litmus red and forms a white precipitate with aqueous calcium hydroxide. Carbon dioxide
gas evolved.
3. Ammonia: Effervescence observed. Colorless, pungent gas evolved, turned moist red
litmus blue. Ammonia gas evolved.
Explanation of the properties of different types of bonding
Ions VS Electrons
- Difference
+ Electrons are negatively charged micro particles
+ Ions are either negatively or positively charged molecules or atoms
- Mobile ions: ionic (l)/ ionic(aq) / acid(aq)
- Mobile electrons: metals(s) / metal(l) / graphite / buckyball/ nanotube (hexagonal rings of
carbon atoms)
Isotope
- Atom of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
- Isotopes are similar in chemical properties but different in physical properties (melting
point, boiling point, density)
Metal
1. Reactivity: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, (C), Zn, (H2), Fe, Pb, (H), Cu, Ag
- C: Carbon or CO’s ability to reduce metal oxide
- H2: Hydrogen gas’s ability to reduce a metal oxide
- H: Metal’s ability to react with acids to displace hydrogen ions from the acid

i) Reaction with acid

+ (Al) Effervescence observed after some time. Aluminum has no initial reaction
with acid because of the aluminum oxide layer coating it. Once this layer has
completely reacted with the acid, then the exposed aluminum will react producing
oxygen.
+ (Ca) When calcium reacts with sulfuric acid, the calcium sulfate formed is
insoluble and it coats the metal preventing further reaction with the acid 
(applies when an insoluble salt forms eg. PbSO4 or PbCl2)

ii) Reaction with steam

+ (Al): Forms a natural layer of oxide on its surface which is impervious and
prevents steam from reacting with it  In reality no reaction
 + (Mg): Brilliant white light; white solid formed; hydrogen formed burns with
blue flame

iii) Reaction with water

+ Li, Na, K: Metal darts on water surface (hydrogen gas created push metal
around); hissing sound; sparks
+ Ca: Metal sinks, effervescence; white precipitate of calcium hydroxide

2. Color
- Most metals: Silvery grey solids except copper (reddish brown/pink)
- Copper (II) sulfate/nitrate: Blue
- Copper (II) carbonate: Green
- Copper (II)/Iron (II) oxide: Black
- Iron (II) chloride/nitrate/sulfate: Pale green
- Iron (III) oxide: Brown
- Iron (III) chloride/nitrate/sulfate: Yellow (sometimes orange)
- Other salts with no transition metal: White solid/colorless solution

3. Heat stability
a) Thermal decomposition of CARBONATES
- Ca downwards: Decompose upon heating, forming metal oxide, carbon oxide
- Ag: Decompose upon heating, forming metal, oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Experiments: i) Measure time taken to collect 20cm3 of CO2; ii) Measure time taken for
white precipitate to form in limewater

b) Stability to heat
- OXIDE: Every metal except Ag which decomposes to metal and oxygen
- CARBONATES: (above)

4. Reduction of metal OXIDES

a) With carbon or carbon monoxide: From Zn downwards, forming metal and carbon
dioxide
b) With hydrogen: From Fe downwards, forming metal and steam
c) For more stable metals: Electrolysis of their molten compounds
d) Passing an inert/noble gas over a substance or keeping a substance in inert/noble gas:
Prevent the hot substance from reacting with oxygen in the air

5. Solubility: Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (applicable to alloys)

Oxygen
1. Colorless, odorless gas, neutral to moist litmus paper
2. Confirmatory test: Insert glowing splint into test tube containing the gas. Oxygen gas will
relight the glowing splint
 3. Use
a) Combustion
b) Respiration
c) Welding
Recycling
Metals: Iron, aluminum, lead
1. Advantages
a) Social: Create jobs
b) Economic
- Conserve energy (less energy is needed to make recycled materials into new products;
conserve resources)
- Reduce cost of disposing trash in landfills or solid waste incinerators (revenues earned
from sales of recycled materials, less spent on disposal, save the cost of manufacturing)
- Conserve finite raw materials (allowing the extraction of valuable metals)
c) Environmental
- Reduces pollution (generate less pollutant)
- Reduces the chances of leaching metals into soil and river water (prevents metals from
being corroded by air and rain, prevents contamination)
2. Disadvantages
- Environmental pollution (metal fumes released during smelting, less-valuable metals are
thrown away causing pollution in soil and waterways)
- Time and energy needed (sorting and transporting recycled materials)
Rusting (prevention methods)
1. Barrier protection: Coating and painting to isolate iron from environment. Materials used
include oil, grease, paint, tin, plastic, chromium or concrete. These substances are
inactive and inert, thus when coated onto iron/steel, they form a protective layer. As long
as the layer isn’t scratched off, the iron/steel will be protected. If the layer is scratched,
the iron/steel is exposed to oxygen and moisture, and will start to rust.

2. Sacrificial protection: Attaching iron/steel with zinc or magnesium. Both metals are more
reactive than iron hence corrode more readily than iron. The metal corrodes preferentially
in place of iron, thus protecting the iron from rusting.
- Galvanization: Coat object with a layer of metallic zinc (cheap, adheres well to steel,
provides cathodic protection to steel surface in case of damage to zinc layer)

3. Plate with tin or chromium

Salt production
1. Titration
 a) Reason: In titration, both the product and the reactions used are in the aqueous state, thus
excess reactant cannot be removed from the product. Hence titration allows the exact
quantities of reactants to be used to ensure that the product is not contaminated by any
excess reactants.
b) Describe color change with methyl orange: As the (something) hydroxide was titrated
with (something) acid, the pH decreased (from pH -high- to pH -low-) and the color of
the solution changed from yellow to orange

c) Precipitation
- Reason: The reactants used are in the form of aqueous solution so that the insoluble salt
formed, being the only solid present, can be completely separated from the other
chemicals present (by-product and excess reactant) by filtration.

d) Excess solids to acid

Solubility
- Na, K, NO3 compounds  Soluble
- All halides (F, Cl, Br, I compound), sulfates  Soluble
- Lead (II) halides, silver (II) halides  Insoluble
- CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4  Insoluble
- All carbonates  Insoluble
- All hydroxides, oxides  Insoluble