Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Elements of Heat Transfer Yildiz Beyazitoğlu - Ocred
Elements of Heat Transfer Yildiz Beyazitoğlu - Ocred
KAT TRANSFE
Copyright © 1988
Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co. — Singapore for manufacture and
export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is
consigned by McGraw-Hill.
34567890FSP 93210
Bayazitoglu, Yildiz.
Elements of heat transfer/Yildiz Bayazitoglu, M. Necati Ozisik.
p. cm,
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-004154-7
1. Heat-Transmission. I. Ozisik, M. Necati. Il. Title.
TJ260.B38 1988
621.402 '2-de19 87-21646
CIP
Printed in Singapore
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Preface xi
11 Radiation 327
11-1 Basic Radiation Concepts 327
11-2 Blackbody Radiation Laws 329
11-3 Radiation Properties of Surfaces 334
11-4 View-Factor Concept 341
11-5 View-Factor Determination 345
11-6 Network Method for Radiation Exchange 351
11-7 Radiation Shields 360
Problems 362
References 368
12 Heat Exchangers oe )
12-1 Classification 369
12-2 Temperature Distribution 373
12-3. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 375
12-4 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference * (LMTD) Method 379
12-5 Correction for the LMTD 383
12-6 é-NTU Method 387
12-7 Compact Heat Exchangers 396
Problems 400
References 406
Appendices 407
Appendix A Conversion Factors 407
Appendix B Physical Properties 410
Appendix C Radiation Properties 427
Appendix D Error Function 430
Index 431
PREFACE
CONCEPTS
_ OF THE
MECHANISM
OF HEAT
FLOW
The earliest evidence of human use of fire for warmth and light comes from
caves occupied by Peking man about half a million years ago. In spite of this
use, it has been only in relatively recent times that people have understood that
heat is energy and that temperature is a measure of the amount of that energy
present in a body. -
As a form of energy, heat can be converted into work. Although it is
customary to speak of sensible heat and latent heat, it is incorrect.to speak of
the heat accumulation in a body, since the,> word heat is restricted to energy
being transferred.
Heat flows from one body to another as the result of a difference in
temperature. If two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, heat
flows from the hotter body to the colder body. As a result, in the absence of
phase change such as melting or solidification, the temperature of the colder
body increases and that of the hotter body decreases.
Since heat flow takes place in a system whenever there is a temperature
gradient, it is essential to know the temperature distribution in order to
compute the heat flow. The temperature distribution and the heat flow are of
interest in many scientific and engineering applications, such as the design of
heat exchangers, nuclear-reactor cores, heating and air-conditioning systems,
and solar energy systems.
2 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1-1 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the mechanism of heat flow in which energy is transported from
the region of high temperature to the region of low temperature by the drift of
electrons, as in solids. Therefore, metals that are good conductors of electricity
are also good conductors of heat.
The conduction law is based on experimental observations made by Biot
and named after Fourier. The Fourier law states that the rate of heat flow by
conduction in a given direction (say, the x direction) is proportional to:
illustrated in Fig. 1-1(b). Thus the notation used in Eq. (1-1) implies that when
& a+
Q, is a positive quantity, the heat flow is in the positive x direction, and vice
2 4
versa.
s Q,>9 To illustrate the application of this concept, we consider a slab (i.e., a
5o
oe
E
plate) with a linear temperature distribution within the body, as shown in Fig.
a
~ 1-2. Equation (1-1) becomes
Heat flow
aT
x direction
(2)
Q,=—kATe
T,-T T,-T.
=~—kA L=kA— 2
X47 Xy Xy 7X,
Heat flow
Gane AT oO
= kA =L | : “(1-3
(1-3)
Temperature T
is the heat flux in the x direction. Thus g, represents the amount of heat flow
per unit area, per unit time in the x direction. When heat flow Q, is in watts and
heat flux g, in watts per square meter, then the thermal conductivity k has the
dimension W/(m-°C) or J/(m-s- °C).
FIGURE 1-2
Temperature distribution T(x)
and heat flow by conduction
through a slab.
4 ELEMENTS
OF HEAT TRANSFER
Example 1-1. A brick wall of thickness 25cm and thermal conductivity 0.69 W/
(m-°C) is maintained at 20°C at one surface and 10°C at the other surface.
_ Determine the heat flow rate across a 5-m” surface area of the wall.
T, = 20°C
Brick wall
1 k=0.69 W/(m-°C)
Ln
I o FIGURE EXAMPLE 1-1
| I * Heat conduction through the
x,=0 x,=L=025m slab.
Example 1-2. The inside and outside surfaces of a window glass are at 20°€ and
—5°C, respectively. If the glass is 100 cm by 50 cm in size and 1.5 em thick, with a
thermal conductivity of 0.78 W/(m-°C), determine the heat loss through the glass
over a period of 2h.
Solution. The origin of the x coordinate is placed on the hot surface x, = 0; then
x,=L=0.015m. Given that T,=20°C, T,=~—S5°C, k =0.78 W/(m-°C), and
A=1mx0.5m=0.5m’, Eq. (1-3) is used:
T,-T, AT
O,=kA
~~ %y = kA +
[20 — (—5) PPC
= 0.78 W/(m- °C) x (1 x 0.5m?) x 0.015 m
= 650 W = 0.650 kW
Then the heat loss through the window glass over a period of At=2h
becomes
Heat loss= Q, At
= 0.650kW
x 2h=1.30kW-h
CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANISM OF HEAT FLOW §
Solution. Given k = 0.05 W/(m-°C), AT = 150°C, and q = Q/A= 100 W/m’, Eqs.
(1-3) and (1-4) are applied to find L:
LJ 2 L =0.075 m=75 mm
Thermal conductivity
There is a wide difference in the range of thermal conductivity among various
engineering materials, as illustrated in Fig. 1-3. Between gases (e.g., air) and
highly conducting metals (e.g., copper), k varies by a factor of about 10°.
Thermal conductivity also varies with temperature. For some materials the
variation over certain temperature ranges is small enough to be neglected, but
, in many situations the variation of k with temperature is significant. At very
FIGURE 1-3
Typical range of thermal
conductivity of various materials. 1000}- Silver
Copper
100;—
0 Ge
Water
0.1 f-
0.01
6 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1000
Silver (99.9%) Copper (pure)
Aluminum (pure) tt
100 Magnesiurh (pure) ,
Lead oo (Pare) |
Aluminum oxide
go 10 : Mercury
9 r UO, (dense)
= :
temperature.
low temperatures, near absolute zero, k varies very rapidly with
material s are given in Appen-
Actual values of thermal conductivity of various
n of thermal conduct ivity of some
dix B. Figure 1-4 illustrates the variatio
engineering materials with temperature.
1-2 CONVECTION
, heat
When a fluid flows over a solid, and the temperatures are different
solid surface as a result of the
transfer takes place between the fluid and the
on, since the
motion of the fluid. This mechanism of heat flow is called convecti
rate.
motion of the fluid plays a significant role in augmenting the heat transfer
would be by conducti on. If
Clearly, if there were no fluid motion, heat transfer
mechanis m, such as a fan, .
the fluid motion is caused externally by a forcing
pump, or wind, the mechanism of heat flow is said to be forced
blower,
density
convection. If the fluid motion is set up by the buoyancy resulting from
e within the fluid, the mechan-
differences caused by the temperature differenc
fluid is
ism of heat flow is said to be free (or natural) convection. Here the word
air and water are both
used to describe both liquids and gases; for example,
fluids. .
In engineering applications, to simplify the heat flow calculations, a
quantity called the heat transfer coefficient h is defined. To illustrate the
CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANISM OF HEAT FLOW 7
concept, consider the flow of a cold fluid at a temperature T;, over a hot body at
temperature T,,, as illustrated in Fig. 1-5. Let q be the heat flux (in watts per
square meter) from the wall to the fluid. Then the heat transfer coefficient h is
defined as
q=h(T, — T;) (1-5a)
If the heat flux is in watts per square meter and the temperatures are in degrees
Celsius (or Kelvins), then the heat transfer coefficient has the dimension
W/(m? -°C), and it is always a positive quantity.
If we rewrite Eq.(1-5a) in the form
° q=h(T,—T,) a (1-55)
it implies that q is the heat flux from the fluid to the wall.
The expression given by Eq. (1-5a), first used-as a law of cooling for the
removal of heat from a hot body into a cold fluid flowing over it, is generally
referred to as Newton’s law of cooling.
In general, the determination of the heat transfer coefficient for convec-
tion problems is a very complicated matter because h is affected by: ©
FIGURE 1-5 y4
Heat flow by convection. from a
hot wall at T,, to a cold fluid at Ro Temperature
T 2 profile
£ z —_— in the fluid
=
6oO
TABLE 1-1
Typical values of convective heat transfer coefficient h
Free convection, AT = 25°C h, Wi(m? -°C)
0.25-m-vertical plate in:
Atmospheric air 5.0
Engine oil 37.0 .
Water 440.0
0.02-m-OD horizontal cylinder in:
Atmospheric air 8.0
Engine oil 62.0
Water 741.0
0.02-m-diameter sphere in:
Atmospheric air . 9.0
Engine oil 60.0
Water 606.0
Forced convection
Atmospheric air at 25°C with velocity
vu =10m/s over a flat plate of
length L=0.5m 17.0
Flow at v =5 m/s across a
1-cm-OD cylinder of:
Atmospheric air . 85.0
Engine oil 1,800.0
Flow of water at 1 kg/s inside
Example 1-4. Cold air at 10°C is forced to flow over a flat plate maintained at
40°C. The mean heat transfer coefficient is h,, = 30 W/(m?-°C). Find the heat
flow rate from the plate to the air through a plate area of A= 2m’.
Solution. Given: T, = 10°C, T,, = 40°C, and h,, = 30 W/(m’ - °C). Equation (1-5a)
is used to determine the average heat flux:
=h,,(T,~ T;)
= 30 W/(m* -°C) x (40 — 10)°C = 900 W/m?
Then the heat flow through the area A =2 m7 becomes
O=4,,A
= 900 W/m? x 2m? = 1800 W=1.8kW
CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANISM OF HEAT FLOW 9
Example 1-5. Atmospheric air at a temperature of 10°C flows with velocity 5 m/s
across a 1-cm-outside-diameter (OD) and 5-m-long tube whose surface is main-
tained at 110°C, as illustrated in the accompanying figure. Determine the rate of
heat flow from the tube surface to the atmospheric air.
Solution. The heat transfer area A is the outside surface area of the tube.
P=7DL
= 7 X0.01m x 5m = 0.05a = 0.157 m’
For forced convection across a tube of diameter D = 0.01 m with V, =5 m/s, the
average heat transfer coefficient between the outside surface of the tube and the
atmospheric air is obtainable from Table 1-1 as h =85 W/ (m?-°C). Equation
(1-5a) is used to calculate the heat flux; taking T,=10°C, T,,= 110°C, and
h,, = 85 we -°C), q,, is determined to be
=A, (T,, ~ T,)
Q = IinA
Solution. Equation Al- -5a) can be used to calculate h, because Q = 100 W, AT=
50°C, and A= 7D? = 7(0.1)’= 0.0017 m’ are known.
We find
= =g=A(T,-T,)=hAT
or
100 W
= Dole = 63.7 Wim? Wim °C
m=? x sore 7 O87 °C)
10. ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Solution. Given: T,, = 50°C, T, = 25°C, and D = 0.02 m. Equation (1-5a) can be
used to calculate the average heat flux q,, over the surface of the cylinder if the
free convection heat transfer coefficient h,, is known. We refer to Table 1-1 to
find h,, = 8.0 W/(m* -°C). Then ,
Im = h,,(T,, 7” T;)
QL,
L a ImA
aH
™ Gn(7D)
Solution. Under steady-state conditions, for an energy balance at the surface, the
T,=
conduction heat flux through the insulation layer must be equal to the convection
heat flux from the outer surface into the air, as illustrated in the accompanying
figure. Then we have
conduction ~ Qeonvection
1-3 RADIATION
All bodies emit energy due to their temperature. The energy emitted by a body
due to its temperature is called thermal radiation. The radiation energy leaving
a body through its bounding surfaces actually originates from the interior of the
region. Similarly, the radiation energy incident on the surface of a body
CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANISM OF HEAT FLOW il
Incident penetrates into the depths of the body, where it is absorbed. If the emission
radiation
and absorption of radiation take place within a very short distance from the
Reflected
surface, e.g., a few anstroms, then the radiation process is called surface
radiation, and the body is said to be opaque to thermal radiation. For example,
materials such as metals, wood, stone, paper, and numerous others are
(a) An opaque bady
considered opaque to thermal radiation. On the other hand, a sheet of glass is
Incident said to the semitransparent to the solar radiation incident upon it, because part
solar
radiation of the solar radiation is absorbed, part reflected, and the remainder transmitted
Reflected
by the glass. Figure 1-6 schematically illustrates the concepts of opaque and
semitransparent bodies.
Radiation propagating in a medium is weakened as a result of absorption.
It is only in a vacuum that radiation propagates with no weakening (attenua-
Transmitted
tion) at. all. Therefore, a vacuum is considered completely transparent
(6) A semitransparent body to radiation. Also, the atmospheric air contained in a room is considered
(i.e., glass)
transparent to thermal radiation for all practical purposes, because the
FIGURE 1-6
Concept of opaque and weakening of radiation by air is insignificant unless the air layer is several
semitransparent bodies kilometers thick.
Emission of Radiation
re ee The maximum radiation flux emitted by a body at temperature T is given by
bun
W/m? (1-6)
ao ®
ToT ET TTT
fbb
Blackbody emissive power Ey (Wim?)
aE 7
5
al 74 Only an ideal radiator or the so-called blackbody can emit the maximum
3k - radiation flux according to Eq. (1-6). The radiation flux q emitted by a real
aL | body at an absolute temperature T is always less than the blackbody emissive
power E,, and it is given by
10 ~
a a
6 q
ab
aL
7
a
q=6€E,=e0T" (1-8)
2b and
10 i 4 PEL
where e€ is the emissivity of the body, which is less than unity for all real bodies
10? 2 3 45678103 and equal to 1 only for a blackbody.
T,K
Figure 1-7 shows a plot of the blackbody emissive power E, defined by
FIGURE 1-7 Eq. (1-6) against the absolute temperature. The radiation flux rapidly increases
Blackbody emissive with rising temperature, since E, is proportional to the fourth power of the
power, £,= oT’. absolute temperature.
42 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Absorption of Radiation
A radiation flux q,,, incident on a blackbody is completely absorbed by the
- blackbody; therefore
where q,,, is the absorbed energy. On the other hand, a radiation flux Dine
incident on a- real body is partly absorbed by the body, and the energy
absorbed q,,, is given by
where a is the absorptivity, which lies between zero and unity; only for a
blackbody is it equal to unity.
The absorptivity a of a body is generally different from its emissivity e.
Solution. The Stefan-Boltzmann law given by Eq. (1-6) can be used to calculate
the emissive power at a given temperature. At the temperature T, =20°C, we
have
/ E,,= oT}
| + 273.15)* K*
= 5.6697 x 10°® W/(m? - K*) x (100
/ . = 5.6697 x 107* W/(m? - K*) x (3.7315)* x 10° K*
ho = 1099.24 W/m? |
- . Therefore, the increase in the emissive power becomes
| E,, ~ E,, = 1099.24 — 418.72 = 680.5 Wim?
TABLE 1-2
Systems of units
English
engineering
Quantity SI system
Length m ft
Mass kg Ib
Time s s
Temperature K R
Force N Ib,
Energy Jor N-m Btu or ft- Ib,
TABLE 1-3
Prefixes for multiplying factors
. 10°
= pico (p) 10 = deca (da)
10°? = nano (n) 10° =hecto (h)
10°* = micro (1) 10° =kilo (k)
10°? = milli (m) 10° = mega (M)
107* =centi (c) 10° = giga (G)
107* = deci (d) 10° = tera (T)
PROBLEMS
Conduction
. Determine the heat flux across a 0.05-m-thick iron plate [with thermal conductivi-
ty of 70 W/({m -°C)] if one of its surfaces is maintained at 60°C and the other at
10°C. What is the heat flow rate across the plate over a surface area of 2 m7?
Answer: 140 kW
1-2. A temperature difference of 100°C is applied across a cork board 5cm thick with
thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/(m-°C). Determine the heat flow rate across a
3-m* area per hour.
Answer: 0.24 kW
- Two large plates, one at 80°C and the other at 200°C, are 12cm apart. If the space
between them is filled with loosely packed rock wool of thermal conductivity
0.08 W/(m-°C), calculate the heat flux across the plates.
Answer: 80 W/m?
1-4. The hot surface of a 5-cm-thick insulating material of thermal conductivity
0.1 W/(m-°C) is maintained at 200°C. If the heat flux across the material is
120 W/m’, what is the temperature of the cold surface?
Answer: 140°C
- The heat flow through a 4-cm-thick insulation layer for a temperature ‘difference
of 200°C across the surfaces is 500 W/m? What is the thermal conductivity of the
insulating material? .
Answer: 0.1 W/(m -°C)
1-6. A brick wall 30 cm thick with thermal conductivity 0.5 W/(m-°C) is maintained at
50°C at one surface and 20°C at the other surface. Determine the heat flow rate
across a 1-m” surface area of the wall.
Answer: 0.05 kW
1-7, A window glass 0.5cm thick with thermal conductivity 0.8 W/(m-°C) is main-
tained at 30°C at one surface and 20°C at the other surface. Determine the heat ;
flow rate across a 1-m? surface area of the glass.
Answer: 1.6kW
1-8. The heat flow through a 4-cm-thick cork board for a temperature difference of
100°C across the surfaces is 0.1 kW/m What is the thermal conductivity of the
cork board?
1-9. The heat flux through a 10-cm-thick layer of loosely packed rock wool for a
temperature difference of 100°C is 75 W/m” What is the thermal conductivity of —
the packed rock wool?
CONCEPTS OF THE MECHANISM OF HEAT FLOW 15
Convection
1-10. Water at 20°C flows over a flat plate at 80°C. If the heat transfer coefficient is
200 W/(m*-°C), determine the heat flow per square meter of the plate (heat
flux).
Answer: 12 kW/m?
1-11. Air at 200°C flows over a flat plate maintained: at 50°C. If the heat transfer
coefficient for forced convection is 300 W/(m’-°C), determine the heat trans-
ferred to the plate through 5 m7 over a period of 2h.
Answer: 450 kW-h
1-12. Water at 50°C flows through a 5-cm-diameter, 2-m-long tube with an inside
surface temperature maintained at 150°C. If the heat transfer coefficient between
the water and inside surface of the tube is 1000 W/(m’-°C), determine the heat
transfer rate between the tube and the water.
Answer: 31.4kW
1-13. Cold air at 10°C flows over a 2-cm-OD tube, as illustrated in Fig. P1-13. The
outside surface of the tube is maintained at 110°C. If the heat transfer coefficient
between the outside surface of the tube and the air-is 100 W/(m7 -°C), determine
the rate of heat flow to the air over the 5-m length of the tube.
Answer: 3.142 kW
41-19.A 5-cm-diameter sphere dissipates heat by convection from its outer surface into
ambient air. Calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient between the air and
the sphere if the sphere is heated internally with a 50-W electric heater and the.
temperature difference between the sphere surface and the air is 25°C.
1-20. A 2-cm-diameter sphere with a surface temperature maintained at 40°C is
suspended in atmospheric air at 15°C. Determine the rate of heat loss from the
sphere by free convection.
' Radiation
: 1-21. A thin metal plate is insulated at the back surface and exposed to the sun at the
Ambient air
T, = 20°C,
front surface, as shown in Fig. P1-21. The front surface absorbs the solar radiation
A= 10 W/(m?-°C)
of 800 W/m’ and dissipates it by convection to the ambient air at 20°C. If the
convection heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the air is 10 W/
Solar radiation (m*-°C), what is the temperature of the plate?
Ph} fom
q = 800 W/m? Answer: 100°C
A hot surface at a temperature of 400K has an emissivity of 0.8. Calculate the
radiation flux emitted by the surface.
Answer: 1.161 kW/m?
= 1-23. A radiation flux of 1000 W/m? is incident upon a surface that absorbs 80 percent
Thin metal plate
of the incident radiation. Calculate the amount of radiation energy absorbed bya
FIGURE PROBLEM 1-21 4-m* area of the surface over a period of 2h.
Answer: 6.4kW-h
1-24, The temperature T of a plate changes with time ¢ as T=T,r'/*, where the
constant T, is in absolute temperature. How does the blackbody emissive power
of the plate change with time?
- 1-25, The inside surface of an insulation layer is maintained at 150°C and the outside
surface dissipates heat by convection into air at 15°C. The insulation layer has a
thickness of 10cm and a thermal conductivity of 1W/(m-°C). What is the
minimum value of the heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface, if the
temperature at the outside surface should not exceed 75°C?
Answer: 12.5 W/(m? -°C)
1-26. A blackbody at 30°C is heated to 80°C. Calculate the increase in its emissive
power.
Answer: 403.01 W/m?
Units, Dimensions, and Conversion Factors
1-27. Calculate the force of a mass of 10 kg attracted to the earth at a point where the
gravitational acceleration is 9.6 m/s”.
Answer: 96 N .
1-28. A steady force of 10kN acts on a mass of 5kg. What is the acceleration
of this’ /
mass?
Answer: 2000 m/s”
-
1-29. Consider a manometer containing a fluid with a density of 1000kg/m*. The
difference in height of the two columns is 500mm. Calculate the pressure
difference in kilopascals.
Answer: 4.905 kPa
1-30. A plastic plate with an area of 0.1 m* and a thickness of 2 mm is found to conduct
heat at a rate of 1 cal/s at steady-state with surface temperatures 29°C and 31°C.
What is the thermal conductivity of plastic in W/(m- °C) at 30°C?
CHAPTER
UNSTEADY
HEAT
FLOW
CONCEPT
17
18 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Hot within the solid are neglected). Figure 2-la illustrates such a system. The
environment
energy balance on the system over a time interval dt can be stated as
Toe, ft
Increase of the internal heat flow into the solid :
O(n)
energy of the solid = through the outer surfaces (2-1)
over the time interval dt over the time interval dt
Let dT be the average temperature rise of the solid over the time interval dt
resulting from the heat flow through the boundary surfaces. The left-hand side
(a) Cold solid
of Eq. (2-1) is determined as
Cold Increase of the
environment
internal energy
=(mass)c dT = pVc dT (2-2)
of the solid over
the time interval dt
where p is the density, c is the specific heat, V is the volume, and T= T(t) is
the temperature of the body.
Let Q(t) be the total rate of heat flowing into the body through its
(6) Hot solid
boundary surfaces at any instant ¢. Then the right-hand side of Eq. (2-1)
FIGURE 2-1 becomes , a
Energy balance for
Heat flow into the solid
lumped system
analysis. from the outer surfaces |= Q(t) dt (2-3)
over the time interval dt
solved and the variation of the temperature T(t) of the solid as a function of
time is determined. Here we examine two simple situations: (1) a solid
subjected to convection over its entire boundary surface, and (2) a solid
' subjected to convection over part of its boundary surface, with a prescribed
heat flux over the remaining portion of the boundary surface.
m — Ah
ac 2-8 °)
(2-
d6(t)
7 + mé(t) =0 for t>0 (2-9a)
m=
_ peV
Ah (2-9c)
O(t)
a =e me (2-112)
oO
Recalling the definitions of 6(¢) and 6, given by Eq. (2-8a and b), this solution
is written as .
Ot)
6,
__ TM) - Te _ -m
T,~T. =e (2-11b)
' | where
m= Ah/ipcV " (2-11c)
Solution (2-11) is developed for the heating of a cold body immersed in a
hot environment, as illustrated in Fig. 2-1a. It is also applicable to the cooling
of a hot body immersed in a cold environment, as shown in Fig. 2-15.
Figure 2-2 shows a plot of the dimensionless temperature 0(f)/6, given by
Eq. (2-11) as a function of time. The temperature decays with time exponen-
tially, and the rate of decay is dependent upon the magnitude of the exponent
m. The larger the value of m, the faster the rate of decay. An examination of
i the definition of the parameter m = hA/pcV reveals that increasing the surface
area for a given volume or increasing the heat transfer coefficient increases m,
which in turn increases the temperature response of a body for a change in
environment temperature. On the other hand, increasing the density, specific
heat, or volume decreases m, which in turn reduces the temperature response
of the solid.
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW ConcePT 21
T(t) — Too
T, ~ Too
IG)
a,
FIGURE 2-2
Dimensionless temperature @(t)/
6 as a function of time (A plot
of Eq. 2-11).
For certain common body shapes, the ratio A/V is readily determined;
then we have the following specific formulae for the temperature 6(f) as
obtained from Eq. (2-11).
For a solid sphere of radius R:
A _4mR*
_3
V 47R? R
O(t) _ ( Sh)
6 = exp pcR * (2-12)
o
A(t) _ 2h(L + R)
6. = exp (- ee (2-134)
pcRL
Ot) _ (- 2h 7 (2-13b)
g, > \” peR
For a cube of side L:
A_6L’ _6
VoebL
OL (- bh } (2-14)
QP N peck
22 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
A _ 2A* 2
Vo LA* L
A(t) _
6, = exp
(- 2h
acl!
) . (2-15)
Ok Ss
(2-164)
Example 2-1. Using lumped system analysis, determine the time required for a
solid steel ball of radius R=2.5cm,-k=54W/(m-°C), p =7833kg/m’, and
c = 0.465 kJ/(kg-°C) to cool from 850°C to 250°C if it is exposed to an air stream
at 50°C having a heat transfer coefficient A = 100 W/(m? - °C).
T, —T.
where T(t) = 250°C, T., =50°C, and T, = 850°C.
The volume-to-area ratio is
Vv SqR* _R
A 4qR? 3
and
IL (250-S0yC
(S50= SOyE 7 &XP (~1/303.529)
a,
Hf or
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW CONCEPT 23
4 = exp (t/303.529)
t=In (4) x 303.529
t= 420.78 s=7 min
We compute the Biot number in order to check the validity of the lumped
analysis.
i WL, fh R _ 100X(2.5x 107%) _ .
Hence the analysis is valid.
Steel bar
R=2.5 cm Solution. The problem is illustrated in the accompanying figure. From Eq. (2-11)
T, = 800°C we have
TQ) - Te o-m:
T,-T. °
FIGURE EXAMPLE 2-2 where T(t) = 100°C, T,, =50°C, and T, = 800°C.
Long steel bar exposed As discussed previously, for a long cylinder the volume-to-area ratio is
to-a cold environment.
VoamRL_R
A 2wRL 2
hA ho 45 Wi(m °C)
~ peV pe(R/2) (7800 kg/m°)[500 J/(kg -°C)](0.025/2 m)
= 1/1083.33s7* -
Then
(100 — 50)°C = exp (—1/1083.33)
(800 — 50)°C
15 = exp (1/1083.33)
t= In (15) x 1083.33
t= 2933.7 s = 49 min
A check of the Biot number indicates that the criterion Bi< 0.1 is also satisfied.
dT(t) _= ‘pVe
QU) :
Too, ht
“at (2-17a)
Here Q(t) is the total rate of heat transfer into the body; for the specific
problem considered here, it is determined as
heat flow rate into [tos flow rate into the ]
Q(t) =| the body due to the + body due to convection
FIGURE 2-3
prescribed heat flux q, from the environment ,
A slab with convection
on one surface and or
prescribed heat flux on
the other. Q(t) = A*q, + A*A[T. - T(D] (2-17b)
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW concert 25
where A* is the surface area on one side of the plate, q is the prescribed heat
flux, and T., is the environment temperature. Introducing Eq. (2-175) into Eq.
(2-17a), we obtain ,
aT(t)
a
,a5 (1) T,,| =
A*cV4 for t>0 (2-17c)
AX AY 1
. Vo ATL OL
where L is the plate thickness. Then Eqs. (2-17c and d) becomes
d6{t) x _ «Io
a +m*6(t)=m h for t>0 7 (2-192)
where
h
m ‘= ock.
—__ (2-19c)
-
The difference between Eqs. (2-19a) and (2-9a) is the constant term on
the right-hand side of Eq. (2-19a). Therefore, the solution for Eq. (2-194) is
written as a sum of the homogeneous solution, given by Eq. (2-10a) and a
particular solution as ,
a(t)=Ce™* + Goi (2-20)
where q,/h is a particular solution.
26 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
C=9,-% oO h
© .
(2-21)
Substitution of Eq. (2-21) into Eq. (2-20) gives the solution to temperature
6(t) of the plate as a function of time as
0c) = #2 (2-23)
where Q(t) is the total heat transfer rate into the body through the boundary
surfaces. For the specific boundary conditions of the cube shown in Fig. 2-4,
Q(t) is determined as:
heat flow rate into the
+ (feat flow rate into the )
Q(t) =| body due to applied
body due to convection
heated flux q,
=2A,q,+2A,h[T.— T(O] (2-24b)
where A, is the surface area of one side of the cube and_q, is the prescribed
surface heat flux. Introducing Eq. (2-246) into Eq. (2-24a), we obtain
aT) 2A,h '2A4q,
at vy LT )- T,]= eV for t>0 (2-25a)
| ALL’
Ve
1
oL
whereL is the length of a side of the cube. Then Eq. (2-25) becomes
a6(t)
di m,0(t)=2m, =h
- Io for t>0 (2-27a)
where h
m, = pe,L (2-27c)
This problem is of exactly the same form as Eq. (2-19) except that m* is
replaced by 2m,. Therefore, the solution can be immediately obtained from
Eq. (2-22) by replacing m* by 2m, in that equation. We find
or ;
T(t) = 220 — 200 exp (—21/2419) °C
Then the time required for the cube temperature to reach T(t) = 100°C becomes
LI , T,, = 220°C
AL
Bi= £<0.1 (2-29)
k Ss
30 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
volume
so surface area (2-30)
For example, for a solid sphere of radius R, the characteristic length becomes
L= 4arR° _R
(2-31)
SAR? 3
Therefore, for solids having geometries that are not significantly. different from
a slab, sphere, or cylinder, the assumption of uniform temperature within the
body is considered valid and lumped system analysis becomes applicable if the
criterion given by Eq. (2-29) is satisfied. The physical significance of the Biot
number is better envisioned if it is arranged in the form
heat-transfer coefficient
Bi= ho (a surface of solid ) (2-32)
k,/L, internal unit conductance of
\solid across length L,
_ That is, the Biot number is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the
internal unit conductance of the solid in terms of the characteristic length.
In order to illustrate the role of the Biot number as the criterion for the
validity of lumped system analysis, we rearrange Eq. (2-32) in the form
specific internal resistance
of the solid to heat flow
L Bi _ LIK, across length L,
[ica skin resistance
(2-33)
| ~ Tih
to heat flow at the outer
surface of the solid
Clearly, the criterion Bi<0.1 implies that the specific internal resistance of the
solid to heat flow should be small in comparison to the skin resistance to heat
flow at the outer surface of the body. Such a condition is realized with a small
value of L,, a large value of k,, or a small value of h.
Example 2-6. A 6-cm-diameter steel ball [k = 61 W/(m-°C), p = 7865 kg/ m’, and
- c = 0.46 kJ/(kg-°C)] is at a uniform temperature of 800°C. It is to be hardened by
suddenly dropping it into an oil bath at a temperature of 50°C. If the quenching
occurs when the ball reaches a temperature of 100°C and the heat transfer
coefficient between the oil and the sphere is 500 W/m’ -°C, determine how long
the ball should be kept in the oil bath.
If 100 balls are to be quenched per minute, determine the rate at which heat
must be removed from the oil bath in order to maintain the bath temperature at
50°C. .
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW ConcerT 31
Solution. The problem can be solved with lumped system analysis with sufficient
accuracy if Bi< 0.1. Therefore, we first check the magnitude of the Biot number.
The characteristic length L, is determined using Eq. (2-30) as ©
_ volume V R
I, area =A 73 =m
Bi= AL,
mk
_ 500 W/(m* -°C)(0.01 m) = 0.082 '
61 Wi(m-°C)
which is less than 0.1; hence lumped system analysis is applicable. From Eq.
(2-11) we have
Tt) ~ To j—mt
T,—T.
where T(t) = 100°C, T., =50°C, T, = 800°C, and
_hA oh
pcV pcL,
_ 500 1
7865 x 460x0.01 72.358 °
Then
100 — 50
300-50 7 °*P (—1/72.358)
or
V_R_D
MA3 76
From Eq. (2-11) we have
O(t) _ T= Ts _ ym
6, T,-T.
when T., is regarded as the actual gas stream temperature; then |T, — T..|
becomes the applied temperature difference. If the thermocouple should measure
95 percent of this difference, we should have :
9) _ 5.
4, 100
and the coefficient m becomes
h 250 _ 0.000476
mn, =
pel, 9000X350(D/6) - D
Then
; .
Fag 7 exP (-0.000476/D x 3)
or :
0.000476
D * 3 _ 14.20 = 2.9957
__ 0.000476
79957
x3 = 0.000476
m = 0.476 mm
Here we applied lumped system analysis before checking the magnitude of the
Biot number. For the diameter we calculated above, the Biot number becomes
AL, _ 250 x 0.000476/6 _
j= Eo 5 = 0.00079
qa -
L! which is much less than 0.1; hence lumped system analysis is valid.
: | Example 2-8. Check the validity of the lumped system analysis used in Example
4 2-4.
= 28m
2
_ 9.015 m
where A®™ is the surface area of one side of the plate. Then the Biot number
becomes
AL
Bi= Aes = 20%0-0'9 _ 9.003675 <0.1
_ therefore the lumped system analysis is applicable.
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW CONCEPT 33
PROBLEMS
Lumped system concept
2-1. A solid steel ball of radius 3cm [k =54 W/(m-°C)] is exposed to an air stream
having a heat transfer coefficient of 75 W/(m?-°C). Calculate the Biot number.
Answer: 0.0139 °
2-2. A long solid steel bar of radius 3cm [k =54 W/ém-°C)] is exposed to an air
stream having a heat transfer coefficient of 75 W/(m7-°C). Calculate the Biot
number.
Answer: 0.0208
2-3. A large steel plate of thickness 3cm [k=54 W/(m-°C)] is exposed to.an air
stream having a heat transfer coefficient of 75 W/(m*-°C). Calculate the Biot
number.
2-4. Check whether lumped system analysis is suitable for Examples 2-2 and 2-3.
2-10. A household electric iron has an aluminum base that weighs 1.5 kg. The base has
an ironing surface of 0.03 m* that is heated from the inner surface with a 300-W
heating element and dissipates heat from the outer surface by convection into the
air. Initially the iron is at the same temperature as the ambient air at 20°C. How
long will it take for the iron to reach a temperature of 120°C after it is turned
on, if the heat transfer coefficient between the iron and the ambient air is
20 W/(m?-°C)? [For aluminum, k =204 W/(m-°C), p = 2707 kg/m*, and c=
896 J/(kg-°C).] What is the steady-state temperature of the iron if the control
does not cut off the power supply?
Answer: 520°C
2-11. A household electric iron has a steel base that weighs 1kg. The base has an
ironing surface of 0.02 m* that is heated from the inner surface with a 300-W
heating element and dissipates heat from the outer surface by convection into the
ambient air at 20°C. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature of, 30°C.
Suddenly the heating starts. The heat transfer coefficient between the iron and the
ambient air is 40 W/(m?-°C). Calculate the temperature of the iron 3 min after
the start of heating. [For steel, k=70 W/(m-°C), p = 7840 kg/m*, and c=
450 J/(kg -°C).] :
Answer: 129.6°C
2-12. A large steel frying pan of thickness 0.5 cm, initially at 10°C, is placed on the
stove. The bottom of the pan is subjected to a uniform heat flux of 300 W/ m? and
the top exposed to cool ambient air at 10°C. The heat transfer coefficient between
the pan and the ambient air is 30 W/ (m?-°C). Calculate the temperature of the
pan at 3 and 8min after the start of heating. [For steel, k= 70 Wim: °C),
p = 7840 kg/m*, and c = 450J/(kg-°C).]
2-13. A large aluminum frying pan of thickness 1cm, initially at room temperature
(20°C), is placed on the stove. The bottom of the pan is subjected to a uniform
heat flux of 500 W/m? and the top exposed to cool air at 20°C. The heat transfer
coefficient between the pan and the air is 50 kW/(m7-°C). Calculate the time
required for the temperature of the pan to reach 200°C. {For aluminum, k =
204 W/(m-°C), p = 2707 kg/m*, and c = 896 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 94.5 s -
2-14. A 3-cm-diamete r aluminum sphere is initially at a temperature of 175°C. It is
suddenly immersed in a well-stirred fluid at a temperature of 25°C. The tempera-
ture of the sphere is lowered to 100°C in 42s. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient. Check whether lumped system analysis is applicable. [For aluminum,
k = 204 W/(m-°C), p =2707 kg/m’, and c = 896 J/(kg-°C).]
2-15. A grape of 1-cm diameter, initially at a uniform temperature of 20°C, is placed in
a refrigerator in which the air temperature is 5°C. If the heat transfer coefficient
between the air and the grape is 20 W/(m*-°C), determine the time required for
the grape to reach 10°C. [For the grape, k= 0.6 W/(m-°C), p = 1100 kg/ m*, and
c = 4200 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 7.05 min
2-16. A 6-cm-diameter potato at a uniform temperature of 80°C is taken out of the oven
and suddenly exposed to ambient air at 20°C. If the heat transfer coefficient
between the air and the potato is 25 W/(m* - °C), determine the time required for
the potato to reach 50°C. [For the potato, k= 7 W/(m-°C), p = 1300 kg/ m*, and
c = 4300 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 26 min
UNSTEADY HEAT FLOW ConcePT 35
2-17. A metal water immersion heater [k = 300 W/(m-°C), p = 8900 kg/m*, and c=
400 J/(kg-°C)] dissipates electric energy at a rate of 50 W. The total volume of
the heater is 1.5 x 10° m’, and the outside area is 0.003 m*, The heater, initially
at a uniform temperature of 20°C, is plugged in while in air. The heat transfer
coefficient between the air and the heater is around 10 W/(m’ - °C). Calculate the
time required for the heater to reach its melting temperature, 500°C.
Answer: 10.1 min °
2-18. A large aluminum plate of thickness 3 cm is initially at a uniform temperature of
50°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is subjected to a uniform heat flux of
7500 W/m’ and the other surface is exposed to a cool air stream at a temperature
of 30°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the air stream and the surface is
60 W/(m* -°C). Using lumped system analysis, determine the temperature of the
plate as a function of time and plot it against time. Calculate the steady-state
temperature of the plate as time approaches infinity. [For aluminum, k =
204 W/(m-°C), p = 2707 kg/m’, and c = 896 J/(kg-°C).]
2-19, Consider an aluminum cube of side 3 cm that is initially at a uniform temperature
of 50°C. Suddenly all its surfaces are exposed to cool air at 20°C. The heat
transfer coefficient between the air stream and the surfaces is 50 W/(m*-°C).
Assuming that lumped system analysis is applicable, develop an expression for the
temperature 7(t) of the cube as a function of time and plot the temperature of the
solid against time. [For aluminum, k = 204 W/(m-°C), p = 2707 kg/m’, and c=
896 J/(kg-°C).]
2-20. Consider the aluminum cube of Problem 2-19, which is initially at a uniform
temperature of 50°C. For times t>0, one of the boundary surfaces is kept
insulated, one is subjected to uniform heating at a rate 8000 W/m*, and the
remaining four dissipate heat by convection into an environment whose tempera-
ture is 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 50 W/(m*-°C). Using lumped
system analysis, develop an expression for the temperature of the cube as a
function of time. .
2-21. Consider a copper block of sides 2cmx2cmX3cm, initially at a uniform
temperature of 300°C, that is immersed in a fluid at 25°C. The heat transfer
coefficient between the fluid and the surfaces is 80 W/(m? -°C). Calculate the time
required for the cube to cool to 50°C. Check the validity of the lumped
system analysis. [For copper, k =386W/(m-°C), p=8954kg/mi*, and c=
383 J/(kg -°C).] .
Answer: 6.42 min
2-22. A solid copper cylindrical rod of 1cm diameter and 2cm height is initially at a
uniform temperature of 300°C. Suddenly the surfaces are subjected to convection
with a heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/(m*-°C) into an ambient fluid at 25°C.
Determine the temperature of the rod 2 min after the start of the cooling. [For
copper, k = 386 W/(m-°C), p = 8954kg/m*, and c = 383 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 218.8°C
2-23. A soldering iron has an outside area of 0.01 m’, a mass of 0.6kg, and a 100-W
heating element. The iron, initially at 25°C, is covered with insulation and
plugged in. Assuming that lumped system analysis is adequate, estimate the time
required for the iron to reach 300°C. [For soldering iron, k =75 W/(m-°C),
p = 8000 kg/m*, and c = 418 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 11.5 min
36 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
2-24. A 0.1-cm-diameter long wooden stick at 15°C is suddenly exposed to 500°C gases
with a surface heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/(m* -°C) between the stick and the
gases. If the ignition temperature of the wood is 315°C, find the exposure time
before possible ignition. [For wood, k=0.14 W/(m-°C), p= 600 kg/m’, and
c = 250 J/(kg-°C).]
Answer: 2.415
2-25. A short, cylindrical aluminum bar of lcm diameter and 2 cm height is initially at a
uniform temperature of 150°C. Suddenly the surfaces are subjected to convective
cooling with a heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/(m*-°C) into an ambient fluid at
30°C. Calculate the temperature of the cylinder 1min after the start of
the cooling. [For aluminum, k =204W/(m-°C), p= 2707 kg/m’, and c=
896 J/(kg -°C).]
Answer: 129.7°C _
2-26. A column with cross section 2 cm by 2 cm is initially at a uniform temperature of
200°C. Suddenly, the surfaces are subjected to convective cooling with a heat
transfer coefficient of 10 W/(m*-°C) into ambient air at 25°C. Calculate the
temperature of the column 10 min after the start of the cooling. Compare this.
temperature with that of a plane wall 2cm thick of the same material and under
the same conditions. [For the column, k = 1.28 W/(m-°C), p = 1458 kg/m’, and
c = 880 J/(kg -°C).]
2-27. A thermocouple junction, approximated as a sphere of constantan, is to be used
to measure the temperature of a gas. The heat transfer coefficient between the gas -
and the thermocouple is 400 W/(m*-°C). Calculate the maximum allowable
diameter of the junction if the thermocouple should measure 95 percent of the
applied temperature difference in 5s. [For constantan, k = 22.7 W/(m-°C), p=
8920 kg/m’, and c= 410J/(kg+°C).]
Answer: 1.09 mm
CHAPTER
ONE-DIMENSIONAL
HEAT CONDUCTION
CONCEPT
37
38 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
the body. For simplicity in the analysis, we assume that temperature varies
with time and only in one direction; and we consider the formulation in the
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems. We need to develop
the heat conduction equation in different coordinate systems because of
geometrical considerations arising from the body shapes. For example, for
bodies in the form of a slab (i.e., plate), the-equation is needed in the
rectangular coordinate system. Similarly, for bodies in the form of a cylinder
and sphere, the equations are needed in the cylindrical and spherical coordi-
nate systems, respectively. The reason for using different coordinate systems is
to ensure that the boundary surfaces of the region coincide with the coordinate
surfaces. For example, in the cylindrical coordinate system, one of the coordi-
nate surfaces is a cylinder; hence it coincides with the cylindrical surface of a
body im the form of a cylinder.
To develop the heat conduction equation, we consider a solid whose
temperature T(X, t) depends on time ¢ and varies only in one direction, say
along the X coordinate. For generality in the analysis, it is assumed that the
coordinate X represents the x axis in the rectangular coordinate system or the r
axis in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems.
Then the Fourier law, given by Eq. 1-1, can be written in the X
coordinate as
_ OT(X, 2)
q=-k—y (3-1)
where gq is the heat flux in the X direction in W/ m’ and k is the thermal
conductivity of the solid in W/(m-°C). For generality, we assume an energy
source within the solid of strength g(X, t), W/m’ that varies with the position
X and time t. Here g(X, ¢) is a specified quantity. For example, for a fuel
element of a nuclear reactor, it represents the rate of energy generation within
the fuel element due to nuclear fission. In the case of an electric current
passing through a wire, it represents the ohm heating. When radioactive
elements are present within a solid, it represents the rate of energy generation
within the body due to the disintegration of the radioactive elements.
To develop the one-dimensional heat conduction equation, we consider a
volume element of thickness AX and area A normal to the coordinate axis X, |
as illustrated in Fig. 3-1. The energy balance equation for this volume element
(qx m (Adysax
Heat Heat
flow in flow out
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPT 39
is stated as
Rate of net rate of rateof .
increase of =| heat gain + | energy (3-2)
internal energy by conduction generation
Each of the terms in this statement is now evaluated.
The rate of increase of internal energy of thé volume element resulting
from the change of temperature with time is
Rate of oT
increase of =AAXpc — (3-3a)
internal energy at
where A = surface area normal to the X axis, m’
AX = thickness, m
p = density of the material, kg/m*
c = specific heat of the material, J/(kg- °C)
T = temperature of the volume element, °C-
f= time, s
The rate of heat flow into the element by conduction through area A at
location X in the X direction is
(Aq)x
where q is the conduction heat flux defined previously. Similarly, the rate of
the heat flow out of the element by conduction at location X¥ + AX in the X
direction is written as
.
(Aq) x+ax
Then, the net rate of heat gain by conduction is the difference between the -
energy entering and leaving the element, that is,
Net rate of “
heat gain = (Aq) x— (Ad) x+ax (3-35)
by conduction IN OUT
The rate of energy generation in the volume element A AX, for a
specified energy generation rate per unit volume g = g(X, ¢) W/ m’, is given by
Rate of
energy =AAXg (3-3c)
generation
Introducing Eqs. (3-34 to c) into Eq. (3-2), we have
oT
A AXpc ot (Aq)x ~ (Ad) xsaxt AAX g
which is rearranged in the form
c oT —_ i (Aq) x+ax ~ (AQ)x
a AX +8 (3-4a)
40 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
As AX-> 0, the first term on the right-hand side becomes the derivative of Aq
with respect to X, that is,
Rectangular Coordinates
We replace the coordinate X by the x variable and note that the area in the
rectangular coordinate system does not vary with x. Then A cancels out, and
oe Eq. (3-5) takes the form
- aT(x,
JF)t)t)
ot
2 | ex) SZ] + (x, 0 (3-6)
which is the one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction equation in the
rectangular coordinate system.
For constant thermal conductivity k(x) =k, Eq. (3-6) reducés to
Cylindrical Coordinates
We replace the coordinate X by the r variable and note that area A varies
linearly with the r variable, (i.e., A= 2arH, where H is the cylinder length).
Then Eg. (3-5) becomes
pe
PC
aT.) _k 9 (, 2)
ator ar \" Or + a(n, 4)
. (3-92)
or
Spherical Coordinates °
In the spherical coordinate system, area A is proportional to the square of the r
variable in the form A = 47r’. Introducing this into ) Eq. (3-5) and replacing X
by r, we obtain
or
dT(r,t) _ [22 22 .
c— =k oF + 3 + g(r, t) (3-12)
2 ATX,t) _
at oT + atx, t)
= ¥ axele" K(X) 5% (3-13)
.and for the case of constant thermal conductivity k(X) = k =constant, this
. equation reduces to
42 &LEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Lame) XOX
ade 1 4 ( x » ax2) +71 %, t) (3-14)
4
TABLE 3-1 .
Thermal diffusivity of typical materials
Average Thermal
temperature, diffusivity,
Material "Cc @ x 10° m’/s
Metals
Aluminum 0 85.9
Copper 0 114.1
Gold 20 - 120.8
Tron, pure 0 18.1 "
Lead 21.1 25.5
Nickel 0 15.5
Silver 0 170.4
Steel, mild 0 12.4
Zinc 0 41.3
Nonmetals .
Asbestos — OO 1. 0.258
Brick, fireclay 204.4 0 | 0.516
Cork, ground 37.8 0.155
Glass, Pyrex _ 0.594
Granite 0 1.291
Ice 0 1.187
Oak, across grain 29.4 0.160
Pine, across grain 29.4 0.152
Quartz sand, dry _ 0.206
Rubber, soft — 0.077
Water 0 0.129
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPT 43
Steady-State
The steady-state condition implies that the temperature within the solid does
. hot vary with time, but may vary with the position. For such situations, the
time derivative of temperature vanishes and the heat conduction Eq. (3-13)
reduces to
1 d a7)
am)
Xx" dX | xk k(X) 4 | + (x) =0 (3-15)
For the case of constant thermal conductivity, k(X) =k, Eqs. (3-16)
become:
For rectangular coordinates:
a’T(x) , g(x) 24
it k (3-174)
1d | an) g(r) _
al a + k =0 (3-17b)
id
2 al 2 aT)
dp + 8) _
ke =0 (3-17c)
44 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
For steady-state heat conduction with no energy sources within the body
and constant thermal conductivity, Eqs. (3-17a) to (3-17c) simplify to:
For rectangular coordinates:
2
a Te) =0 (3-182)
dx .
aal| at)
a | == (0 (3-185)
re 7; (3-18)
oO
Il
3-3 BOUNDARY-CONDITION CONCEPT
When the temperature varies with the space variable, the energy equation
involves a second derivative in the space variable, as is apparent from the
equations given above. In such situations, two boundary conditions are needed
in addition to. the initial condition to solve the heat conduction problem.
The boundary conditions specify the thermal conditions imposed at the
boundary surfaces of the solid. For example, at a given surface one may specify
either the temperature or the heat flux or convection into an ambient at a
specified temperature.
We present below the mathematical formulation of three different com-
monly used types of boundary conditions.
FIGURE 3-2
Prescribed temperature
at the boundaries.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPT 45
dx levalugted
or, more compactly,
(3-202)
E eco
x=0
1O0Wn
a T
Ox
FIGURE 3-3
Prescribed heat flux at the
: Heat
boundaries. supply
; 100 W/m? nduction
— Gece
(a) (b)
46 &LEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
that is,
T(x, t)
+k _= 200 W/m? (3-20b)
Ox x2
—¢ FEO
Ox
| x=0 = 100 wim? ;
(3-214)
46 Ee) | Ox x=
200 Wim? . :
(3-21b)
Therefore, without specifying whether we have heat supply to or heat
removal from the boundary surface, we can express the prescribed heat flux
boundary conditions at x =0Q and x = L as
_, OT, t) -
k — 7 f, at x=0 (3-22a)
FIGURE 3-4
Convection at the boundaries. re
flow
Ty, hy
@) ‘ (6)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPT 47
Or, rearranging,
T(x, t) _ _
k ax a hA,[T, - T(0, 2]. (3-234)
aT(x, t)
+k ox - +h, TL, t)=h,T,-
or
OT (x,t .
~k a8 +h, T(x, tH =h,T, at x =0 (3-24a)
dT(x,t
+k one. +h,T(x,th=h,T, atx=L (3-24b)
where the left-hand sides are in terms of the unknown surface temperature of
the body and the right-hand sides are in terms of the known fluid temperatures.
Example 3-1. A thick-walled tube has inside radius r, and outside radius r,. A hot
gas at temperature T, flows inside the tube, and a cold gas at temperature T,
flows outside. The heat transfer coefficients for fiow inside and outside the tube
are specified as h, and h,, respectively. Write the boundary conditions.
48 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
-t Fe ayr,- T) atr=r,
+k OF = ty (7, -T) we
Convection
Convection
> nN
=
Solution. The boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L for this problem are similar
to those given by Eqs. (3-22a) and (3-235), respectively. Therefore, by setting
fi = Wi m’, h,=h,,, and T, = T.,, in these equations, we obtain
oT
Penny
k=
ee
Jo Wim 2
. at =
x=0
eT ea a W/m? atx=L
Example 3-3. Consider a cylindrical wall with inside radius r, and outside radius
r,. The inside surface is heated uniformly at a rate of g, W/m’, and the outside
surface dissipates heat by convection with a heat transfer coefficient h. W/(m7-°C)
into the environment at zero temperature. Write the boundary conditions for the
surfaces atr=r, andr=ry,.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION CONCEPT 49
Solution. Given: f, = q, W/m*, h, and T,, = 0°C. These boundary conditions are
also obtainable from the boundary conditions given by Eqs. (3-22a) and (3-235),
respectively, by setting f, =q,, T, =0,x=r, and L=r,.
aT
“kh atr=r,
8 8
a
ie
=a
:
50 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
tion equation for this problem should be solved within the. region —L/2<x<
L/2 subject to the boundary conditions (3-26) and a specified initial condition.
Suppose the initial distribution within the medium is symmetrical about
x =0. Then the problem has both geometrical and thermal symmetry at x = 0,
and the gradient of temperature at x = 0 vanishes, that is,
arax at x =0 (3-27)
When the problem has both geometrical and thermal symmetry about x = Q, it
is more convenient to solve the problem over the half of the region 0<x < L/2
subject to the boundary conditions given by
oT | _ (3-284)
2 xn 0 at x =0
oT _L
k= hAT es ~ T) at x= + (3-28b)
rather than solving it over the full domain —L/2<x< L/2 subject to the
boundary conditions given by Eqs. (3-26a) and (3-266). Figure 3-55 illustrates
the physical situation associated with such a symmetry consideration. Clearly, .
solving the heat conduction problem subject to the boundary conditions given
by Eqs. (3-28a) and (3-285) is much easier than solving the problem over the
entire region subject to the boundary conditions given by Eqs. (3-264) and
(3-26b).
[|] Example 3-4. Consider a solid bar of radius r = R in which energy is generated at
a constant rate g, W/m’. The bar is cooled by convection from its lateral surfaces
into ambient air at a temperature T., with a heat transfer coefficient h,,. Write the
boundary conditions needed for the solution of this problem.
Solution. The problem possesses both geometric and thermal symmetry about the
axis of the bar. Therefore, we have the symmetry boundary condition at r = 0 and
the convection boundary condition at r= R. Then the heat conduction equation
for this problem is to be solved in the region 0<=r= R, subject to the boundary
conditions
oT
3, 70 atr=0
oT
+k =hAT.~ T) atr=R
the surface is h,. There is no energy generation within the place. Develop the
mathematical formulation of this unsteady heat conduction problem.
87,1)
ox
_9 at x=0,1>0
p AD Sgr, - Tee, t)| at x=L,t>0
T(x, t) = Ty for r=0
or the formulation can be rewritten in the form
1 oT _ aT inO<x<L,t>0
a ot ax”
aT 9 atx =0,t>0
ax
ce gh T=h_T,, atx=L,t>0 .
ax
T(x, t)= T, for t=0
L| where T= T(x, 2).
we
52 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
The boundary condition at r=0 involves the symmetry condition and that at
r= R involves convection. Hence we have
aT
Fj 79 atr=0
aT
ka =h (T- T..) atr=R
where T= T(r).
Example 3-7. A solid sphere of radius R with thermal conductivity & that is
initially at a uniform temperature T, is suddenly dropped into an environment at,
a constant temperature T,. The heat transfer coefficient between the solid and
the fluid ish. Lumped system analysis is not applicable, and hence the problem
has to be formulated as a one-dimensional transient heat conduction problem.
Develop the mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem.
th T=h.T. atr=R
T=T, ° fort=0
4
where T= T(r, t). na
ut
Be,
is
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION ConcEPT 53
PROBLEMS
3-1 The thermal conductivity k, the density p, and the specific heat c of steel are
61 W/(m-°C), 7865 kg/m’*, and 0.46 kJ(kg-°C), respectively. Calculate the thermal
diffusivity a m7/s. Compare the calculated value with the thermal diffusivity value
given in Table 3-1 for mild steel at 0°C.
Answer: 12.4 107° m?/s
i
Ay
3-2 The thermal conductivity &, the density p, and the specific heat c of an aluminum
By =
“Rao
plate are 160 W/(m-°C), 2790 kg/ m*, and 0.88 kJ(kg- °C), respectively. Calculate
the thermal diffusivity @ m7/s. Compare thé calculated value with the thermal
diffusivity value given in Table 3-1 at 0°C.
Answer: 65.2 X 107° m7/s
3-3 Consider three plates of the same thickness L made of copper, lead, and asbestos.
Initially the three plates are at the same uniform temperature T,. Suddenly, each
plate is subjected to a uniform heat flux q, W/ m? at one of its boundary surfaces
while the other surface is kept insulated. Which plate will give rise to a faster
increase in temperature at the insulated surface? Explain the reason.
3-4 Consider two very thick solids, which can be regarded as semi-infinite mediums
extending from x =0 to x. Initially they are at a uniform temperature 100°C.
Suddenly the temperature of the surfaces at x = is lowered to 0°C and main-
tained at that temperature while the temperatures at locations 30cm from the
boundary surfaces are monitored. It takes 10 min for one of the solids and 120 min
for the other to reach a temperature of 50°C at this location. Which solid has
larger thermal diffusivity?
54 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Boundary Conditions
at a
3-11 Consider a tube of inside radius r, and outside radius r,. Boiling water
while heat is dissipated from
saturation temperature of 100°C flows inside the tube
)
the outside surface by convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/(m*-°C
at a temperat ure of 20°C. Write the boundary condition s for the
_ into ambient air
boundary surfaces at r, and ry.
3-12 A spherical shell has an inside radius r, and an outside radius
r,. The inside
while the outside surface
surface is electrically heated at a rate of q, W/m’,
transfer coefficien t /., into ambient air at
dissipates heat by convection with a heat
Write the boundary condition s for the inner and outer
a temperature T,,.
surfaces. ,
3-13 Consider a slab of thickness L. The boundary at x =0 is subjected to forced
ure T..
convection with a heat transfer coefficient h into an ambient at temperat
solar radiation at a rate of q, W/m. Write the
The boundary at x = L is absorbing
boundary conditions for both surfaces.
3-14 One of the surfaces of a marble slab [with k = 2 W/(m-°C)] is maintaine
d at 200°C,
while the other boundary is subjected to a constant heat flux of 5000 W/m*. Write
the boundary conditions.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION ConcEePT 55
3-22 Consider a tube of inside radius r,, outside radius r,, and thermal conductivity k.
The inside surface is kept at a temperature of 100°C by boiling water, while the
outside surface dissipates heat by convection with a heat transfer coefficient of
15 W/(m?-°C) into ambient air at a temperature of 20°C. Develop the mathemati-
cal formulation of the problem of determining the steady-state distribution within
the tube. .
3-23 A spherical shell has an inside radius r,, an outside radius .r,, and thermal
conductivity k. The inside surface is electrically heated at a rate gq, W/m’, while
the outside surface dissipates heat by convection with a heat transfer coefficient h,
into the ambient air at temperature T,,. Develop the mathematical formulation of
the problem of determining the steady-state temperature distribution within the
shell.
3-24 Consider a plate fuel,element of thickness 2 and thermal conductivity k. The
énergy generation in the fuel element can be approximated by a cosine distribution
g=g,cosx/L, with the coordinate x measured from the plate center. The
boundaries at x = +L are subjected to cooling by forced convection with a heat
transfer coefficient h into the cooling liquid at T,. Develop the mathematical
formulation of the problem of determining the steady-state temperature distribu-
tion within the fuel element.
3-25 Consider a long cylindrical fuel element of diameter D and thermal conductivity k
in which energy is generated at a constant rate g,. The boundary surface is
assumed to be maintained at a constant temperature T,,. Develop the mathemati-
cal formulation of the problem of determining the steady-state temperature
distribution within the fuel element.
3-26 Consider the steady-state heat conduction in a plate of thickness L in which energy
is generated at a constant rate g,. The boundary surface at x = 0 is maintained at a
constant temperature T,, while the boundary surface at x= L dissipates heat by
convection with a heat transfer coefficient A into an ambient at temperature T_.
Develop the mathematical formulation of the problem.
3-27 Consider the steady-state heat conduction in a slab of thickness L in which energy
is generated at a constant rate g, and the thermal conductivity varies with
temperature, k(T). The boundary surface at x = 0 is insulated, while the boundary
surface at x = L is maintained at T,. Develop the mathematical formulation of the
problem. . .
3-28 Consider a slab of thickness L, initially with a temperature distribution F(x). For
t>0 the boundary surfaces at x = 0 and x = L dissipate heat by convection with a
heat transfer coefficient # into an ambient at temperature T,,. Develop the
mathematical formulation of the problem of determining the steady-state tempera-
ture distribution within the plate for times 1>0.
CHAPTER
STEADY
CONDUCTION
WITHOUT
. GENERATION:
THERMAL
RESISTANCE
~ CONCEPT
57
58 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
within the solid. Furthermore, the thermal properties of the solid can be
regarded as constant, since the temperature variation across the solid is not
large. In such situations the temperature distribution within the solid is
governed by the heat conduction equations, Eqs. (3-18), which can be written
more compactly in the form
Af
ax Xx yx AT)
ax |* 0 : (4-1)
where
X =x and n =0 for rectangular coordinates
q(x) = —k
dT(X) W/m
4
(4-2)
dX
When we know the heat flux, the total heat flow rate Q through a surface area
A can be readily determined.
(c) ‘Hollow sphere In engineering applications the concept of thermal resistance is generally
used to determine one-dimensional heat flow through solids having such shapes
FIGURE 4-1
as a plane wall, a long hollow cylinder, or a hollow sphere. In this section we
Coordinates for one-
dimensional steady first develop the thermal resistances associated with heat flow through a plane
heat conduction wall and cylindrical and spherical walls, then illustrate the use of this concept in
problems. determining the heat flow through a solid.
Plane Wall
T(0)=T,
FIGURE 4-2
Temperature distribution for a
slab with prescribed temperature
at both surfaces.
e
es
C= T,—C,
34-45
— T,—T,
(4-5b)
Then the solution becomes
x
T(x) = (T, ~T,) L + T, (4-6)
qz=k T,-
a T, With” 2 . (4-7)
When T, > T>, the right-hand side is positive, and hence the heat flow is in the
positive x direction.
- The total heat flow rate Q through an area A of the slab normal to the
direction of the heat ow becomes
a _1T,-T, _ AT
O= A= TTA Ran (8a)
where
L
Reav = Ak (4-85)
and AT=T,-T,
The quantity R,,,, is called the thermal reisitance for heat flow through the slab
of thickness L, area A, thermal conductivity k and subjected to prescribed
temperature boundary conditions at both surfaces.
The thermal resistance concept developed above can be generalized to
include situations involving convection boundary conditions as illustrated
below.
FIGURE 4-3
Temperature distribution and -
heat flow for slab with a
prescribed temperature at one T(0)=T7,
surface and convection at the
other.
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 61
An examination of the heat flow path shown in this figure reveals that the
heat conducted through the slab Q must be equal to the heat convected from
the surface at x = L into the ambient at temperature T,,,. Therefore, an energy
balance equation can be stated as
conduction through
o- -(
convection from the
the solid from the surface at x = L into : (4-9)
surface at x = 0 the fluid at T_,
tox=L
We utilize the results given by Eqs. (4-8) and (1-5), respectively, to determine
the heat flows by conduction and convection. Then Eq. (4-9) becomes
.
Q= Ak T,-T(L)
2 = Ahg[T(L)~ Teal " (4-10)
where T(L) represents the temperature at the boundary surface x = L of the
slab. This expression can be rearranged in the form of thermal resistances as
T, ~ To.
g 7 Ryap + Ryo (4-13)
where we defined °
L 1
Ryav — Ak Roa = Ah.» (4-14)
The quantity R,,,, as discussed previously, is the thermal resistance for the
slab itself, and R.. is the thermal resistance for convective heat flow from the
boundary surface at x= L to the ambient at T,,.
| Tooy Convection
Too: Heo
L |
(a) Geometry
FIGURE 4-4
Temperature path of heat flow; hence we write
distribution and
equivalent thermal convection conduction _ {convection from
resistance concept for . : the surface at
heat flow through a Q= from the fluid = through the = = L into th (4-15)
slab with convection at at T.,, to the solid from _ | %= 4 Into the
both boundaries. x=0. x=Otox=L fluid at T,,,
Equivalent mathematical expressions are written for each term:
T,—T,
QO = Ah,,(T., — T,) = Ak pF Ahy(T> — Taz) (4-16)
Q= 1+ (4-19)
: T.. ~ T 29
1 Ly - 1
R = R = R., = 4-20
wo] Ah, slab Ak 2 Ah,» ( )
“y Clearly, the quantity R,,,, is the thermal resistance for the slab itself, and R.,
5 and R.,, are the thermal resistances for convection at the boundary surfaces
A x =0 and x = L, respectively.
Po
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 63
Example 4-1. Determine the steady heat flux through a 0.2-m-thick brick wall
[k =0.69 W/(m-°C)] with one surface at a temperature of 30°C and the other at
~20°C.
Solution. Given: L = 0.2m, T, = 30°C, T, = —20°C, and k = 0.69 W/(m -°C). The
heat flux is calculated using Eq. (4-7) as
T,-T,
q=k L
= 172.5 W/m
Example 4-2. A large window glass 0.5 cm thick [k = 0.78 W/(m-°C)] is exposed
to warm air at 25°C over its inner surface, and the heat transfer coefficient for the
inside air is 15 W/(m*-°C). The outside air is at ~15°C, and the heat transfer
coefficient associated with the outside surface is 50 W/(m?-°C). Determine the
temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the glass.
R..=—
“2° Ah, = 50.
+ 0.02000
(m 7 .°C)/W
L _ 0.005 ae
Reap = Ak = 0.78 = 0.00641 (m C)/w
T, T,
Q md OVA et
_In(b/a)
Rot = IakH
(6) Thermal resistance
(a) Geometry
FIGURE 4-5 /
Thermal resistance concept for heat flow through a hollow cylinder.
Ina.
C,=T, -(T,- T,) —.
in (b/a) (4-246)
Introducing these coefficients into the equation for T(r), the ‘temperature
distribution in the wall is expressed as
T(r)— T, _ In(r/a)
T,— T, “Th (b/a)-
(4-25)
The heat flux g(r) and the heat flow rate Q over a legnth H of the cylinder are
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 65
K(T, ~ T,) 2
Tinley Wm (4-26)
and
Q= A(r)q(7)
= _ Kt = 711)
~ Qnrtt)| r In (b/a) |
2akH
(T,; — T,) Ww - ‘ (4-27)
“In (b/a)
This expression for Q is now rearranged in the form
T,-T,
Q= R
(4-28)
cyl
where
_ In(b/a)
cyl QarkH (4-29)
Here R,,, is called the thermal resistance to heat flow through the hollow
cylinder wall across a temperature potential T, — T,, as illustrated in Fig. 4-5).
The thermal resistance concept developed above for a hollow cylinder
subjected to constant surface temperatures can be generalized to situations
involving convection at the boundary surfaces. -
Q=~ | the
to thefluidinner
at T., |_|,
— om linder - wall | ~= | the
at r=outer
b towall
the | (4-30a)
noua
surface atr=a ma fluid at T,.,
tor=b
We utilize the results given by Eqs. (4-28) and (1-5), respectively, to determine
66 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Fe, I T, 002
Q —— > ONAN OA oo 0
oa _in(@/a) 1
Convection outside R ot = hc Ret = take 2 = Agheoa
Convection
inside a Tors hier
(b) Thermal resistance
Teo Neo}
(a) Geometry
e
FIGURE 4-6 a
Thermal resistance
concept for radial heat the heat flows by conduction and convection. Then Eq. (4-30a) becomes
flow through a hollow
cylinder with Q2a7kH
convection at the Q = A hey (T
ar ~ T,)
— T,) = A,hi,(T, -— Tz) (4-305)
~ In (b/a)
boundaries.
This expression is rearranged as
(4-30c)
Q= T,., — T,; = T,- T, _ L712
Tay ~ Ten
(4-32)
OR + Ry + Ra
gp - tet (4-33a)
=1 Aha, 2aaHh,,
_ In(b/a)
(4-335)
Ro DkH
1 1 (4-33¢)
Raa A,hes 27bHh,,
Example 4-3. A cylindrical insulation for a steam pipe has an inside radius of
5em, an outside radius of 10cm, and a thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/(m-°C).
The inside surface of the insulation is at a temperature of 200°C, and the outside
surface is at 20°C. Determine the heat loss per meter length of the insulation.
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 67
T,=200°C 7, =20°C
Q mmm O— AV om
: _ In@b/a)
Tube wall cyl OnkH
Example 4-4. A long hollow cylinder has an inner radius of 10 cm, an outer radius
of 20cm, and a thermal conductivity k=50W/(m-°C). The inner surface is
heated uniformly at a constant rate g, = 1.16 x 10° W/m’, and the outer surface is
maintained at zero temperature. Calculate the temperature of the inner surface.
Solution. Given that g,= 1.16 x 10° W/m’ at the inner surface, the heat flow rate
Q over a length H is determined by
O= A(r)q(r)
= 4,4,
=2allq,
and from Eq. (4-27) we have
2arkH ,
2 inlay
F1 ~ T2)
By combining these two results, we obtain
2rkH
27aHg,
= in(blay
Ps Fe)
which is now solved for the inner surface temperature T,:
os
T,= In (b/a) + T,
= @aye.6<.09
50 in (7) +9
= = 160.8°C
68 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
at 130°C, is
[| Example 4-5. A steam pipe of outside diameter 10cm, maintained
with a 3-cm-thi ck asbestos insulatio n [k = 0.1 W/(m- °C)]. The ambient
covered
on at the
air temperature is 30°C, and the heat transfer coefficient for convecti
n is 25 Wi(m?-° C). Using the thermal
outer surface of the asbestos insulatio
calculate the rate of heat loss from the pipe per meter length
resistance concept,
of the pipe.
Hollow Sphere
radius r = a
We now consider radial heat flow through a hollow sphere of inner
surfaces
and outer radius r = b, as illustrated in Fig. 4-7. The inner and outer
is no
are maintained at uniform temperatures T, and T,, respectively. There
constant . To
‘energy generation in the solid, and the thermal conductivity k is
solve this
develop the thermal resistance R,,,, for the hollow sphere, we first
flow rate
heat conduction problem and determine the expression for radial heat
similar to
Q through the hollow sphere. Then this result is recast in a form
ce for’ the
Ohm’s law in order to determine the equivalent thermal resistan
go T, g hollow sphere, as described below.
= e—W\-8 The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is
given
= Po4 -
Reon ™ Grkab by
(b) Thermal resistance da , aT(r) | 7 . (4-34a)
il’ dr t= 0 in a < r<b
FIGURE 4-7
Thermal resistance (4-34b)
T(r)=T, atr=a
concept for radial heat
flow through a hollow
TN=T, atr=b (4-34c)
sphere.
Equation (4-34a) is integrated twice:
Cc
T(r) =—- = +C, (4-35)
Cc
T,=- 34+, (4-36b)
“ b
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 69
ab :
C,=— bag (li 7 F2) (4-374)
C: bT, - aT,
2 ba
(4-37b)
Then the temperature distribution T(r) becomes
eos
afb-r\, bfr-a\.
rin= 9 (Sz) nF (58) b (4-38)
The heat flux q(r) is determined from
gi)= -* 2
ab 2
=ke—7
(NM ~T.) Wim (4-39)
and the total heat flow rate Q through the sphere becomes
= A(r)q(”)
= (dar oleaesoa .-7)|
= dark ——
mal 7 Ei 1) WwW (4-40)
This expression for Q is now rearranged in the form
Q- T,-T,
(4-41)
Ron
where we defined
1)
b-a
») Reon Tirkab (4-42)
and R,,,, is called the thermal resistance to heat flow for a hollow sphere across a
temperature potential T, — T,, as illustrated in Fig. 4-7).
The thermal resistance concept developed above can be generalized to
5) situations involving convection at the boundary surface.
qT th Toor
OQ —— > 00 — AWA oo
‘_. ba _ 4
Reon = Grab? 2 = Ayling
(6) Thermal Resistance
(a) Geometry
FIGURE 4-8 ©
‘Thermal resistance concept for a hollow sphere with a prescribed temperature at the inner
surface and convection at the outer surface.
Noting that the total radial heat flow rate through the sphere remains
constant, we write ‘
OF Rags + Re oa)
T, ~~ Te
b-a 1
= = 4-48
Reon 4arkab ’ “2 darb*h.s ( )
| Example 4-6. Determine the heat flow rate Q through a copper spherical shell
[k =386 W/(m-°C)] of inner radius 2cm and outer radius 6cm, if the inner
surface is kept at 200°C and the outer surface at 100°C.
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 71
O=
T,-T, T,-T,
R sph ~ (b~a)l4arkab
_ 200 —- 100
~ (0.06 — 0.02) /[(42r)(386)(0.06)(0.02)]
LL =14.55kW
Example 4-7. Consider an aluminum hollow sphere [k = 200 W/(m- °C)] of inside
radius 2cm and outside radius 6cm. The inside surface is kept .at a uniform
temperature of 100°C, and the outside surface dissipates heat by convection with a
heat transfer coefficient of 80 W/m? into ambient air at 20°C. Determine the
outside surface temperature of the sphere and the rate of héat flow from the
sphere by using thermal resistance concept.
_ 100 — 20
(0.06 — 0.02) /{(47)(200)(0.02)(0.06)] + 1/[(427)(0.06)°(80)]
= 276.3 W
Knowing the heat flow rate Q, the outside surface temperature T, is calculated
from Eqs. (4-41) and (4-42) as
oe bth T,- T,
~ Reon (b — a)/4arkab
100 — T,
276.3 = T,
(0.06 — 0.02) /[(477)(200)(0.02)(0.06)]
Soiving for T,, we obtain
ao T, = 96.3°C
4-2 . MULTILAYERS
In the previous section we considered one-dimensional heat flow through a
single layer. However, the problems encountered in most engineering applica-
tions involve heat flow through a medium consisting of several parallel
layers—for example, the wall of a building consisting of several layers, or a
pipe with several layers of insulation. In such problems, we assume no energy
3) generation within the medium and the thermal conductivity of the layers
constant but different for each layer.
Then the thermal resistance concept developed in the previous section
can readily be applied to determine the heat flow rate through such a
multilayer medium. We study this problem for the cases of multilayer plane
walls, hollow cylinders, and hollow spheres.
79, ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
FIGURE 4-9
Thermal resistance concept for a
multilayer plane wall. ‘onvection
Peo Need
wn
Convection
Tair Meo}
T a2
Toot eee
ed
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE concert 73
L L,
Rp= Ry
+ R= e+ ae
ion Example 4-9. A thermopane window consists of two 5-mm-thick sheets of glass
ca? separated by a stagnant air space of thickness 10 mm. The thermal conductivity of
the glass is 0.78 W/(m-°C), and that of air is 0.025 W/(m-°C). The convection
heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside air are 10 W/(m?-°C) and
50 W/(m? - °C), respectively.
(a) Determine the rate of heat loss per square meter of the glass surface for a
temperature difference of 60°C between the inside and outside air.
(b) Compare the result with the heat loss if the window had only a single sheet of
glass of thickness 5mm instead of the thermopane.
(c) Compare the result with the heat loss if the window had no stagnant air (i.e.,
a double sheet of glass of thickness 10 mm). ,
oy
74° ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Solution. The physical situation is similar to that illustrated in Fig. 4-9. Various
quantities are specified as L,=L,=0.005m, L,=0.0lm, k,=k,=
0.78 W(m - °C), k, = 0.025 W/(m °C), A, = 10 W/(m’ -°C), h,, = 50 W/(m? -°C),
and AT= T,, ~— T., = 0°C. , ,
R,=R.,+R,+R,+R,+ Ras
1 L, LL, Ll, 1
“Ah.”
Ak, * Ak, * Ak, * Ahoy
Then the rate of heat loss per square meter of the glass surface (i.e., the heat
flux) becomes
- 2 Tay- Tor _ AT
7A AR, 1h., +L,/k,+L,/k, + L,Jk, Tih
_ 60
~ 1/10 + 0.005/0.78 + 0.01/0.025 + 0.005/0.78+ 1/50
= 112.6 W/m?
(b) If the window has a single sheet of glass with no stagnant air space, the total
thermal resistance is ;
-iJ,4,4,_!
~ Ah, Ak, Ak; Ah,
Then the heat flux becomes .
_ AT _ AT
q= Wh, + Lk, + Lk, t+./h, Wh, +2L,/k, + 1h,
= 451.74 W/m?
We note that doubling the glass thickness reduced the heat loss very little; it is
the stagnant air space between the two sheets of glass that causes a significant
reduction in the heat loss or gain.
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 75
— t=! -T o_ Ty-T,
fo riftT,-T, 2_ T,-T.
+2 x2 4-5]
at
e Ry Ry R, Ray (
where Rz, and R.,, are the thermal resistances to convection at the inner and
outer surfaces, respectively. R, and R, are the thermal resistances for the inner
and outer cylinders, respectively; they can be determined using relation (4-29).
Summing the numerators and the denominators of the individual equalities in
Eq. (4-51), we obtain
al T. -T Ty — Tan
O~ = RUFR,= +R,
_ = +Ra = R; WwW 4-52
(4-524)
where the various thermal resistances are given by
“sad,
Ra= aor Hh., sem)
*~ tank, ™\;,
(4-526)
a
Convection
inside Too To q T) Pea
ve
oof? Moo
0 —> 0-0-0
0 9
S R= 1 _ In(ry/ro) = n(rair) = I
oo col QargHlteo, | aaHk, ° 2” Talk, © °? ~ ary Hho
Convection outside
Tar) Heo (b) Thermal Resistance
(a) Geometry
76 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Example 4-10. A steel tube [k= 15 W/(m-°C)] of outside diameter 7.6cm and
thickness 1.3cm is covered with an insulation material [k =0.2 W/(m-°C)] of
thickness 2cm. A hot gas at 320°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 200 W/
(m7 -°C) flows inside the tube. The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to
cooler air at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 50 W/(m*-°C). Calculate
(a) the heat loss from the tube to the air for a 5-m length of the tube;
(b) the temperature drops due to the thermal resistances of the hot gas flow, the
steel tube, the insulation layer, and the outside air.
Solution. (a) The radial heat flow through the tube is given by Eq. (4-52) as
;
— T.,
xd
1 1
Ras = 357 Hh, ~ (my 0.025)(5)(a00)
= = = =
* 10
037 ~3o,
CW J
_ 1 (4) = 1 (38) - _
Ri= soe. \ 5) = Gass) BADS x 10°°°C/W
0.89
AT nsutation = Q x R, = 240.27°C
Q x Ra = 39.20°C
AT ounside air =
Clearly the smallest temperature drop occurs across the steel tube and the largest
across the insulation material. .
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 77
Example 4-11. A steam pipe with an outside radius of 4 cm is covered with a layer
of asbestos insulation [k= 0.15 W/(m-°C)] 1cm thick, which is in turn covered
with fiberglass insulation [k= 0.05 W/(m-°C)] 3.cm thick. The outside surface of
the steam pipe is at a temperature of 330°C, and the outside surface of the
fiberglass insulation is at 30°C. Determine the heat transfer rate per meter length
of the pipe and the interface temperature between the asbestos and the fiberglass
insulation. .
Solution. The accompanying figure illustrates the physical situation. The heat flow
rate per meter length of the pipe, Q/H, can be determined using Eqs. (4- 924) and
(4-52b) by noting that R_, =0 and R_, =0. Then we have
Q _ To ~ r, Ty _ T
Q_M%m-Ty T, —T;
H HR, In (7,/rq)/27k,
i3.1= 330 - T,
In (5/4) /f(227)(0.15)]
Hence ;
LJ T, = 289°C
To T; Ty
orc 9 cman O— NV ONAN 0 mementt O
, _ In (ryIrg) ~ __ In@ry/r))
~TaHk, 1" Hk,
Fiberglass Asbestos Ty = 330°C
Tooy Ty qT Ty Teo2
Convection
Q— —> 0d
Teo» New?
= —al = T1770 — a7 __ |
b Reo = 4are fey ~ Ankyry rg’ R= 4nkorgr,’ 2 = 4ar} Noor
qT, :
,
Convection
Teoats heat
FIGURE 4-11 .
Thermal resistance
concept for a by applying the thermal resista nce concept to each individual layer:
. “
multilayer hollow Th _ T,-T, _ T,— Tin (4-53)
_ Ta; — Ty To
sphere.
R, R, . Rio
Riy
ual equalities, we
Summing the numerators and denominators of these individ
obtain ;
T.,~ Ts T, ~ Ts (4-54)
Q= Ry, + Ry * t+ Ryt+ Rig = Rr :
Q =(UA) AT (4-56a)
R; oe (4-566)
UA
For multilayer hollow cylinder and multilayer hollow spherical systems.
the area A changes in the radial directi on. Therefore, when relating the total
ient, the surface area on
thermal resistance to the overall heat transfer coeffic
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 79
which U is based should be specified. For example, Eq. (4-56) can be written
as
1. 1
R,=
UA, U,A, (4-57)
where U, is the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner surface A,
and U, is the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer surface A,.
Then the total heat flow rate Q, in terms of the overall heat transfer
coefficient, is written as
It does not matter which area the overall heat transfer coefficient U is based on
as long as it is specified in the definition.
In the case of heat flow through a composite layer of plane wall, the area
does not change in the direction of heat flow, and hence U is the same whether
it is based on the outer or inner surface.
For example, the thermal resistance to heat flow through a tube subjected
to convection at the inner and outer boundary surfaces, as illustrated in Fig.
4-6, can be obtained from Eq. (4-31) as
Re Tha,
1 b-a
MA, A,)IIn(A,IA,) * Aslan
1
(4-59)
since the thermal resistance for the tube given by Eq. (4-33b) is rearranged as
where
A,—A,
Alam= in(A,/A,) == logarithmic mean area (4-60b)
Similarly, the overall heat transfer coefficient U, based on the inside surface
area of the tube is defined as
1 1
(4-61)
Ua = A,R ihe, + (Ag/Ainm(Cb — a) /k] + (A,/A,)(1/he)
80 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Example 4-12. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for Example 4-5,
based on the outside surface area of the asbestos insulation.
Gap between
solids
T,| - Solid
4 ( Solid
9
Q ts 0
0 Insulated x
r | i
qh | |
[Tet |
oe Be
I
[ ’
I
Ty |
. T,
|
bla
9 xX
20,000 }—
Interface conductance, ft, W/(n?-°C)
10,000
LT, = 93°C-to-204°C
Roughness = 2.54 um
for contact conductance, such as those shown in Fig. 4-13, for different surface
roughnesses and different combinations of metals are available in the
literature.
Example 4-13. Consider two stainless steel blocks [k = 20 W/(m-°C)], each hav-
ing a thickness of lcm, length of 8cm, and width of 6cm, that are pressed
together with a pressure of 20 atm. The surfaces have a roughness of about
0.76 pm. The outside surfaces of the blocks are at 120°C and 70°C. Calculate
Solution. (a) The total heat flow rate Q across the blocks is determined by the .
application of the thermal resistance concept:
AT
W
Q= R,+R.+R,
where AT = T, — T, = 120 — 70 = 50°C. The thermal resistances of the blocks are
equal, and they are determined by °
ae 0.01
R,=R, ~ kA (20)(0.08 x 0.06)
= 0.1042°C/W
The contact conductance of the interface is determined from Fig. 4-13. For
a mean interface temperature of T.,, = (120 + 70)/2 = 90°C, a surface roughness of
0.76 zm, and interface pressure of 20 atm, the contact conductance becomes
_h, = 10,000 W/(m’-°€). Then the thermal contact resistance of the interface is
given by
R=©“ RA
= (10,000)(0.08 x 0.06)
= 0.0208°C/
,
W
Then the heat flow rate across the blocks is
Q=SkAT
=Sk(T,-T,) W (4-62)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the body and 7, and T, are the
boundary surface temperatures across which heat flow takes place. It is
assumed that there is no energy generation within the body.
Clearly, once the conduction shape factor S is known for a specific
geometry, the total heat flow rate through the body can be calculated from the
simple formula (4-62) for a given thernial conductivity of the solid and
temperature difference between the boundary surfaces.
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 83
Q= =s (4-63)
where
1
R= Sk (4-63b)
Clearly, the shape factor S is related to the thermal resistance of the body. In
the case of one-dimensional heat flow, the shape factors for such geometries as
a plane wall, a hollow cylinder, and a hollow sphere are immediately obtained
by utilizifig the results developed previously.
For a plane wall, from Eqs. (4-8b) and (4-63b) we have
Sao (4-642)
For a hollow cylinder, from Eqs. (4-29) and (4-630) we write
27H
~ In (b/a) (4-640)
For a hollow sphere, Eqs. (4-42) and (4-63b) give
4aab
S= bn a (4-64c)
Heat transfer calculations have been performed and the corresponding conduc-
tion shape factors determined for a number of more complicated geometries.
Table 4-1 lists a number of these shape factors. The results in this table can be
used in Eq. (4-62) to determine the heat flow rate between surfaces maintained
at temperatures T, and T,.
Consider, for example, case 4 of Table 4-1. It illustrates an isothermal
sphere of radius R, maintained at a uniform temperature T,, placed with its
center. at a distance z from the surface of a semi-infinite domain. The medium
has a thermal conductivity k, and its surface is maintained at a uniform
temperature T,. Using the shape factor concept, the total heat transfer rate Q
from the sphere is given by
4aR
S= 1— R/(22) (4-655)
hi >
nH
i
through a slab
2a7H
2. One-dimensional heat conduction
S= in (r,/r,)
through a long hollow cylinder
47R
5. An isothermal sphere at T, placed
near the insulated boundary of a S= TPRIGa
semi-infinite medium at T,
- 2aL
6. Isothermal cylinder of length L at
T, placed horizontally in a semi- cosh™* (z/R)
infinite medium having a surface for L=>R
at T,
84
Al
TABLE 4-1 (continued)
Q@ = SK(T, — T,)
Conduction shape factors; S defined by
s= 2a7L
In (0.54W/R)
41, Eccentric circular hole in a
for L>W
cylindrical solid of length L
§= a
cosh”' [(Ri + R35 — z*)/(2R,R,)|
for L>R,
85
86 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Solution. The physical situation and the configiiration for this problem are similar
to case 4 in Table 4-1. Given R=1m and z=4m, the shape factor S is
determined as .
4a7R
S= TT RiGz)
4a X1
. = Tmi@ay ~ M4Ae™
For the earth’s surface at T., = 20°C, the steady temperature of the tank’s surface
T, is calculated from Eq. (4--62) as
Q=SKT,~T2) |
500 = (14.36)(1)(T, — 20)
or T, = 54.8°C
Example 4-15. A hot pipe with an outside radius of 2cm passes through the hole
at the center of a long concrete block 50 cm x 50 cm in cross section, as illustrated
in the accompanying figure. The pipe surface is at 80°C, and the outer surface of
the concrete block is at 20°C. The thermal conductivity of the concrete may be
taken as k = 0.76 W/(m-°C). Determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe per
meter of length. ,
Solution. The physical situation and the configuration for this problem are similar
to case 10 in Table 4-1. Given W=0.4m and R = 0.02 m, the shape factor S-for a
1-m length of the pipe, L=1m,
27h
S=
In (0.54W/R)
_ 27 X1
In [0.54(0.4/0.02)]
= 2.64m
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 87
For the pipe surface at T, = 80°C and the outside surface of the concrete at
T, = 20°C, the heat loss from the pipe is calculated using Eq. (4-62) as
Q = SK(T, - T,)
= (2.64)(0.76)(80 — 20)
LI = 120.4 W/m length —
Example 4-16. A hot water pipe with an outside radius of 2cm is embedded
eccentrically inside a long cylindrical concrete block of radius 25 cm, as illustrated
in the accompanying figure. The distance between the center of the pipe and the
center of the cylinder is 10 cm. The surface of the hot water pipe is at 80°C, and
the outside surface of the concrete cylinder is at 20°C. The thermal conductivity of
concrete may be taken as k = 0.76 W/(m-°C). Determine the rate of heat loss
from the pipe per meter of length.
Solution. The physical situation and the configuration for this problem are similar
to case 11 in Table 4-1. Given R, = 0.02 m, R, = 0.25 m, and z = 0.1m, the shape
FIGURE EXAMPLE 4-1
‘The hot water pipe factor S for a 1-m length of the pipe, L = 1m, is
“inside a long cylinder
block. 2a7L
5 cosh (R24 R2—-2)/QRR,)
_ (27)(1)
cosh™' {[{(0.02)° + (0.25) — (0.10)7]/(2)(0.02)(0.25)}
27
~ cosh! (5.29)
= 2.67
and the heat loss from the pipe is calculated using Eq. (4-62) as
O = SkK(T, — T,)
= (2.67)(0.76)(80 — 20)
LJ = 122W
4-5 FINS
The rate of heat removal by convection from a surface is increased by
increasing the surface area for heat transfer by using extended surfaces called
fins. A familiar example of a finned surface, as illustrated in Fig. 4-14, is a
metal spoon in hot water. Heat conducted through the spoon causes the handle
to become warmer than the surrounding air. Heat is then transferred from the
spoon handle to the air by convection. In industry, fins are used in numerous
applications, such as car radiators, double-pipe heat exchangers, electronic
equipment cooling, and compressors. The determination of heat flow through a
finned surface requires knowledge of the temperature distribution in the fin.
88 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
FIGURE 4-14
A metal spoon in hot water
acting as a fin.
Figure 4-15 illustrates the geometry, the coordinates, and. the nomenclature for
the development of the one-dimensional, steady-state energy equation for fins
of uniform cross section. Consider a small volume element Ax and write the
steady-state energy balance for the volume element as
Net rate of heat gain net rate of heat gain
by conduction in 4 by convection through
=0
x direction into lateral surfaces into
volume element Ax volume element Ax
d(qA
-ag) Ax+h{T.-T(x)|PAx=0 (4-662)
a°T(x),
a aghP LM) ~ To) =0_ (4-666)
FIGURE 4-15 where the cross-sectional area woeA, the perimeter P, the. heat transfer coefficient.
Nomenclature for the :
derivati h, and the thermal conductivity of the fin material k ‘ are / constant. This
erivation of one-
-
dimensional fin
equation.
Temperature = T(x)
Perimeter =P
Cross-sectional area= A
Temperature = T(x)
! t Perimeter =P
Cross-sectional! area = A
Base at Ty
Base to Ty
ae e—AX h. Too
fa) ~ ()
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 89
d(x) tare 7 .
be” A(x) =0 (4-67a)
where
m= 2 =
75
AP
O(x)= T(x) - T,,
i — :
(4-67b)
FINS WITH NEGLIGIBLE HEAT LOSS AT THE TIP. The heat transfer area at the
fin tip is generally small compared with the lateral area of the fin. For such a
case, the heat loss from the tip of the fin is negligible, and the boundary
condition for the fin tip (ie., x= Z) can be taken as no heat loss (ie.,
insulated). 7
a(x) _ _ . (4-70)
dn Q at x =L
The boundary condition (4-70) requires that C, =0, and the application
of the boundary condition (4-69) gives C, = @/cosh mL. Then the solution
given by Eq. (4-68) becomes
The heat flow QO through the fin is determined by evaluating the conduc-
tive heat flow at the fin base according to the relation
Q=~—Ak d0(x)
dx |x=0
90 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
which gives
Thus, if the fin efficiency 7 is known, the heat transfer Q,,, through the fin is
determined from
Qiseat = PLA
Introducing these results into the definition of the fin efficiency 7, we obtain an
explicit expression for the efficiency of a rectangular fin:
where
Ph 2h
mL=Ly a, el Vz (4-74b)
since P/A =2/t, t being the fin thickness. The fin efficiency 7 given by Eq.
(4-74a) is plotted in Fig. 4-16 against the parameter mL = LV 2h/kt.
Equations for fin efficiency have been developed for fins having other
geometries. Figure 4-17 shows the fin efficiency for a circular disc fin of
constant cross section plotted against the parameter mL = LV 2h/kt for several
different values of the radius ratio r,/r;. Groups such as this are available for
fins with other geometries.
So far we have discussed heat transfer through a single fin. In practice,
however, heat transfer through a finned surface consists of heat transfer
through the fins and through the bare area between the fins. Let
a,= surface area of the -fins
a, = bare (unfinned) area between the fins
h = heat transfer coefficient, which is assumed to be the same
s for both the fin
surface and the bare surface .
Then the total heat transfer rate Q, through the fin assembly is determined
from
0+ (eat transfer through . i transfer through
the bare surface (4-75a)
the fins between the fins
Q,= na,h@ + a,h@
(4-755)
Q, = h0(na; + a5)
Knowing the areas a, and a,, the fin efficiency 7, the heat transfer coefficient
Po)
h, and the temperature difference 6, between the fin base and the ambient, the
total heat transfer rate Q, can be determined from Eq. (4-75c).
FIGURE 4-16
A plot of the efficiency given by
Eq. (4-74).
Fin efficiency
in
0 10 20 30 40 » 50
Lyf2h{kt
1.0 —
0.9
0.8 \
0.7 —_
06 \\
5 NU
& gab SX volt
16
0.2 Sees
Ot to
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0
L J ihikt
FIGURE 4-17
Efficiency of circular disc fins of constant thickness (From Gardner).
P_Ub+)
A bt
22h?
bt ¢
‘Pho oh
M”NEA” Nike
— | 2340) ey
~ \ 380% ga etm
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 93
fe = ast =29
~ PROBLEMS
_ Single Layers
4-1, Consider a slab of thickness 10cm. One surface is kept at 20°C and the other at
100°C. Determine the heat flow rate across the slab if the slab is made of pure
copper [k = 387 W/(m-°C)], pure aluminum [A = 202 W/(m-°C)], and pure iron
[k = 62 W/(m-°C)]. ,
94 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
with a
4-2. A brick wall [k = 0.69 W/(m -°C)] 5 cm thick is exposed to-cool air at 10°C
coefficien t of 10 W/(m*-° C) at one of its surfaces, while the other
heat transfer
surface that is exposed to
surface is kept at 70°C. What is the temperature of the
cool air?
Answer: 44.9°C
at 1000°C and
. Consider a furnace wall [k = 1 W/(m-°C)] with the inside surface
exceed
the outside surface at 400°C. If the heat flow through the wall should not
2000 W/m?, what is the minimum wall thickness L?
Answer: 30cm
400°C, and the
4-4, Consider a plane wall 25cm thick. The inner surface is kept at
to an environm ent at 300°C .with a heat transfer
outer surface is exposed
t of 10 W/(m?-°C ). If the temperat ure of the outer surface is 685°C,
coefficien
What might the material be?
calculate the thermal conductivity of the wall.
and an outer radius of 7cm. The
. Consider a pipe with an inner radius of 5cm
the outer surface at 80°C. Determi ne the heat
inner surface is kept at 100°C, and
copper [k=
loss per meter length of the pipe if the pipe is made of pure
and pure iron [k=
387 W/(m-°C)], pure aluminum [k = 200 Wi(m-°C)],
62 W/(m -°C)].
4-6. A metal pipe with an outside diameter (OD) of 12cm
is covered with an
W/(m -°C)] of 2.5 cm thick. If the outer pipe wall is
insulation material [k = 0.07
find the heat loss from
at 100°C and the outer surface of the insulation is at 20°C,
,
the pipe per meter length.
Answer: 101 W/m length
. 4-7, A metal pipe of 10cm OD is covered with a 2-cm-thi
ck insulation [k=
from the pipe is 100 W per meter of length when
0.07 W/(m-°C)]. The heat loss
is at 100°C. What is the temperat ure of the outer surface of the
the pipe surface
insulation?
Answer: 23.5°C
b. The inner
4-8. Consider a hollow cylinder with inner radius a and outer radius
supply at a constant rate of g, W/m’, while the outer
surface is subjected to a heat
ed at a uniform -temper ature T,. Develop an expressi on for the
surface is maintain
steady temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder.
has hot gas flowing
. A5-cm-OD and 0.5-cm-thick copper pipe [k = 386 W/(m -°C)]
inside at a temperature of 200°C with a heat transfer coefficie nt of 30 W/(m’ - °C).
s heat by convecti on into the ambient air at 20°C with a
The outer surface dissipate
coefficie nt of 15 W/(m? -°C). Determin e the heat loss from the pipe
heat transfer
per meter of length.
- Answer: 261 W/m length
of 2cm and
4-10. A brass condenser tube [k = 115 W/(m-°C)] with an outside diameter
to condense steam on its outer surface at 50°C with a
a thickness of 0.2 cm is used
coefficie nt of 2000 W/(m* -°C). Cooling water at 20°C with a heat
heat transfer
transfer coefficient of 5000 W/(m’ - °C) flows inside.
water per
(a) Determine the heat flow rate from the steam to the cooling
meter of length of the tube.
tube if
(b) What would be the heat transfer rate per meter of length of the
at 50°C and 20°C, respectiv ely?
the outer and the inner surfaces of the tube were
explain the reason for the differenc e between
Compare this result with (a), and
the two results.
outer radius of
4-11. Consider a hollow sphere with an inner radius of 5cm and an
surface at 50°C.
6cm. The inner surface is kept at 100°C, and the outer
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 95
Determine the heat loss from the sphere if it is made of pure copper
[k =387 Wi(m-°C)], pure aluminum [k=200W/(m-°C)], and pure iron
[k = 62 W/(m-°C)].
Answers: 72.95 kW, 37.7kW, 11.69 kW
4-12. Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius r = a and outer radius r= b. The inner
surface is heated uniformly at a constant rate of g, W/m’, while the outer surface
is exposed to an environment at T., with a heat transfer coefficient #,,. Develop an
expression for. the steady temperature distribution T(r) in the sphere.
4-13. A 6-cm-OD, 2-cm-thick copper hollow sphere [k = 386 W/(m-°C)] is uniformly
heated at the inner surface at a rate of 150 W/m’. The outer surface is cooled with
air at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/(m?-°C). Calculate the
temperature of the outer surface.
Answer: 21.7°C os
4-14, Stéam at 150°C flows inside a pipe [k
= 40 W/(m-°C)] with an inside radius of
4cm and an outside radius of Scm. The heat transfer coefficient between the
steam and the inside surface is 2000 W/(m* -°C). The outside surface is exposed
to atmospheric air at 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/(m* -°C). Find
the heat flow rate across the pipe per meter length of the pipe.
Answer: 557.9 W/m length
Multilayers
4-15. A container made of 2-cm-thick iron plate [k = 62 W/(m-°C)] is insulated with a
1-cm-thick asbestos layer [k = 0.1 W(m-°C)]. If the inner surface of the iron plate
is exposed to hot gas at 530°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/(m? - °C)
and the outer surface of the asbestos is in contact with cool air at 30°C with a heat
transfer coefficient 20 W/(m?-°C), calculate: (a) the heat flow rate across the
layers per square meter of surface area, and (b) the interface temperature
between the layers.
Answers: (a) 3119 W/m’, (b) 497.8°C
4-16. Steam at 180°C flows inside a pipe [k = 40 W/(m -°C)] that has an inside radius of
3cm and an outside radius of 3.5cm. The heat transfer coefficient between the
steam and the inside surface of the pipe is 3000 W/(m* -°C). To redtice the heat
loss from the steam pipe to the atmospheric air at 30°C, a 2-cm-thick layer of
magnesia insulation [k = 0.06 W/(m-°C)] is added on the outer surface. If the
heat transfer coefficient between the atmospheric air and the outside surface of
the insulation material is 10 W/(m*-°C), calculate the heat loss to the air.
Answer: 100.6 W/m length
4-17. An industrial furnace is made of fireclay brick 0.3m thick with a thermal
conductivity of 1.5 W/(m-°C). The outside surface is to be insulated with a
material that has a thermal conductivity of 0.01 W/(m-°C) and a thickness of
0.2m. The inner surface of the furnace is kept at 600°C, while the outer surface of
the insulation material is exposed to cool air at 30°C with a heat transfer
coefficient of 15 W/(m*-°C). Calculate the heat flow rate across the layers per
square meter of surface area and the outer surface temperature of the furnace.
Answer: —28.12 W/m’, 31.9°C
4-18. A steel tube [A = 15 W/(m-°C)] with an outside diameter of 4cm and a thickness
of 1 cm is covered with insulation material 1.5 cm thick. The inside temperature of
the tube is kept at 200°C, and the outside surface temperature of the tube is
measured at 199°C. Calculate the outside surface temperature of the insulation
material, if the thermal conductivity of the insulation is 0.2 W/(m- °C).
96 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
| k=2 Wi(m-°C)
FIGURE P4-23
2em'4cm! 3cm
layers in perfect
4-24. Consider a multilayer plane wall consisting of three parallel
thermal contact, as illustrated in Fig. 4-9. Develop expressio ns for the determina-
tion of the interface temperat ures T, and T,.
of 7.6cm and a
4-25. A steel tube [k=15 W/(m-°C)] with an outside diameter
thickness of 1.3m is covered with an insulation material [k = 0.2 W/(m -°C)]
2m thick. A hot gas at 330°C with a heat transfer coefficie nt of 400 W/(m? - °C)
flows inside the tube. The outer surface of the insulatio n is exposed to cooler air
at 30°C with a heat transfer coefficie nt of 60 W/(m7-° C). Calculate the heat loss
from the tube to the air for a 10-m length of the tube.
Answer: 7453 W
STEADY CONDUCTION WITHOUT GENERATION: THERMAL RESISTANCE CONCEPT 97
4-26. Consider a pipe of inside radius r, = 2m, outside radius r, = 4cm, and thermal
conductivity k, =10W/(m-°C). The inside surface is maintained at a uniform
temperature T, = 300°C, and the outside surface is to be insulated with an
insulation material of thermal conductivity k, = 0.1 W/(m-°C). The outside sur-
face of the insulation material is exposed to an environment at T,, = 20°C with a
heat transfer coefficient h_, = 10 W/(m? -°C). Develop an expression for deter-
mining the thickness L of the insulation material needed to reduce the heat loss
by 30 percent.of that of the uninsulated pipe exposed to the same environmental
conditions.
Answer: 0.0062 m
4-27, Consider a steel pipe [Kk = 10 W/(m-°C)] with an inside radius of 5cm and an
outside radius of 10cm. The outside surface is to be insulated with a fiberglass
insulation [k= 0.05 W/(m-°C)] to reduce the heat flow rate through the Pipe wall
by’50 percent. Determine the thickness of the fiberglass.
Answer: 0.0347 cm
4-28. Consider a hollow sphere with an inside radius r,=2cm, an outside radius
r, =4cm, and thermal conductivity k, = 10 W/(m- °C). The inside surface is main-
tained at a uniform temperature of T, = 300°C, and the outside surface is to be
insulated with an insulating material of thermal conductivity k, = 0.1 W/(m-°C).
The outside surface of the insulating material is exposed to an environment at
T.. =20°C with a heat transfer coefficient h., =10W/(m*-°C). Develop an
expression for determining the thickness of the insulation needed to reduce the
heat loss by 30 percent of that of the uninsulated hollow sphere exposed to the
same environmental conditions.
4-29, Consider a hollow steel sphere [k = 10 W/(m-°C)] with an inside radius of 5cm
and an outside radius of 10cm. The outside surface is to be insulated with a
fiberglass insulation [A = 0.05 W/(m-°C)] to reduce the heat flow rate through the
sphere wall by 50 percent. Determine the thickness of the fiberglass.
Answer: 0.05 cm
4-30. A steel tube [k=15 W/(m-°C)] with an outside diameter of 7.6cm and a
thickness of 1.3 cm is covered with an insulation [k = 0.2 W/(m-°C)] 2 cm thick.
A hot gas with a heat transfer coefficient of 400 W/(m’ - °C) flows inside the tube,
and the outer surface of the insulation is exposed to cooler air with a heat transfer
coefficient of 60 W/(m?-°C). Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U
based on the outside surface area of the insulation. ,
4-31. The thickness of the insulation in Prob. 4-30 is increased to 4cm. Calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient U based on the outside surface area of the
insulation material.
Answer: 3.26 W/(m?-°C)
4-32. For Problem 4-30, calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
inside surface area of the insulation material.
4-33, Consider a brass tube [kK = 115 W/(m-°C)] with an outside radius of 4cm anda
thickness of 0.5 cm. The inside surface of the tube is kept at uniform temperature,
and the outside surface is covered with two layers of insulation, each 1 cm thick,
with thermal conductivities of 0.1 W/(m-°C) and 0.05 W/(m-°C), respectively.
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area of
the outer insulation.
Answer: 2.83 W/(m? - °C) :
4-34, An iron plate 2.5 cm thick [k = 62 W/(m-°C)] is in contact with asbestos insula-
tion lem thick [k =0.2 W/(m-°C)] on one side and exposed to hot gas with a
98 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
heat transfer coefficient of 200 W/(m*-°C) on the other surface. If the outer
surface of the asbestos is exposed to cool air with a heat transfer coefficient of
40 W/(m? -°C), calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U and the heat flow
rate across the composite wall per square meter of the surface for a AT of 200°C
between the hot gas and cool air.
Answer: 12.43 Wi(m? -°C), 2.48kW/m? |
4-35. A brass condenser tube [k = 115 W/(m- C)] with an outside diameter of 3 cm and
a thickness of 0.25 cm is used to condense steam on its outer surface with a heat
transfer coefficient of 4000 W/(m*-°C). Cooling water with a heat transfer
coefficient of 5000 W/(m?-°C) flows inside. Find the overall heat transfer co-
efficient based on the outside surface area of the condenser tube, and calculate
the heat transfer rate per 10-m length of the tube for a AT = 10°C between the
condensing steam and, the cooling water.
. Answer: 18.34 kW .
4-36. A steel tube [k = 15 W/(m-°C)] with an outside diameter of 8 cm and a thickness
of 2em is covered with an insulation [k = 0.07 W/(m-°C)] 2cm thick. A hot gas
with a heat transfer coefficient of 500 W/(m’ - °C) flows inside the tube. The outer
surface of the insulation is exposed to air with a heat transfer coefficient of
50 Wi(m?-°C). Find the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inside
surface area of the steel tube.
4-37. Consider a hollow brass sphere [k= 115 W/(m-°C)] with an outside radius of
4cm and a thickness of 0.5 cm. The outside surface is covered with an insulation
[k =0.05 W/(m-°C)] lcm thick. The inside surface of the sphere is kept at a
uniform temperature. The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to air with a
heat transfer coefficient of 60 W/(m*-°C). Calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient based on the outside surface area of the insulation and the total heat
transfer rate for a AT = 200°C between the inner surface of the sphere and the
outside air temperatures.
uniform temperature TJ, = 200°C, and the fins dissipate heat by convection into
the ambient air at JT. = 30°C with a heat transfer coefficient h, = 50 W/(m? - °C).
a Determine the fin efficiency.
eh , Answer: 0.96
4-51. An iron rod of length L = 30cm, diameter D=1cm, and thermal conductivity
HS
k = 65 Wi(m-°C) is attached horizontally to a large tank’ at temperature T,=
200°C, as illustrated in the accompanying figure. The rod is dissipating heat by
convection into ambient air at T= 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient h,=
15 W/(m?-°C). What is the temperature of the rod at distances of 10 and 20cm
from the tank surface?
Answers: 90.1°C, 50.1°C
D=1icm
Tp = 200°C
k = 65 W/(m-°C) FIGURE P4-51
REFERENCES
1. Barzelay, M. E., K. N. Tong, and G. F. Holloway: “Effect of Pressure on Thermal
Conductance of Contact Joints,” NACA Tech. Note 3295, May 1955.
af 2. Gardner, K. A.: “Efficiency of Extended Surfaces,” Trans. ASME 67: 621-631 (1945).
CHAPTER
STEADY
CONDUCTION
WITH
- GENERATION:
ANALYTIC AND
NUMERICAL
SOLUTIONS
. 51 ANALYTIC SOLUTIONS
ermal In this section we are concerned with the analytic solution of the one-
dimensional steady-state heat conduction equation with energy generation and
101
102 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
T, =
= &
2K +O, L+C, -
(5-4a)
T(~L/2)=T,
T(L/2)=T,,
or L T,-T,
C,= §h
7k + Z (5-4b)
L/2
0,1
£/2.
Fle-(D]+e-n
aE LT ZL
(b) Boundary surface temperatures are equal. If the boundary surface tem-
peratures T, and T, are equal, T, = T,=T,,, Eq. (5-5) reduces to
22-1 ’
wr?
dT(x) | _
a 0 atx =0 (5-8b)
L
T(x)=T, atx= 5 ~ (5-8c)
This problem is solved by integrating Eq. (5-8a) twice and applying the
boundary conditions (5-85) and (5-8c). The resulting expression for the
temperature becomes
n= Se [5-(z) J+ e)
where the origin of the s-coordinate is at the centerline of the slab, as shown in
Fig. 5-1c.
The temperature at the centerline, x = 0, is obtained from Eq. (5-9) by
setting x = 0.
Pe ghar
K Tt (5-10)
“ENERGY LEAVING THE PLATE. The energy leaving the plate from its boun-
dary surfaces is a quantity of practical interest that can be determined from the
definition of the heat flux. We consider the symmetrical problem illustrated in
Fig. 5-1c and the corresponding temperature profile given by Eq. (5-9).
The energy leaving the slab from the right boundary surface at x = L/2 is
(G) 0
determined from ,
L (5-11a)
x=
Introducing the temperature given by Eq. (5-9) into Eq. (5-11) and setting
x = L/2, the heat flux at the boundary surface x = L/2 becomes
Since the quantity gL/2 is positive, the heat flux q(L/2) is positive. This
implies that the heat flow at the boundary surface x = L/2 is in the positive x
direction, or outward.
Similarly, the heat flux at the left boundary surface x = —L/2 is deter.
(9-2
mined from
2 xen
L . (5-12a)
Introducing the temperature profile Eq. (5-9) into Eq. (5- 22a) and setting
x=~L/2, the heat flux at x = -L/2 becomes
FIGURE 5-2
A plate with energy generation
subject to convective and
insulated boundary condition.
Convection
Insulated
oad
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL soLuTiIONs 105
To solve this heat conduction problem, Eq. (5-13a) is integrated twice. The
first integration gives
dT(x) __&
de het C, (5-14)
_{—-&
i EE ) = h,(- Space
aR +C,-T, )
or 2 oot
C,=_ SL,
7h gh ts
+h, .
(5-18)
T(x) 7h 1 L. + T. (5-19)
wa
(a) h,,-> ©. For very large values of the heat transfer coefficient, h,—>~, the
second term on the right vanishes and Eq. (5-19) reduces to
(b) 4,0. For very small values of the heat transfer coefficient, h,,—0, the |
tion solution (5-19) shows that the temperature T(x) becomes infinite. The physical
significance of this particular situation is better envisioned by recalling the
boundary condition (5-13c). As h,—0, the boundary conditions (5-13c)
reduces to
dT(x)
0 as h,->0
dx
This result implies that both boundaries of the plate, x=0 and x= L, are
106 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
[] Example 5-1. Consider a slab of thickness 0.1m. One of the boundary surfaces,
that at x = 0, is kept insulated, and the other, at x = 0.1m, is kept at 0°C. There is
uniform energy generation at a rate of 10° W/m’ in the solid, and the thermal
conductivity is constant [A
= 40 W/(m-°C)]. Determine the temperature of the
insulated surface.
= 125(1 — 100x”)
FIGURE EXAMPLE 5-1
and the temperature of the insulated surface is calculated by setting x = 0:
~-T(0) = 125(1 — 100 x 0)
LJ = 125°C
FIGURE 5-3
A long solid cylinder with
energy generation.
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 107
problem is given by
al aT) | g_ .
al dp Eo inOd<r<b (5-21a)
aT(r)
ar _=0 -
at r=0 (5-21b)
This problem can be solved by direct integration, as we did for the case of the
plate problem. The first integration of Eq. (5-21a) gives
aT(r) = & 2
- Pa TORT TG
°r aT(r) g
=~ 8,45 Cc © .
ar ah + r (5-22)
| T(r) = _~£,
ah +C, -
(5-24)
Introducing Eq. (5-25) into (5-24) yields the temperature distribution in the
cylinder as
T(r)
=L1-(5) +n
4h 1 5 + T,,- . (5-26)
The heat flux anywhere in the medium is determined from its definition,
. __, aT)
q(r)=—-k TT (5-27)
Introducing the temperature profile equation, Eq. (5-26): into Eq. (5-27), we
obtain
qr) = = (5-28)
Generally, the heat flux at the boundary surface is a quantity of practical
108 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Here, since gb! 2 is a positive quantity, the heat flux q(b) is positive, and hence
the heat flow is in the positive r direciton or outward. This result is expected
from physical considerations.
In the problem considered here, the highest temperature occurs at the
center of the cylinder, and the centerline temperature T é is obtained from Eq.
(5-26) by”setting r=0.
2
FIGURE 5-4
A long solid cylinder with
energy generation subject to
convection boundary condition.
Convection
Y Neos Too
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 109
(5-31a) and the application of the boundary condition (5-315) gives C, =(Q;
then
aT(r
a ).- er (5-32)
Integration of this equation gives
T(r) = aly
gh" (t) ]+ 2 ar, (5-34)
We now examine the physical significance of two limiting cases, h,—©
and h,,— 0, of the solution (5-34).
(a) h,,>~. For very large values of the heat transfer coefficient, h,—> ©, the
second term on the right-hand side vanishes, and Eq. (5-34) reduces to
(b) h,->0. For very small values of the heat transfer coefficient, h,, — 0, the
solution (5-34) shows that the temperature T(r) becomes infinite. The physical
significance of this particular situation becomes apparent from the boundary
condition (5-31c), which becomes
dT(r)
0 as h,,—>0
dr
Then we have a physical problem involving a solid cylinder with energy
generation in the solid and an insulated outer boundary. As the energy
generated has no way to escape from the insulated boundary, the temperature
continuously increases; hence the problem has no steady-state solution.
The heat flux g(r) anywhere in the cylinder is determined from the
definition
__,
q(rn)=—k at)
rT . (5-36)
410 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
qr) = Sr (5-37)
which is identical with the result given by Eq. (5-28) for a cylinder with
constant surface temperature.
Solution. Given: b = 0.0015 m, k= 20 W/{m: °C), g =10° W/m’, and T,, = 100°C.
~ Equation (5-26) or (5-34) with h,,>© can be used to detérmine the temperature
distribution T(r) as
T(r)
Eh)
4k 1 b
_ 10° x (0.0015)
+ qT,
( r )]
=——~gx20 LL! ~\o0rs] | + 10°
= 28.12(1 — 4.44 x 10° r?) + 100
The temperature of the center, r=0, becomes
T(0) = 128.12°C
Example 5-3. In a cylindrical fuel element for a gas-cooled nuclear reactor, the
energy generation from within the fuel element due to fission can be approxi-
mated by the relation
ac)=ea1-(5) | Wim’
where b is the radius of the fuel element and g, is constant. The boundary surface:
at r= b is maintained at a uniform temperature T.,. :
(a) Assuming one-dimensional steady heat flow, develop a relation for the
temperature drop from the centerline to the surface of the fuel element.
(b) For radius b=1cm, thermal conductivity k =10 W/(m-°C), and g=1.6x
10° W/m’, calculate the temperature drop from the centerline to the surface.
Solution.
(a) The mathematical formulation of the problem is given as
al
al aT)a. +
Br)k =4 |
inO<r<b
dT(r)_,
ar =0 =
at r=0
Ti)=T, atr=b
somali-(5)] wo
where
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL soLuTiIONsS 111
Substituting the energy generation rate g(r) into the differential equation and
rearranging results:
ar ‘dr Lk } } 2
a --8(£_ +.)
dr k\2 46?
Integration of this equation gives
=-£(F- r)4
TO) =— TAG J6p2) * @
and then the application of the boundary condition at r=b gives C, as
3gb?
C=
16k
Therefore, the temperature distribution in the fuel element becomes
r\*] . 3gb?
1)= FeEL (35) J+ 16k
The center temperature T, is obtained by setting r = 0 in this result. Then the
temperature drop from the center to the surface, T,~ T,,, wt becomes
(b) For b=1icm, k=10W/(m-°C), and g=1.6x 10°" W/m’, the temperature ,
drop is calculated as -
_- . 4 x (1.6% 108) x (1x 10°)!
Ee ow 16 x 10
= 300°C
Example 5-4. A hollow cylindrical fuel element of inner radius a and outer radius
b is heated uniformly within the entire volume at a constant rate of g W/m’ as a
result of disintegration of radioactive elements. The inner and outer surfaces of
the fuel element are at zero temperature, and the thermal conductivity of the
material is constant. Develop an expression for the one-dimensional steady.
temperature distribution T(r) within the cylinder. ,
14|, a, +9 =0
T(r) =0
ina<r<b
atr=a
T(r)=0 ‘atr=b
412 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
T(r) = -£ 7 +C,Inr+C,
4k
and the application of the boundary conditions gives the integration constants C,
and C, as
C _ & b? _ a
flea
' 4k In O10)
C= gEL® ~ Inia) 7)
After rearranging, the temperature distribution T(r) becomes
: T= £le at ia
oe) <I
aT(r)
5 _= 9 _
at r=0 (5-38)
aT g
rz 2 eee
an +C, (5-394)
-
C=_ 8b,
35+ 8b"
Get Ts | (5-40b)
The two special cases of this solution for h,,-> and h,, > 0 are similar to those
discussed for the cases of the plate and solid cylinder. That is, as h,,—> ©, the
solution (5-41) reduces to
gb? gb
Te '6K * 3h,7 T=
_ (2 10°) x (0.05)? | 2x 10° x 0.05 495
~ 6x20 . 3 x 100
= 400°C
and the outer surface temperature T,, is detemined by setting r = b:
T= ay + Te
2 x 10° x 0.05
=—3xi0 7?
= 358.33°C
114. ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
VT
aT) gx)=0 in 0<x<L , (5-43)
dx?
which should be solved subject to appropriate boundary conditions at x = 0 and
x= L.
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 115
Dn ~1 m+j
8 8
Ax Ax
(5-50)
A 2
which provide the two additional relations that are needed to solve the system
(5-50), since f, and f,,,, are known quantities.
(b) Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Condition. Suppose the heat flux g, W/m’,
entering the plane wall through the boundary surface at x = 0, is prescribed. To
develop an additional finite-difference equation for the node at x = 0, we write
an energy balance equation for a volume element of thickness Ax/2 at the node
m =1, as illustrated in Fig. 5-7a.
Rate of heat rate of heat rate of
entering through |+ [entering | + | energy =0 (5-52)
boundary surface conduction generation
48) (a) Node at x = 0 If we consider an area A, the mathematical expressions for each of these three
terms are written as
T,-T,..
QA+kA ++ += Ag, =0 °
Ax 2
This result is rearranged in the form
4 (Ax)” §+1 4 2 Ax q, _
2Ty ~2Ty41 k k 0 | form=M+1 (5-536)
118 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
For the insulated boundary (or geometric and thermal symmetry condi-
tions), we have :
Jo = 9 or/and q, =9 (5-54)
© Sy
Note that Eq. (5-55a) can be obtained from Eq. (5-50) by setting m=1
Insulated
0
and taking T,= 7,, where T, represents the mirror image of T, because of
4
from Eq. (5-50) by setting m= M and taking T,, = Ty,,., where T,, represents
ait
a6
Ax AX
the mirror image of T,,,, because of the symmetry, as illustrated in Fig. 5-8).
It is to be noted that the heat conduction problem in a slab with energy.
(b) Node atx =L generation in the medium and prescribed heat fluxes at both boundaries does
FIGURE 5-8 not have a steady-state solution unless the sum of the energy generation and the
Finite differencing of heat entering from one of the boundaries is equal to the heat leaving the slab
insulated boundary from the other boundary.
conditions.
Considering an area A, the mathematical expressions for each of the terms are
written as
T,-T
hA(T.,—- T,;) + kA “=a 4a Ag, =0
A 2
After rearrangement, the finite-difference representation of the convection
boundary condition at the node m= 1 becomes
(5-574)
If the boundary surface at x =_L is subjected to convection with a heat
transfer coefficient h,, into an ambient at temperature T_,, the energy balance
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL soLuTiIONs 119
atm=M+1 (5-57b)
We. now summarize the basic steps discussed above: for the finite-
difference representation of a steady-state heat conduction problem for a plane
wall with energy generation.
The region 0=x< L is divided into M equal subregions, containing, in
general, M +1 unknown node temperatures T,, (m=1,2,...,M +1). Equa-
tion (5-50) provides M—1 equations; the additional two equations are ob-
tained from the boundary conditions for the problem. The finite-difference
(b) Node at x = L form of the boundary conditions are given by Eqs. (5-51), (5-53), and (5-57)
for the prescribed temperature, prescribed heat flux, and convection boundary
FIGURE 5-9 conditions, respectively. Then the problem involves M + 1 algebraic equations
Finite differencing of
convection boundary for the M@ +1 unknown node temperatures T,, Gn =1,2,...,M+1), which
can readily be solved with a digital computer.
Ax = £ = “2 =0.02m
M
120 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
(T
(0 .02)° x 10° _
m-1 ~2T,, + Tisa) +
40
or
(T. mod m Ta1)+10=0 - for m =2,3,4,5
For the insulated boundary at x =0, the finite-difference equation is obtained
from Eq. (5-55a) as
ool der—Finite-Diffe
renc e Formulation
The finite-difference formulation of the heat conduction problem for a plane
_ wall; given previously, is not applicable to radia] heat fiow in cylindrical bodies,
because the area A normal to the path of heat flow is not constant but varies
linearly with radial position in the cylindrical coordinate system. The general
procedure for developing the finite-difference equations for a cylindrical body
red is essentially similar to that for a plane wall, but the radial variation of the area
needs to be included in the analysis.
Consider steady-state radial heat conduction in a long solid cylinder of
radius r=b, in which energy is generated at a rate of g(r) W/m*. The
temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder is governed by the heat conduc-
tion equation (3-17b), that is,
red. ld dT(r)
in0<r<b (5-58)
dr | 5 73 at)= 0
r dr |’ a7)
which should be solved subject to appropriate boundary conditions at r = 0 and
r=b,
To develop the finite-difference form of this energy equation, the region
0<r<b is divided into M cylindrical subregions, each of thickness Ar, given
by
ab
_ FIGURE 5-10
Nomenclature for one- Ar= (5-59)
/ dimensional finite-
difference formulation as illustrated in Fig. 5-10a. Then the region 0S rb contains M +1 nodes at
fora long solid
cylinder.
nce
ced
five
Tips o
m mt M Mt+i
ub- (a) Geometry and coordinate (b) Selection of nodes
122 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
the locations
r=(m—1)Ar m=1,2,...,M+4+1 (5-60)
with the nodes m=1landm=M+1 corresponding to the center and the outey
boundary surface of the solid cylinder, respectively, and the nodes m=
2,3,...,M@M being the internal nodes of the region. The problem involves
M+1 ‘node temperatures, denoted by
T(r) = T[(m
— 1) Ar] = T,, m=1,2,...,M+1 (5-61)
The finite-difference form of the heat conduction equation for the interna]
nodes is developed by considering the energy balance equation, Eq. (5-47). We
apply this energy balance for a cylindrical volume element of thickness Ar
about the node m illustrated in Fig. 5-10b. The conduction term becomes
Rate of heat _
ein |. Am-tmk fmt tn + Amer mk me. Tin
by conducti on r r
with H being the length of the cylinder. The rate of energy generation within
the volume element is given by
[ee of
energy = A in Arg,,
generation
=27H(m—1)(Ary g,, (5-625)
where A,, = 27H(m — 1) Ar and g,, are evaluated at the node m corresponding
to the location r = (m — 1) Ar.
Introducing Eqs. (5-62) into the energy balance equation (5-47) and
rearranging, we obtain the finite-difference form of the heat conduction
equation (5-58) for the internal nodes of the cylindrical region
form=2,3,...,M (5-63)
To determine the finite-difference equation for the central node r= 0 or
m =1, we apply the energy balance equation (5-47) for the volume element of
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 123
radius Ar/2 about the node m=1 shown in Fig. 5-105. Various terms are
evaluated as
Rate of heat ' 1T,-T,
entering =A,k
by conduction Ar
= nHK(T, — T,) _ (5-64a)
The rate of energy generation in the volume element is
Rate of Ar\? ,
energy = o( 2) Hg, (5-645)
generation Lo
Introducing Eqs. (5-64) into the energy balance equation (5-47), we obtain the
finite-difference equation for the center node m= 1 as
The system given by Eqs. (5-63) and (5-65) involves M+1 unknown node
temperatures T,, (m=1,2,...,M+1), but only M equations. An additional
equation is obtained from the boundary condition at r= b, which can be a
prescribed temperature, prescribed heat flux, or convection boundary condi-
tion. Each of these cases is now examined.
(b) Prescribed Heat Flux Boundary Condition. For one-dimensional heat con-
duction in a solid cylinder, no steady-state can be established under a pre-
scribed heat flux condition at the boundary surface r = b. The reason for this is
that heat entering the cylinder has no other way to escape; hence it will build
up continuously. However, in a hollow cylinder, heat can escape from the
inner boundary while entering from the boundary at r = b, or vice versa; hence
the steady-state solution is possible. For this reason, the finite-difference form
of the prescribed heat flux boundary condition at r = b has practical application
only for hollow cylinder problems, which will be discussed next. With such a
restriction on its application, we now present the finite-difference form of the
prescribed heat flux condition at r= b.
Let q, W/m”, the heat flux entering the cylinder from the outer boundary
surface at r = b, be prescribed. The application of the energy balance equation
124 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Tu ~ Tun Ar
Aume+ik Ar + Angaiduei + Anat oe 8ui1 = 9
where 1
A uoM+1 = 2n( a Ar- 5 ar)H
_ =) -( _ =) Ar 4 (Ary 8m+i _
(1 aq) Pu \Eo apg] Pat Fk 0
form=M+1 (5-66)
Pu =ArTires Ar
Ammeik Ment A y+ha(T. — Tysi)t Anat > 8m+i 70
where
where
1
Am-tm = 2a a +(m—1)Ar- 5ar|H
1
= 20|
Amst a+ (m1) Ar+ 5 Ar|H
A,,=27[a+(m—1) Ar]H
FIGURE 5-11
Nomenclature for one-dimensional finite difference formulation for a long hollow cylinder.
/
af
Typo,
126 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
which is rearranged as
where
A, =27aH
Ar
Aa.) =2n(a + a)
Aj =2aaH
which is rearranged as
form=1 (5-68)
For the node m= M+ 1 at the outer boundary surface r= b, we have
Ty — T Ar
Ar aeik AS + Anette
Tar ~ Taret)
+ Aner ZF 8a = 0
where
As, =27b
Aya; =20bH
which is rearranged as
b 1 b Arh, bh,
(2
Ar -3)r,-[2
2 Ar (1+ ’k 2) Tir
2 ker OO
2k 0
for m= M (5-69)
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 127
(Ar)* g_ (0.01)°(10”) 50
vk 20
Arh, 0.01200 1
a
The finite-difference equation for the central node m=1 is obtained from Eq.
(5-65):
4(T, ~ T,) +50=0 for m=1
. and the finite-difference equations for the internal nodes m = 2 to 5 are obtained
: from Eq. (5-63):
or
(—Bn[-
) dlrs Plone
0.9T, -T,+28=0 for m=6
Summarizing, we have six algebraic equations for the six node temperatures T,,,,
m=1 to 6:
~4T,+47T,=-50 form=1
0.5T,-27,+1.5T,=-50 form=2
0.75T, -27;+1.25T,=-50 form=3
0.8333T, —2T7,+1.1666T,=-50 form=4
0.875T,-27,+1.125T,=-50 form=5
0.9T, - T, = —28 for m=6
which are expressed in the matrix form as
-4 4 0 0 0 T, —50
0.5 -2 15 0 0 o IIT, —50
0 0.75 -2 125 0 0 |}73|_ | -s0
0 O 0.8333 -2 1.1666 0 |)7,f~)-50
0 oO 0 0875 —2 ° 1.125|/T, —50
LU 0 O 0 0 09 8 ©6©-1 JT, —28
128 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Sphere-—Finite-Difference Formulation
The basic principles of finite-differencing described for the cylinder are applic.
able for the sphere, except that the radial variation of the area is proportional]
to the square of the radius. We consider radial heat conduction in a soliq
sphere of radius r = b, in which energy is generated at a rate of g(r) W/m*. The
region 0=r= b is divided into M spherical shells, each of thickness
Ar=— (5-70)
The nomenclature for the subdivisions is similar to that shown in Fig. 5-106 for
a solid cylinder, except that in this case the geometry is a solid sphere.
For the internal nodes, m=2,3,...,M, the energy balance equation
(5-47) gives ° mS
Tint ~~ T,, Tinet ~~ Tin —_
Am-t.mk Ar + Ans + A,, Ar 8m = 9
[1 spay]
tm Pad + [1+ egy
| nae Tad + (Ar) 8, _t=O
f+ gto fecty
Then Eg. (5-71a) reduces to
For the center node m=1, the energy balance equation (5-47) is also
applicable, and yields
T,-T, 4 (Ar\*
2 64S (ES) g=0 for m=1
Arak 3 7™\2
where
Ar\?
Aan = 4n()
and after rearrangement we obtain
where
Ar\?
Au.me1 = 47 M Ar~
+2h, Ar T..
+ (Ar) k Susi _=0
form=M+1 (5-73a)
For M >1, the following approximations can be made:
130 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
a(1 -1)
Mi) tu ~-| [21>( -1)
9g) + 2h Ar) [Pe2h, Ar
+ ST. +
(Ar) Siar
Et =0
form=M +1 (5-730)
[A]}{X}={D} - (5-74a)
~ which can be written more explicitly as
b, c, 0 0 0 x d, )-
a, by C, 0 X, d;
= _ (5-746)
0 Ay-1 By-1 Cy-1 |] ¥n-1 dn
0 0 0 ay by j\*n dy
- In Table 5-1 we present a computer program written in Fortran IV for solving a
tridiagonal system of N algebraic equations of the form shown in Eqs. (5-74a)
and (5-746). The main features of this program and the significance of various
statements are as follows.
[A] is the N x N coefficient matrix, which is a banded tridiagonal matrix.
In lines 13 to 16 the program stores the coefficient matrix [A] and the vector
{D} in band storage mode in matrix A(J, J) as
A(L, J) =
. i
Gy-1 by, Cy yey
ay by 0 dy
where J=1, N and J=1, 4 and the vector {D} is in A(I, 4). Lines 19 to 23
print the input data A(/, J) for checking purposes. Line 25 calls subroutine
TRIDG, which solves tridiagonal equations. The subroutine itself is presented
in lines 44 to 59. Lines 32 to 40 print the node temperatures. The subroutine
TRIDG will return the solution in the column vector A(J, 4). In line 13 the
value of 6 was assigned to N because the specific example considered here
(Example 5-6) involved only six equations. If the number of equations is
different from six, change the assigned value. If the number of equations is
more than 50, not only should the assigned value of N in line 8 be changed, but
also the value of N = 50 appearing in the dimension statement of line 7 should
be changed to the proper value.
TABLE 5-1
Computer program for solving a system of N simultaneous tridiagonal equations
C#
# + COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SOLVING A SYSTEM OF N
Cc SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS IN ONE-DIMENSTONAL
Cc
norhoObd
HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEMS, WITH A TRIDIAGONAL
Cc COEFFICIENT MATRIX
C*x*** EXAMPLE 5-6 ****
IMPLICIT REAL*8(A~-H,0-Z)
DIMENSION A(50,4) °
won NDIM = 50
C#*
* * PRINT THE INPUT DATA FOR CHECKING PURPOSES
74a) WRITE (6,20) ‘EXAMPLE 5-6/
20 FORMAT (1X,A)
DO 40 I = 1,N
WRITE (6,30) (A(I,U), J=1,4)
30 FORMAT (1X,/17,3F9.3,G12.4)
40 CONTINUE
14b) CHK
CALL TRIDG(A,N,NDIM)
WHEN RETURNED, THE COLUMN VECTOR {A(I,4)}
Cc CONTAINS THE SOLUTION.
WRITE (6,50)
50 FORMAT (1X///T10,‘NODE #’,5X, ‘TEMPERATURE’ /
nga 17X,’FINITE DIFFERENCE’/)
74a) Cc
DO 70 I = 1,N
‘ious
IF (A(1,2)+A(1,3) .EQ. 0O.0DO0) THEN
uP = I
trix. ELSE
‘ctor UP = 1+
ENDIF
WRITE (6,60) UP, ACI,4) .
60 FORMAT (1X,78,15,7X,G13.5) 7
70 CONTINUE
STOP
END
c
Ce ex SUBROUTINE TO SOLVE A TRIDIAGONAL OF EQUATIONS
SUBROUTINE TRIDG(A,N,NDIM)
IMPLICIT REAL*8(A-H,0-2)
DIMENSION A(NDIM,4)
9 23 DO 80 I = 2,N
A(I,2) = AC(I,2) - ACI,1) / ACI-1,2) * A(I-1,3)
itine A(1,4) = AC(I,4) - ACT,1) / ACI-4,2) * A(I-1,4)
nted 80 CONTINUE
itine NMi = N - 1
A(N,4) = A(N,4) / A(N,2)
the DO 90 I = 1,NMi
M=N- I
A(M,4) = (A(M,4) - A(M,3) * A(M+1,4)) / A(M,2)
930 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
131
132 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
ne) = Se [1-(Z)
]+ Ge +7 Ey
The temperatures at x +0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0, evaluated by using this
TABLE 5-2
Numerical solution to Example 5-6
NODE # TEMPERATURE
1 775.00 775.00
2 770.00 770.00
3 755.00 755.00
4 730.00 730.00
5 695.00 695.00
6 650.00 650.00
ANALYTIC AND NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS 133
expression, are also listed in this table. The results obtained using the numerical
LJ solution and those obtained using the exact solution are the same.
Example 5-9. Solve the problem considered in Example 5-7 using finite-differ-
ences by subdividing the region into five equal intervals.
TABLE 5-3
Numerical solution to Example 5-7
NODE # TEMPERATURE
1 1605.0 1592.5
2 1592.5 1580.0
3 1555.0 1542.5
4 1492.5 1480.0
5 1405.0 1392.5
6 1292.5 1280.0
134 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
PROBLEMS
Analytical Solutions
5-1, Develop an expression for one-dimensional, steady-state temperature distribution
T(x) in a plane wall (slab) of thickness L when the boundary surface at x = 0 is
kept at a uniform temperature T, and the boundary surface at x = L dissipates
heat by convection with a heat transfer coefficient A into the ambient air at
temperature T_. The thermal conductivity & is constant, and there is energy
generation at a constant rate of g W/m”.
5-2. Develop an expression for the one-dimensional, steady-state temperature distri-
bution T(x) in a slab of thickness L when the boundary surface at x = 0 is kept
insulated and the boundary surface at x= L is kept at zero temperature. The
thermal conductivity k is constant, and there is energy generation at a rate of
8
a(x)= g, cos wx/2L W/m*, where g, is the energy generation rate per unit
volume at x = 0. Give the relation for the temperature of the insulated boundary.
5-3. Consider a slab of thickness L = 0.1m. One of the boundary surfaces, that at
x=0 is kept insulated, and the boundary surface at x= L dissipates heat by
convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 200 W/(m? -°C) into the ambient air
at 150°C. The thermal conductivity of the wall is 10.0 W/(m-°C), and within the
wall energy is generated at a constant rate of 10° W/m*. Determine the boundary
surface temperatures. ,
Answers: 1150°C, 650°C
. Consider a slab of thickness 0.1m. One of the boundary surfaces, that at x = 0, is
kept insulated, and the boundary surface at x = L dissipates heat by convection
with a heat transfer coefficient A into the ambient air at 150°C. The thermal
conductivity of the wall is 40 W/(m-°C), and within the wall energy is generated
at a constant rate of 10° W/m’*. Plot the temperature profiles in the slab for the
heat transfer coefficients h = 200, 350, and 500 W/(m? -°C).
5-5. Develop an expression for the steady-state temperature distribution in a slab of
thickness L when the boundary surface at x=0 is kept insulated and the’.
boundary surface at x = L is kept at zero temperature. The thermal conductivity
of the wall & is constant, and within the wall energy is generated at a rate of
2(x) = g,x° W/m*. Give the expressions for the temperature of the insulated
surface at x =0.
Answer: g,L“/12k
5-6. A nuclear reactor pressure vessel is approximated as a large plane wall of
thickness L. The inside surface is insulated, the outside surface at x = L is
maintained at a uniform temperature T,, and the gamma-ray heating of the plate
can be represented as energy generation in the form
g(x) = ge * Wim?
where g, and y are constants and x is measured from the insulated inside surface.
Develop an expression for the temperature distribution in the plate.
5-7. Develop an expression for the steady temperature distribution T(r) in a cylinder
of radius b in which energy is generated at a rate of
5-15. Develop an expression for the steady temperature distribution T(r) in a solid
sphere of radius b in which heat is generated at a rate of
dT(x) _ _ 7
de =(0 atx=0
UNSTEADY
HEAT
CONDUCTION
139
140 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Ne nt
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 141
FIGURE 6-2
Temperature distribution T(x, 1) in a semi-infinite solid which is initially at T, and for t>0 the
boundary surface at x = 0 is maintained at T).
1.0 p= SST
0.8|— —+—-
pS “
:
0 / —
0 0.4 0.8
142 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
The transient heat conduction problem given by Eqs. (6-64) to (6-6d) has been
solved, and the temperature distribution T(x, ¢) within the solid is determined
as a function of position and time as
FIGURE 6-3
Transient temperature T(x, 1) in a semi-infinite solid subjected to convection at the boundary
surface at x= 0, for ¢>0, which is initially at 7,. (From Schnieder).
1.0
0.5 SL + Ambient
more T'(, £)
1 — (x, 1)
T(x, t) — Too
S
T)- To
0.05
1
0.01
144 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Solution. Given a =1.6 x 10° m*/s, x =0.02m, and t=60s, the parameter é
becomes
x 0.02
** Wai ~ 2VE6x
10 x60 = 0.32
If Fig. 6-2 is used, this result could also be obtained for €=0.32, but not so
accurately. Now, knowing T; = 150°C and T,= 20°C, the temperature at 2cm
depth and after 1 min is determined:
9) = iret
K(T, - T;)
61(20 — 150)
5 ee = 144.4 kW/m?
Va xX1.6x 107° x 60 -
where the minus sign indicates that the heat flow is out from the slab.
[] Example 6-2. A thick concrete slab [a = 7 x 107’ m’/s and k = 1.37 W/(m-°C)] is
initially at a uniform temperature of 340°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is
subjected to convective cooling with a heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/(m? -°C)
into an ambient at 40°C. Calculate the temperature at a depth 10cm from the
surface at the time 1h after the start of cooling.
Solution. Given a =7X 1077 m7/s, x= 0.1 m, and t = 3600s, then the parameter
& becomes
x 0.1
— ae om mimi remanence NA 1.0
0.9
ALLEL
x/E =0,2 : ea
ase; rT
, TTT T) ar
0.8 oa Hl fy
| YW)
0.7 LWA
, LinoeLT MAY
AyH
0.6 ert y
Set 4 y
rfl 0.5 id
& o
ww i) yV
0.4 roe vf
0.3 ae 1 4, L .
<0
0.2 TI
0.1 LL AS
Lt |
0
0.01 0.05 0.2 05 23 5 10 20° 50 100
lok
Biohh
{c)
(6-106)
temperature
A= + = dimensionless coordinate
. AL .
Bi= a = Biot number (6-10c)
(b) Dimensionless
T= 72
at .
= dimensionless
. :
time or Fourier
:
number (6-10d).
Then the above heat conduction problem becomes
a6 30
OX oF in0< X <1, for 7r>0 (6-112)
problem;
og
ax =(0 at X=0,
for r>0 (6-11)
148 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
o6
ax + Bié= 0 at X=1, for 7>0 (6-11¢)
FIGURE 6-5 .
Dimensionless heat transferred Q/Q, for a slab of thickness 2. (From Gréber, Erk and Grigull).
The amount of heat transfer to or from the plate over a given period of
time is also a quantity of practical interest.
Figure 6-5 shows the dimensionless heat transferred Q/Q, as a function of
dimensionless time for several different values of the Biot number for a slab of
thickness 2. Here Q represents the total amount of energy which is lost by
the plate up to any time ¢ during the transient heat transfer. The quantity Q)
for the slab volume V=(2L)(depth), defined as
Qo=pc,V(T;-T.) Wes (6-13)
represents the initial energy of the slab relative to the ambient temperature.
Knowing Qo and determining the ratio Q/Q, frommn Fig. 6-5, the amount of heat
_ transfer Q is calculated.
(a) How long will it take for the center-plane to cool to 100°C?
(b) What is the temperature at a depth 3cm from the outer surface?
(c) Calculate the energy removed from the plate during this time.
t=4min 52s
Hence T is determined as
a OQ =0.6Q,
= 43.7 MJ
15 1
OY} JO} UOIIpuos AepuNog pue soyeUIps00d ‘AOWIODH (B) “(Jo[SIOP] Wo1g) “g = 4 douJINs Arepunoq
dy} 12 UOT}IDAUOD 0} poyofqns q = 4 spel Jo JopulfAD pljos Buoy e JO} eyo oinjerodwio] yuorsuely,
9-9 FUND
(9) of
{00°0
c00°0
€00°0
7000
so0'0
L000
10°0
(‘oe
z0'0
€0°0
roo -
87
aL
500
L0°0 8
10
TO |
£0 |
70 |
‘0 |
L0 |
ol
oy py Fe38
(PLD)
152 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
LO p— CL eee
0.9 r[b = 0.2 Lae Leth
. Lr] Va A
0.8. — LS " y" AA
YI,
0.7 7
HAY
06 bbe eo /
a ber sat y }
3,8. —TT MI :
Be
iii O05
Bie?
“04 k
a ra
Ld 2
0.2 rf =e ail,Zz
S
0.1 Hy Ly] *
a : :
0 i
0.01 0.05 0.2 Or 23 5 #10 20 100
Tok
Bi hb
(ce)
FIGURE 6-6
(c) Position correction for use with part (b).
2 9
aR a t R=0, for
=U, IOr Tt r>0 / (6-156)
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 153
@Q
Qo
FIGURE 6-7
Dimensionless heat transferred Q/Q, for a long cylinder of radius b. (From Gréber, Erk and
Grigull).
sozayds oy1 jo raius. ays ww (4 O)e ainieiodwar
Wo1y) "gq = 4 dDRjANS
ssojuoisuauig (q) ‘suonipuos Arepunog pur sajvulps009 ‘Kyyawoay (8) ‘(ojsiop{
juoIsSURIL
Alepunog dy} 72 UONI2AU09 0} poyoofqns q = 4 snipes Jo alayds piyos @ 10j rey ainjeioduay
8-9 GUND
1000
z00°0
€00'0
7000
s00°0
L000
100
£00
$00
soo
400
10
zw0
£0
v0
$0
L'0
ol
20 4
Yu—
154
aul tn ee
0.9 ribym = 0.21.02
" Wy Wi 7 ar
oe
Vif
0.4 ‘ oY /
03b A
cele] We
0.2 LA
surface r= b. (From Heisler). (a) Geometry, coordinates and boundary conditions; (b) Dimensionless
a
Ws
<
0.1 My
11
0
0.01 0.02 0.0501 02 051.0 23 5 10 20 50100
tlk
Bi hb
(c)
de
oR at R=0, for 7>0 (6-16b)
36
aRee of 7 —
Big=0 at R=1, for 7>0 (6-16c)
6(0, 7) at the. center:
Ty.
Figure 6-9 shows the dimensionle ss heat transferred Q/Q, as a function of
dimensionless time for several differe nt values of the Biot number. Here, O
and Q, are as defined previously.
155
156 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
2
2%
108
0 ee
FIGURE 6-9
Dimensionless heat transfer @/Q, for a sphere of radius b. (From Gréber, Erk and Griguil).
For the sphere, the dimensionless time 7 is determined from Fig. 6-8b to be
7=1.2. Therefore
tr, (1.2)(0.05)’
t= = ts= 188s
LI “a 16x10
UNSTEADY HEAT ConpucTION 157
Example 6-5. A long steel shaft of radius 10cm [a =1.6x 107° m*/s and k=
61 W/(m-°C)] is removed from an oven at a uniform temperature of 500°C and
immersed in a well-stirred large bath of coolant maintained at 20°C. The heat
transfer coefficient between the shaft surface and the coolant is 150 W/(m? -°C).
Calculate the time required for the shaft surface to reach 300°C.
where T is the surface temperature, T,, is the ambient temperature, and T, is the
temperature at the axis of the shaft. Knowing the surface temperature T = 300°C
and T,, = 20°C, the temperature at the axis, T,, is determined as
T-T,
T,=T.+ 0.87
300 — 20 °
Next, given T, = 500°C and T,, = 20°C, and taking 7, = 341.84°C, we determine
the dimensionless temperature @(0, 7) to be
Ty~ T., _ 341.84-20 _
6(0, 7) =
T,-T, 500-20 = 0.67
and then read the dimensionless time 7 from Fig. 6-65 for 1/Bi = 4.07 to be r = 1.
We calculate the time required for the surface temperature to reach 300°C as
follows:
at
THz Hil
ro
or
ro _ (1.3)(0.1)"
= 625
s = 104 min
a 1.6x107°
x=(m—1)Ax
or x+Ax=m Ax m=1,2,...,M,M+1 (6-184)
Ax = (6-18c)
UNSTEADY HEAT ConDUCTION 159
pitt
: m
itl “ Time step i+ 1
At ; ; . .
rity, Ti
i moiyes msl Time stepi
1 °
ca
at Ax Ax
i=0 € € >
2 m-1 m m+] : M_M+tiI x
x=0 x=L
FIGURE 6-10
Subdivision of xt domain into intervals of Ax and Ar for finite-difference representation of the
one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction equation.
and the temperature T(x, t) at a location x and time ¢t is denoted by the symbol
T’,; that is,
T(x, t)= T[(m—1) Ax, iAD=T', (6-18d)
Note that in the space domain there are M+1 nodes (ie., m=
1,2,3,...,M@+1).
To ‘develop the finite-difference equations for each of these nodes, it is
desirable to consider them in two distinct groups: ,
1. The interior nodes, consisting of the nodes.m = 2,3,...,M, for which the
finite-difference equations are obtained by utilizing the heat conduction
equation (6-17).
2. The boundary nodes, or the nodes m=1 and m=M+1, for which the
finite-difference equations are determined by utilizing the boundary condi-
tions for the problem.
where T’,_, and T’,,, are the two neighboring points to the node T’,, and all
of them are evaluated at the time step i.
The first derivative of temperature with respect to the time variable ¢ at a
position m and a time step / is represented by ,
. “ot pitt _ fi
oF ni AP
Ar a“ (6-195)
=a At 6-22
" (Ax) (6-72)
Equation (6-21) is called the explicit finite-difference form of the one-dimen-
sional time-dependent heat conduction equation (6-17).
The method is called explicit because the temperature T'*" at node mata
time step i+ 1 is immediately determined from Eq. (6-21) if the temperatures
of node m and its two neighboring points at the previous time step / are
available and the value of the parameter r is specified.
The system of equations (6-21) provides M —1 algebraic equations, but
contains M+1 unknown node temperatures (i-e., T,, T2,---. Tai). The
additional two relations are obtained by utilizing the boundary conditions at
the nodes m=1 and m= M +1, as described below.
UNSTEADY HEAT ConDUCTION 161
; . Axh -
r= iT ieh ik (r3" + 0 r.) form=0 (6-240)
where the parameter r is defined by Eq. (6-22).
T, Tap+1
M+i1 x
160 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
at
2
=
i
Tint i
2T nt i
Ti+ (6-192)
Ox” Imi (Ax) -
where T,_; and T/,,, are the two neighboring points to the node T’,, and all
of them are evaluated at the time step i.
The first derivative of temperature with respect to the time variable ¢ at a
position m and a time step i is represented by ,
- ‘ aT| ~T-Ti ot
at\mi OAD | (6-196)
where T‘*' represents the temperature at the location x + Ax =m Ax at the
time (i+ 1) At. The right-hand side of Eq. (6-19b) is a forward finite-difference
representation with respect to time.
By introducing Eqs. (6-19) into Eq. (6-17), the finite-difference form of
the one-dimensional time-dependent heat conduction equation at an internal
node m becomes
Tu!
m Ti m Ti+
mai
Ti -2T', 6-20
(Ax) ( )
At a
)
+ 0-207,
Tt a7(7) t+ Tia (6-21)
. : -
where
i=Q,1,...
m=2,3,...,M
a At
=o 6-22
"(ax (6-2)
Equation (6-21) is called the explicit finite-difference form of the one-dimen-
sional time-dependent heat conduction equation (6-17).
The method is called explicit because the temperature T‘*" at node mata
time step i +1 is immediately determined from Eq. (6-21) if the temperatures
of node m and its two neighboring points at the previous time step / are
available and the value of the parameter r is specified.
The system of equations (6-21) provides M — 1 algebraic equations, but
contains M+1 unknown node temperatures (i.e., T, T2,--- Tis1)- The
additional two relations are obtained by utilizing the boundary conditions at
the nodes m=1 and m= M +1, as described below.
fo.
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 161
; ; Axh -
TT, =so (ry + — 2 Tr.) for m=0 (6-24b)
0
res
ire
162 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
} a : ,
(6-25b)
Ax hy,
for m= M
itd Ax
To
(
Te axhjle iu te
1
Tt
i+]
‘Equations (6-24b) and (6-25b) are the finite-difference equations for the
boundary nodes m=1 and m=M +1, respectively, when these boundary
surfaces are subjected to convection.
If the boundary surface at x = 0 is subjected to constant heat flux q,, then
the application of energy balance given by Eq. (6-23) to the node at m=1
yields
pi pitt .
otk “a =0 (6-264)
or
r(Ax)”
Ats -—— (6-29)
a
1-2rz20 or r (6-30)
bape
IA
where
1b)
_ @&t
(Ax)
Oo
aT(x,
OOM)a
t) oe gy aT
7 inO<x<L,t>0 (6-31a)
A| oT (6-31b)
—k = + hoT = heT at x=0, 1>0
aT _ _ ‘
k= +h, T=h,T. atx=L,t>0 (6-31¢)
T(x, t) = F(x) for t=0,0Sx=L — (6-31d)
where
r= a At
(Ax)
The finite-difference forms of the boundary conditions (6-31b) and (6-31c) at
the nodes m=1 and m= M +1 are obtained, respectively, from Eqs. (6-245)
and (6-255); with T.) = T.., = T.., we have
} _ 5
iti 1 ( is, Axhy (6-325)
T, Jk
T+ Axhhalk T, + | T., for m=1
- Choose the value of the parameter r consistent with the stability criterion
defined by Eq. (6-30), namely, set
Nie
rs
. Calculations are started by setting i=0. Then Eq. (6-32a) gives the
temperatures T), at all internal nodes m = 2,3,..., M at the end of the first
time step, i= 1 or t= At, since the node temperatures on the right-hand side
of Eq. (6-32a) are available.from the known initial temperatures.
Setting i=0 in Eqs. (6-32b) and (6-32c), the temperatures T} and T},,, at
the boundary nodes are determined, since T}, T}, and all the other
quantities on the right-hand side of Eqs. (6-325) and (6-32c) are known.
Given the node temperatures T., (m= 1,2,3,...,M+1) at the end of the
first time step, we repeat the procedure in steps 4 and 5 by setting i= 1 and
calculating the node temperatures T>, (m=1,2,...,M +1) at the end of
the second time step i= 2 or at the time t=2 At.
.. The node temperatures for subsequent times are found in a similar manner.
The application of the above calculational procedure is now illustrated
with the following simple example.
Example 6-6. A large brick wall (a =5 x 107’ m’/s) of thickness L =20cm is
initially at a uniform temperature T, = 100°C. Suddenly both of its surfaces are
lowered to 20°C and maintained at that temperature for times t>0. Using four
subdivisions (i.e., M = 4), corresponding to a mesh size of Ax = 20/4 =5 cm, and
an explicit finite-difference scheme, calculate the temperature distribution at the
nodes for 10 consecutive time steps.
L 20
. Ax = M4 Sem
Thus, over the entire region we have only five nodes, m= 1, 2,...,5, Of which
nodes.
two are the boundary nodes and the remaining three are internal
The finite-difference equations for the interior nodes are obtained from Eq,
(6-21) by setting the value of r such that it does-not violate the stability criterion,
For r= 3, Eq. (6-21) becomes
it 1 i i
m=2,3,4 (a)
Tin = 5 (Pima + Pines)
in this problem,
For the prescribed temperature boundary conditions considered.
the equations for the boundary nodes m = land M+1=5 become
‘ Ty =20 m=1 - o (b)
°
Tit=50 M+1=5_ (c)
Finally, the initial condition for the problem is written as
T° =200 i=0,m=1,2,3,4,5 (d)
and the corresponding time step At with r= 3 becomes
_ r(Axy 1 (0.0597 _
At= = 5 oF = 2500s
the computation-
By using the finite-difference equations (a) to (d) and following
previous ly, the unknown node temperat ures T,, (m=
al procedure described
are readily determin ed. Table 6-1 shows the results of such calculations for
2,3, 4)
onds to the time ¢= 10x
10 consecutive time steps. The step i= 10 corresp
2500 s = 6.94 h.
TABLE 6-1
Numerical solution to Example 6-6
TIME STEP 2500. sec
To illustrate the use of the computer, we applied the program given in Table 6-2
to the solution of the specific transient heat conduction problem considered in
Example 6-6. The main features of this program and the significance of various
statements are as follows:
Lines 12 to 22 specify the input data, which include M, a, L, Ax, r, and the
maximum number of time steps required.
Lines 46 to 51 specify the types of boundary conditions at x = 9 andx=L
and the input data associated with them.
The boundary condition at x=0 can be any one of the following three
possibilities:
aT mo,
~(1) oe + 50T = (50)(20) atx =0, for 1>0 -
TABLE 6-3
Modification of the computer program in Table 6-2 for the solution of Example
6-7
Line 12 placed by
12 M = 10
Lines 18 to 22 placed by °
18 RK = 1.0D0
19 HO = 50.0D0
20 C¢
24 TINFO = 20.0D0
22 QL = 3.0D0 + 3
Lines 46 to 51 placed by
46 DXHKO = DELX * HO / RK
47 T(41) = 1.0D0/(1.0D0 + DXHKO)*(TNEW(2) + DXHKO*TINFO)
48 C
49 ¢ .
50 T(M+1) = QL*DELX/RK + TNEW(M)
Table 6-4 gives the solution of the transient heat conduction problem considered
in Example 6-7. This step i= 10 corresponds to the time ¢ = 4000s. The numerical
solution for this problem is printed at each time step. The accuracy of numerical
results could be increased by choosing smaller time steps, which in turn will
require a large number of computations. In order to print output after a certain
number of time steps, the given computer program will require minor modifi-
cation.
The steady temperature distribution in Example 6-7 is given by
T(x)= 7fetter,
and for larger times the temperatures at x= 0 and x = L=0.2m approach the
L.} steady temperatures 40°C and 240°C, respectively.
TABLE 6-4
Numerical solution to Example 6-7
TIME STEP : 400.0 sec.
X= 0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080
0.100 0.120 0.140 0.160 0.180
0.200
Time(sec.)
100.000
TABLE 6-4 (continued)
160.000 .
490.000
. 205 .000°
1600.0000 44.375 68.750 87.500. 95.000 100.000
100.000 400.000 107.500 122.500 160.000
220.000
2000.0000 42.969 65.938 81.875 93.750 97.500
100.000 103.750 111.250 133.750 171:250
231.250
* 2400.0000 41.2114 62.422 79.844 89.688 96.875
100.625 105.625 - 118.750 141.250 182.500
242.500
2800.0000 40.264 60.527 76.055 88.359 95.156
251.875
261.250
269.453
277.578
~ 171
172 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
; T,-T, Ax T{'-T,
hy(T 29 T,)+k Ax = pc, 9 At
- Axhy
rita 7h + . 0 Tag) + [1-2r(1 +
Ax ; ho\] 0) Ir for m=1
(6-34a)
where
r= a At
(Ax)?
In the case of convection at the boundary surface x= L, with a heat
transfer coefficient h, into an ambient at temperature T,,,, but no energy
generation in the medium, the application of the energy equation (6-33) to the
node m= M +1 give
; Ti — Ti Ax Ti _ Ti
_ mi M M+1 md fF M+ M+1
hy (Top Tua) tk Ax PC, 2 At
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 173
form=M+1 (6-345)
Equations (6-34a) and (6-34b) are the finite-difference equations for the
boundary nodes m=1 and m=M +1, respectively, when these boundary
surfaces are subjected to convection. These equations include the effects of the
heat capacity of the volume element associated with the boundary nodes m= 1
and m=M+41; hence they are different from the corresponding equations
(6-24b) and (6-25b), which are developed by neglecting the transient effects at
the boundaries.
If Eqs. (6-34a) and (6-34b) are used as the finite-difference expressions
for the boundary nodes m=1 and m= M + 1, an additional restriction on the
permissible value of the parameter r should be recognized. By following an
argument similar to that described previously for the derivation of the stability
criterion given by Eq. (6-30), we conclude that the coefficients of Ti and Ty 41
in Eqs. (6-344) and (6-34b) should be positive; that is,
“Axh
1—2r(1+ ~ 2) 29 for m=1 (6-354)
Axh
1~2r(1+4 “) a0 form=M+1 (6-35b)
These conditions imply that the following restrictions should be imposed on the
value of r in Eqs. (6-34a) and (6-345), respectively:
4 -
0O<rs 21 + Ax h,/k) for m=1 (6-364)
=
0<r<——__-___
+ Ah, |b) m=
form=M+1
(6-6-36b
36 )
to the nodes m=1 and m=M-+1 yields, respectively, the following finite.
difference expressions:
Ti. -T' Ax Ti! T!
Got k a a Lx Pl, > <r : (6-37)
or
T, i+] =2r\T,+
i, Ax
| 1 +(1-2r)T; i .
(6-375)
and
ri _ Ti Ax Tit), — Ti
gy + k MO = pe, SMH (6-38a)
Or
i+l i Ax ; i
Tye = 2 Ty + Ke 4 +(1=2r7)T ys: (6-385)
and the restriction on the permissible value of the parameter r for these
boundary nodes becomes
‘1
O<rs5 form=landm=M+1 (6-39)
LE 6-5 .
‘Tivdification of the computer program in Table 6-2 to take into account the heat
capacitance at the boundary nodes, for the solution of Example 6-8
a)
Lines 42 to 22 placed by:
12 M= 5 .
13 ALPHA = 1.2D-5
b) 14 RL = 0.1D0
15 DELX = RL / DBLE(M)
/ 16 IEND = 10
47 R = 0.4057D0
18 RK = 43.0D0
19 HO = 500.0D0
2) 20 HL = 300.0D0 e
21 TINFO = 20.0D0
22 TINFL = 20.0D0
‘);
Or [| Example 6-8. A steel plate [w = 1.2 x 107° m’/s and k = 43 W/(m-°C)] of thick-
hy ness 10cm, initially at a uniform temperature T,, is suddenly immersed in an oil
bath at T_, = 20°C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the fluid and
the top surface is h, =500 W/(m’-°C), and that for the bottom surface is
h, = 300 W/(m? -°C). ‘Using five equal subdivisions, or a mesh size Ax =2cm,
) determine the largest permissible value of time step At, if the heat capacity effects
in the finite-difference equations for the boundary nodes are included.
Give the resulting finite-difference equations for all the nodes, using the
largest permissible time step.
b)
Solution. For M =5, we have
- : oe)
1€ | Ax= = 5 =2em
The nodes, m=1,2,...,6, are shown in the accompanying figure.
Nodes 2, 3, 4, and 5 are interior nodes, and 1 and.6 are the top and bottom
boundary surface nodes. To ensure the stability of the finite-difference equations
for the interior nodes, we should satisfy the inequality given by Eq. (6-30):
rs0.5
To ensure the stability of the finite-difference equations at the boundary nodes 1
and 6, we should satisfy the inequalities givén by Eqs. (6-364) and (6-365),
respectively:
1
rs AL 4 Ax hk) = 0.4057
i
2(1 + Ax1 h, /k) = 0.4388
rs
.
where Ax=0.02m, k=43W/(m-°C), h,=500W/(m?-°C), and h,=
300 W/(m*-°C). Clearly, the smallest value of r is that imposed by the top
boundary node 0, which is r=0.4057. This gives the largest possible time
increment At, :
A
p= Mx) _ 0.4057 x (0.02)? = 13.525
a 1.2x107*.
‘The finite-difference equations for the interior nodes 2, 3, 4; and 5 are
obtained from Eq. (6-32a):
Ty =(T,+T75)+ (1-297)
TS = (75+ Ti) +(-2nT)
Ty) = (754+ T5)+ (1-297)
TS =r(T,+ Ti)+(1-29Ti
The finite-difference equations for the boundary nodes 1 and 6 are given by
Eqs. (6-34a) and (6-345):
| Axh
ris! =2r(T4 + “to 74) +[1-2e(1+ Axly\]ha) Vr 4-7
and
r= 0.3057
Using the finite-difference equations and the computer program described in
Table 6-5, the unknown node temperatures 7‘, are readily determined. Table 6-6
shows the results of these calculations for 10 consecutive time steps, for an initial
\! temperature of 100°C. ,
oot
TABLE 6-6
Numerical solution to Example 6-8
Time(sec.)
177
178 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
PROBLEMS
Transient Temperature and Heat Flow in a Semi-Infinite Solid
In Problems 6-1 to 6-12, treat the region as a semi-infinite medium and use
transient charts for the solution.
6-1. A thick stainless-steel slab [a = 1.5 x 107° m "/s and k = 60 Wi(m -°C)] is initially
at a uniform temperature of 220°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is lowered to
50°C and maintained at that temperature. By treating the slab as a semi-infinite
solid, determine the temperature at a depth 1cm from the surface and the heat
flux at the surface 2 min after the surface temperature lowered:
6-2. A thick concrete slab [a=7 x 107’ m*/s and k= 1.4 W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature, of 400°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is subjected to
‘convective cooling with a heat transfer coefficient of. 50 W/(m*-°C) into an
ambient at 50°C. By treating the slab as a semi-infinite solid, calculate the
temperature at a depth 5 cm from the surface and 0.5h after the start of cooling.
Answer: 351°C
. A fireclay brick slab [2 =5.4x 107’ m,/s and k=1 Wi(m-°C)] 10cm thick is
initially at a uniform temperature of 350°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is
subjected to convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/(m? -°C) into an
ambient at 40°C. Calculate the temperature at a depth 1cm from the surface
2min after the start of cooling.
Answer: 309.7°C
6-4. A thick copper slab [a = 1.1 x 1077 m’/s and k = 380 W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 10°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to 100°C.
Calculate the heat flux at the surface 1 min and 2 min after the raising of the
surface temperature.
. A thick aluminum slab [a = 8.4 x 107° m/s and k = 200 W/(m- °C)] is initially at
a uniform temperature of 20°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to 100°C.
Calculate the time required for the temperature at a depth 5 cm from the surface
to reach to 80°C. . ;
Answer: 140.75 -
6-6. A thick concrete slab [a =7 x 107’ m*/s and k=1.4 W/(m- C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 80°C. One of its surfaces is suddenly lowered to 20°C.
Determine the temperatures at depths 2 and 4cm from the surface 10 min after
the surface temperature is lowered.
. A thick stainless steel slab [a = 1.6 x 107° m */s and k = 60 W/(m -°C)] is initially
at a uniform temperature of 100°C. One of its surfaces is suddenly lowered to
30°C. Determine the time required for the temperature at a depth 2cm from the
surface to reach 50°C.
6-8. A thick bronze [a =0.86 107° m*/s and k=26W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 250°C. Suddenly one of its surface temperatures is
lowered to 25°C. Determine the temperature at a location 5cm from the surface
10 min after the surface temperature is lowered.
Answer: 110.4°C
6-9. A thick bronze [a =0.86x 107° m’/s and k=26W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 250°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is exposed to
convective cooling by a fluid at 25°C. Assuming that the heat transfer coefficient
for convection between the fluid and the surface is 150 W/(m? - °C), determine the
temperature at a location 5cm from the surface 10 min after the exposure.
Lo
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 179
6-10. A thick wood wall [a = 0.82 x 107’ m*/s and k = 0.15 W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 20°C. The wood may ignite at 400°C. If the surface is
exposed to hot gases at T,, = 500°C and the heat transfer coefficient between the
gas and the surface is 45 W/(m* -°C), how long will it take for the surface of the
wood to reach 400°C?
Answer: =10 min
6-11. A thick wood wall [« = 0.82 x 1077 m/s and k = 0.15 W/(m-°C)] is initially at a
uniform temperature of 20°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to 80°C.
Calculate the temperature at a distance 2cm from the surface 10 min after the
exposure.
6-12. A water pipe is to be buried in soil (a =0.2 x 107° m’/s) at sufficient depth to
prevent freezing in winter. When the soil is at a uniform temperature of 5°C, the
surface is subjected to a uniform temperature of —10°C continuously for 50 days.
What minimum burial depth for the pipe is needed to prevent freezing?
Answer: 1.24m
6-13. A steel plate [a =1.2x 107° m7/s, k= 43 W/(m-°C), c, = 465 J/(kg-°C), and
p = 7833 kg/m*] thickness 5cm, initially at a uniform temperature of 200°C, is
suddenly immersed in an oil bath at 20°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient
between the fluid and the surface is 500 W/(m? -°C). How long will it take for the
center-plane to cool to 100°C?
6-14. A marble plate [a = 1.3 x 107° m7/s and k=3 W/(m-°C)] of thickness 3cm is ,
initially at a uniform temperature of 130°C. The surfaces are suddenly lowered to
30°C. Determine the center-plane temperature 2 min after the lowering of the
surface temperature. .
Answer: 55°C ;
6-15. A marble plate [a =1.3x 10°° m/s and k =3 W/(m-°C)] of thickness 5cm is
initially at a uniform temperature of 100°C. The surfaces are suddenly immersed
in an oil bath at 20°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the oil and
the marble surface is 400 W/(m*-°C). Calculate the temperature at a depth of
2cm from one of the surfaces 5 min after the exposure. Determine the energy
removed from the marble during this time for a marble plate 1 m X 1 m in size.
6-16. A copper plate [a = 1.1 x 107* m/s and k = 380 W/(m -°C)] of thickness 2 cm is
initially at a uniform temperature of 25°C. Suddenly both of its surfaces are raised
to 50°C. Calculate the centerline temperature 10 min after the surface tempera-
ture is raised.
Answer: 50°C
6-17. A fireclay brick slab [@ = 5.4 x 107’ m*/s and k = 1 W/(m-°C)] of thickness 5 cm
is initially at a uniform temperature of 350°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is”
subjected to convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/(m7 -°C) into an
ambient at 40°C. The other surface is insulated. Calculate the centerline tempera-
ture 1h after the start of cooling.
Answer: 240°C
6-18. A long steel shaft of radius 20cm [a = 1.6 X 10°° m/s and k = 60 W/(m-°C)] is
taken out of an oven at a uniform temperature of 500°C and immersed in a. 7
180 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Numerical Analysis
Use finite-differences for solution.
6-35. An aluminum plate (a =8x 107° m’/s) 4cm thick is initially at a uniform
temperature of 20°C. Suddenly one of its surfaces is raised to 220°C while the
other surface is kept insulated. Using an explicit finite-difference scheme and a
mesh size Ax = 1cm, calculate the temperature of the insulated surface 5, 10 ang
15s after the other surface is exposed to high temperature.
Answer: 102.8°C, 168.9°C, 197.8°C
6-36. An 8-cm-thick chrome-steel plate [a =1.6 x 107° m’/s and k = 60 W/(m-°C)),
initially at a uniform temperature of 325°C, is suddenly exposed to a cool
airstream at 25°C at both of its surfaces. The heat transfer coefficient between the
air and the surface is 400 W/(m*-°C). Using an explicit finite-difference scheme
and a mesh size Ax = 1cm, determine the center-plane temperature 5 and 15 min
after the start of cooling. Neglect the heat capacity effects of the boundary
elements.
Answer: 162.4°C, 51.5°C
6-37. A large brick wall (a=5 x 1077 m?/s) that is 20 cm thick is initially at a1 uniform
temperature of 300°C. Suddenly its surfaces are lowered to 50°C and maintained
at that temperature. Using an explicit finite-difference scheme and a mesh size
Ax = 5cm, determine the time required for the cénter temperature to reach 200°C
after the start of cooling.
6-38. A large brick wall (a =5 x 107’ m*/s) that is 20cm thick is initially at a uniform
temperature of 150°C. Suddenly its surfaces are lowered to 30°C and maintained
at that temperature. Using an explicit finite-difference scheme and a mesh size
Ax =5em, determine the center temperature 3h after the start of cooling.
Answer: 74.34°C
* 6-39, A steel plate [a = 1.2 x 107° m?/s and k = 43 W/(m-°C)] 10cm thick, initially at
a uniform temperature T,, is suddenly immersed in an oil bath at T,. The
convection heat transfer coefficient bétween the fluid and the surfaces of the plate
is 400 W/(m? -°C). Using a mesh size Ax = 2.cm, determine the largest permissible
value of the time step Ar if the heat capacity effects in the finite-difference
equations for the boundary nodes are included. ‘
Answer: 14.05 s
6-40. A brick wall [a =5 x 107’ m*/s and k = 1 W/(m-°C)] 6cm thick is initially at a
uniform temperature of 100°C. Suddenly its surface temperatures are lowered by
being exposed to a fluid at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient of 150 W/(m- °C).
Using an explicit finite-difference scheme and a mesh size Ax =2cm, determine
the time required for the surface temperatures to drop to 80°C. Include the heat
capacity effects of the boundary elements.
Answer: 40s
REFERENCES
. Schneider, P. J.: Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1955.
-
2. Heisler, M. P.: “Temperature Charts for Induction and Constant Temperature Heating,” Trans.
ASME, 69: 227-236 (1947).
3. Grdber, H., 8. Erk, and U. Grigull: Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1961.
CHAPTER
FORCED
CONVECTION
OVER
BODIES
183
484 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Dimensionless Parameters
Heat transfer in flow over a body is affected by a variety of factors, including
the flow pattern characteristics, the fluid properties, the flow passage geometry,
and the surface conditions. The fluid flow pattern can be characterized as
laminar, transition, or turbulent. The fluid properties that affect heat transfer
include density, thermal conductivity, viscosity, and specific -heat. The flow
passage geometry may take such forms as flow over a flat plate, a cylinder, a
sphere, tube banks or flow inside ducts and many others. Clearly there are too
many factors that affect heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid
flowing over it.
Suppose the flow passage geometry and the character of the flow pattern
are fixed; suppose, say, that a laminar flow along a flat plate and the local heat
transfer coefficient h, at a distance x from the leading edge of the plate (i.e.,
from the point where the flow first enters the plate) are considered. The
parameters that affect heat transfer are x, k, u, p, pb, C,, h, where k, p, p; and
c, are the thermal conductivity, density, viscosity, and specific heat of the fluid
and u is the main flow velocity. For the specific case considered here, the local
heat transfer coefficient h, at a position x depends on six independent
variables, and the determination of a correlation among these seven parame-
ters is of practical concern.
For the specific case of flow over a flat plate considered here, it can be
shown that the following three dimensionless groups can be established among
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 185
Boundary- (x, y) i
w+ J layer
_ | thickness 6(x) .
< —>
FIGURE 7-1
Boundary-layer concept for flow over a flat plate.
practical purposes, for flow along a flat plate the transition begins at a value of
Reynolds number
Re, = = =5x10°
x
(7-2b)
This critical value-is strongly dependent on the surface roughness and the
turbulence level of the free stream. For example, with very large disturbances
in the free stream, the transition may begin at a Reynolds number as low as
10°, whereas for flows which are free from disturbances, it may not start until a
Reynolds number of 10° or more. For flow along a flat plate, thefe boundry layer
is always turbulent for Re, =4 x 10°
In the turbulent boundary layer, next to the wall there is a very thin layer,
called the viscous sublayer, where the flow retains its viscous-flow character.
Adjacent to the viscous sublayer is a region called the buffer layer, in which
there is fine-grained turbulence and the mean axial velocity rapidly increases
with the distance from the wall. The buffer layer is followed by the turbulent
layer, in which there is a larger-scale turbulence and the velocity changes
relatively little with the distance from the wall. These concepts are also
illustrated in Fig. 7-1.
The Reynolds number as defined above is based on three distinct
parameters: velocity, kinematic viscosity, and a characteristic length. For the
flow over a flat plate considered here, the characteristic length is chosen as the
distance x measured along the plate. The choice of the characteristic length
depends on the geometry of the body. For example, for flow across a sphere or
a cylindrical tube, the diameter can be used as the characteristic dimension.
Furthermore, the value of the critical Reynolds number at the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow for bodies having different geometries is different
from that given above.
ra)=_ ee
du(x, y)
(7-3)4
where p is the viscosity of the fluid. However, in engineering practice
calculating the shear stress from the knowledge of the velocity gradients at the
wall surface is not practical. To alleviate this difficulty, the concept of local
drag coefficient c(x) is introduced, and the shear stress is related to the drag
188 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
N/m? (7-4)
where p is the density and u,, is the free-stream velocity of the flow. Clearly,
location x
knowing c(x), the shear stress (or the drag force per unit area) at the
is determined from Eq. (7-4). .
By equating Eqs. (7-3) and (7-4), the following expression is obtained:
2v du(x, y)
. e . «x)=
(x) aue oy y=0 (7-5)
fe)
Once the mean drag coefficient c,, is available, the drag force F acting on the
plate over the length from x =O tox=L and for a width w is determined from
F=wLe, ° = N (7-7)
That is, we measure the fluid temperature T(x, y) in excess of the wall
temperature T,, and divide it by T,,— T,,. We consider two limiting cases of
6(x, y), one at the wall surface y = 0 and the other at distances sufficiently far
away from the wall (i.e., y large). We have
| g (x, y)=0
= at y = 0 (7-9)
A(x, y)> 1 for large y
The dimensionless fluid temperature (x, y) varies from a value of 6 = 0 at the
wall surface to a value of @=1 at sufficiently large distances from the wall.
Then at each location x along the plate one envisions a point y = 6,(x) in the
flow such that 6(x, y) assumes a value of 0.99. The locus of such points where
A(x, y) = 0.99 is called the thermal boundary layer. The concept is analogous to
the velocity boundary layer discussed previously; it is illustrated in Fig. 7-2. In
the thermal boundary-layer region the temperature gradients are very steep,
and so heat transfer between the fluid and the wall is governed by the
characteristics of the temperature profile in the. thermal boundary layer.
Therefore, the relative thickess of the thermal and velocity boundary layers is a
factor that affects heat transfer between the fluid and the wall surface.
Analytical studies have shown that the relative thickness of boundary layers
depends on the Prandtl number of the fluid, defined as
bee, E/p y _ molecular diffusivity of momentum
Pr= “ko kipc, ea molecular diffusivity of heat (7-10)
The dependence of the relative thickness of 6,(x) and 5(x) can be stated as
5,(x) < 6(x) for Pr>1 (7-11a)
There is a wide difference in the values of the Prandtl number for various
types of fluids. Figure 7-3 illustrates approximate ranges of Pr for different
FIGURE 7-2
Thermal boundary-layer concept for flow of a hot fluid over a cold wall.
\
w Thermal
boundary-
layer thickness
190 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER _
fluids. For practical purposes the fluids can be separated into three groups:
fluids having very low, moderate, and large Prandtl numbers. Oils have large
Prandtl numbers; fluids such as gas, water, and light liquids have moderate
Prandtl numbers; and liquid metals have very low. Prandtl numbers. Figure 7-3
shows that there is a gap between the very low and moderate values of the
Prandtl number where no type of fluid appears to belong. A ‘schematic
illustration of the relative thickness of 6(x) and 6,(x) for these three groups of
fluids is shown in Fig. 7-4. For liquid metals the thermal boundary layer is
’ much thicker than the velocity boundary layer, whereas for oils the thermal
FIGURE 7-4 boundary layer is much smaller than the velocity layer.
Relative thickness of
velocity and thermal HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT. The concept of heat transfer coefficient is
boundary layers for
different types of
widely used in the determination of heat transfer between the wall surface and
fluids.
5,
BK iPro]
(c) Oils
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 191
the fluid forced to flow over it. To illustrate the physical significance of the heat
transfer coefficient in relation to the temperature distribution in the flow, we
consider the flow of a hot fluid at a temperature T., over a cold plate at a
' constant temperature T,,. Fluid particles in the immediate vicinity of the wall
surface remain stationary. Therefore, heat transfer betweén the wall surface
and the adjacent fluid particles is by pure conduction. Then the conduction
heat flux q(x) from the adjacent hot fluid to the wall surface at y = 0 (i.e., the
plate surface) is given by
dT(x, y)
qixj=k ay (7-12a)
y=0
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Here the negative sign is
omitted from the conduction’flux, because heat flow from the fluid’ to the wall,
in the negative y direction, is considered. ,
In engineering applications it is not practical to calculate the derivative of
temperature distribution in the fluid in order to determine the heat transfer
rate as given by Eq. (7-12a). Instead, the heat transfer between the fluid and
the wall surface is related to a local heat transfer coefficient A(x), defined as
q(x) = A(x)(T.- T,) (7-12b)
where T,, and T,, are the free-stream and plate surface temperatures, respec-
tively. The definition given by Eq. (7-125) implies that heat transfer is from the
fluid to the wall surface; hence it is consistent with the g(x) defined by Eq.
(7-12a).
The expression defining h(x) is now determined by equating Eqs. (7-12a)
and (7-125).
[9T(x,T.-F
y)/dy],0
h(x) =k (7-13b)
w
Given the temperature distribution in the flow, the local heat transfer
coefficient h(x) can be calculated from Eq. (7-136). This expression is also
used in analytical studies to establish the relation for h(x) by utilizing the -
solution of the temperature distribution in the thermal boundary layer.
In engineering applications, the mean value of h, over a distance x = 0 to
x=L along the surface is of practical interest. The mean heat transfer
coefficient h,, is determined from
hy = ; [ h(x) dx (7-14)
192 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Knowing the mean heat transfer coefficient A,,,, the heat transfer rate QO from
the fluid to the wall over the distance from x =0 to x= L and width w igs
determined from ;
Q=wLh,(T., — T,,) (7-15)
] Example 7-1. Air at atmospheric pressure and-at 300K flows with a velocity of
1m/s over a flat plate. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is assumed
to take place at a Reynolds number of 5X 10° Determine the distance from the
leading edge of the plate at which transition occurs.
| L=84m
Example 7-2. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 300 K flows over a flat plate with
a velocity of 2m/s. The average drag coefficient c,, over a distance of 3m from
the leading edge is 2.22 x 10~*. Calculate the drag force acting per 1-m width of
the plate over the distance of 3m from the leading edge.
Solution.
. v Vv
Pr=—=
a kipc,
_ 0.203 x 107*
0.137 /(840.01 x 2.219 x 10°)
LJ = 276
Velocity Distribution
The distribution of velocity for flow over bodies is governed by a system of
coupled partial differential equations called the continuity and momentum
equations. For the simple situation involving laminar flow along’a plate, the
flow velocity is characterized by two components. One is u(x, y) in the flow
direction parallel to the surface of the plate, and the other is u(x, y) normal to
the surface of the plate. The determination of these two velocity components
requires two equations, the continuity and the x-direction momentum equa-
tions. Such equations can be solved exactly by numerical techniques and the
velocity component u(x, y) needed ‘for the computation of the drag coefficient
can be determined. There is also a relatively simple approximate method of
analysis, called the integral method, available for solving the velocity problem
in flow. To develop the integral form of the equations of motion, the continuity
and momentum equations are manipulated by integrating them and then
eliminating the normal velocity component v(x, y) between them. Such a
procedure results in the following equation, called the momentum integral
equation:
{[[
dx (Jo u(u,, ~ u) dy
avo]
=Y oy yeo in 0<y<6(x)
where x and y are the coordinates measured, respectively, along the plate in
(7-164)
the direction of flow and normal to the plate surface. In addition, u. is the
main stream velocity measured at distances away from the plate, and v is the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid, both of which are considered known. Then the
velocity problem governed by Eq. (7-16a) involves two unknowns: the velocity
component u(x, y) and the boundary-layer thickness 6(x). We are concerned
with the approximate method of solution of the momentum integral equation
(7-16a). Basic steps in the analysis are as follows:
1. Assume a profile for the distribution of the axial velocity u(x, y) in the
boundary layer, 0 < y < &(x). Here we consider a second-degree polynomial
of y in the form
u(x, y) = a(x) + a,(x)y + a,(x)y? inO<y<6(@) (7-16b) .
where the coefficients a,(x) are, in general, functions of x and yet to be
related to the velocity boundary-layer thickness (x).
at
|
2. The next step in the analysis is to relate a,(x) to 6(x) by utilizing the actual] ;
1
physical conditions for the variation of u(x, y) within the boundary layer,
We have only three such coefficients and consider the following three
physically realistic requirements for u(x, y):
u(x, y)=0 at y=0
u(x, y)=u, at y= d(x)
du(x, y) =0 at y = d(x)
oy
By utilizing these three conditions, three equations are obtained for deter-
mining a), a,, and a, in terms of the boundary-layer thickness 6(x). When
these expressions are’ introduced into Eq. (7-160), the following expression
is obtained for the velocity profile:
ou (2-25) q oH 2 Be
dy “*\g 52% an dy ly=0 8"
When the integration with respect to y is performed, the following ordinary
differential equation results for the determination of the velocity boundary-
layer thickness 6(x):
d Pe 2Qvu,
dx li =5( )|- 8(x)
Or
5 d3 = = dx (7-174)
2
or
d(x) = = (7-17¢)
This expression for (x) is rearranged in dimensionless form as
5(x 30 5.48
VaR x.
(7-174)
where the local Reynolds number Re, is defined by
Re, = = (7-17e)
Thus, Eq. (7-16c) together with (7-17d) provides an expression for the
velocity distribution u(x, y) in the boundary-layer flow over a flat plate.
Drag Coefficient
Having established an approximate solution for the velocity distribution u(x, y)
in flow, we are now in a position to develop an approximate analytic expression
for the drag coefficient c, for laminar boundary-layer flow along a flat plate.
From Eq. (7-5) we have
_ 2v du(x, y) (7-18)
“un oy y=0
du(x, y)
= 2u.,
= 2u.,
7-18b
ay y=0 8(x) =V30vx/u,, . C )
Introducing Eq. (7-18b) into Eq. (7-18a), the following approximate expres-
sion is determined for the local drag coefficient c,:
_ 4y 0B
c
«UN 300xTu, Rel” (7-18c)
Our analysis for the determination of velocity profile being approximate, the
resulting expression for the drag coefficient given above is also approximate.
One of the shortcomings of approximate analysis is that the accuracy of the:
result cannot be assessed until the solution is compared with the exact result.
For this particular problem, the velocity distribution in flow has been deter-
mined exactly by numerical solution of the continuity and momentum equa-
tions, and the resulting exact expression for the local drag coefficient is given
194 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
2. The next step in the analysis is to relate a,(x) to 6(x) by utilizing the actua]
physical conditions for the variation of u(x, y) within the boundary layer,
We have only three such coefficients and consider the following three
physically realistic requirements for u(x, y):
u(x, y) =0 at y=0
u(x, y)=u, at y= d(x)
d u(x, y) = 0
at y = d(x)
oy
By utilizing these three conditions, three equations are obtained for deter-
mining a,, a, and a, in terms of the boundary-layer thickness 5(x). When
these expressions are introduced into Eq. (7-165), the following expression
is obtained for the velocity profile:
my
oy
(22)
t\5 3? an
ang |dy |y=o
Bt67
When the integration with respect to y is performed, the following ordinary
differential equation results for the determination of the velocity boundary-
layer thickness 6(x):
d [22 |- 2vu.,
dy Lis “9 |= Sex)
or
6 di= ee dx (7-174)
2
or
eo a (7-176)
a
Thus, Eq. (7-16c) together with (7-17d) provides an expression for the
velocity distribution u(x, y) in the boundary-layer flow over a flat plate.
Drag Coefficient
Having established an approximate solution for the velocity distribution u(x, y)
in flow, we are now in a position to develop an approximate analytic expression
for the drag coefficient c, for laminar boundary-layer flow along a flat plate.
From Eq. (7-5) we have
_ 2v du(x, y) (7-18)
x
un oy y=0
s with
the local drag coefficient c, decrease
where Re, = u,,x/v. We note that
in the form
increased distance from the leading
e(x)~ x? " (7-19b)
c, is within 10 percent of the exact
Note that our approximate analysis for 0 to
c,,, over the plate length from x.=
value. The average drag coefficient :
ition as
x= L, is determined from its defin
where
u,L
Re, = a
dy
Note that these conditions are similar to those imposed on the determina-
tion of the coefficients for the velocity profile. Therefore, the temperature -
profile takes the form
Note that this temperature profile is similar to the velocity profile given by
Eq. (7-215).
3. The final step in the analysis is the determination of the thermal boundary-
layer thickness 6,(x). The velocity profile, Eq. (7-21b), and the temperature
profile, Eq. (7-21c), are introduced into the energy integral equation, Eq.
(7-21). ,
198 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
A=_ 6,(x)
30 (7-22b)
Here we consider the situation in which the thermal boundary-layer thick-
ness 6, is smaller than the velocity boundary layer 6. Therefore, A<1, and
in Eq. (7-22a) the term 4A° can be neglected in comparison to 1A”
Equation (7-22a) simplifies to
d 2 12a
— = ~2
dx (64°) u,oA (7-22c)
5 aM 4 42 dd_ Ba
dx dx u,,(OA)
or
2,2 dA dd 12a
267A" ae +43 5. 1.
or
2.,dN’
—_ te —
dé, —
12a . - 2
3° dx +d aA Ug 7 (7-224)
since
»dddx _3 1 dd?dx
The velocity boundary-layer thickness 6 is
52 = s0ux (7-22e)
u,,
This is an ordinary differential equation of first order in A*, and its general
solution is’ written as (see the note at the end of this chapter for an
explanation) ;
3 “3/4 315 a
N= Cx + 374 F (7-22h)
The integration constant C is determined by the application of the boundary
condition
6,=0 at x =0 (7-227)
which implies that heat transfer starts at the leading edge of the plate. The
application of this boundary condition gives C = 0. Therefore, the solution
for A* becomes
34a 4 | 09;
5D SP (7-22))
or
Pr= £
Qa
The substitution of 6(x) = V30vx/u, into Eq. (7-22k) gives the thermal
boundary-layer thickness 6,(x) as
where
Re, = “=Vv
Thus, Eq. (7-21c), together with Eq: (7-221), provides an expression for the
dimensionless temperature distribution @(x, y) in the flow.
1. h(x) for moderate Prandtl numbers. More than half a century ago Poh-
Ihausen developed an analytic solution for the local heat transfer coefficient
h(x) for forced laminar convection over a flat plate maintained at a uniform
temperature. His result, applicable for moderate Prandtl numbers, can be
expressed in dimensionless form as
and x is the distance measured along the plate, starting from the leading edge.
- The physical properties of the fluid are to be calculated at the film temperature
T;, which is the arithmetic mean of the free-stream and wall surface tempera-
tures; that is, ‘
The average value of the heat transfer coefficient over the distance from x = 0
to x = L is determined from the definition given by Eq. (7-14). We find
1 L
hm =F i h(x) dx = 2h(x)|,21
which yields
4. h(x) for large Prandtl numbers. The Prandtl number is very large for liquids
such as oils. Pohlhausen’s analysis for the limiting case of Pr gives
3. h(x) for very small Prandtl numbers. The Prandtl number is very low for
liquid metals. The limiting case of Pohlhausen’s solution for Pr—0 gives
The average value-of the Nusselt number, Nu,,, is calculated by Eq. (7-14).
202 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Example 7-4. An approximate expression for the local heat transfer coefficient
h(x) in the laminar boundary layer along a flat plate is given by
k 2
h(x) = 0.393 = Pr’? Rei’?
Develop an expression for the average heat transfer coefficient h,, over a
distance from the leading edge of the plate.
A= Z I h(x) dx
Example 7-5. Consider laminar flow of ordinary fluid at temperature T,, over a
flat plate maintained at a uniform temperature T, in the region 0S x =x, and at
a uniform temperature T\, in the region x > xq. That is, heat transfer between the
plate and the fluid does not start until the location x = x). Determine the thermal
boundary-layer thickness by an approximate integral method.
sayy
N= Cx +3745be
The integration constant C is determined by the application of the boundary
condition 6, =0 for x = x,, which is A(x) =0 at x =x,. We find
where
ober
[s (8)
5 ~AXx
Vv
Pr=
LJ a
Example 7-6. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 350 K flows over a flat plate with
a velocity of 15 m/s. Determine the drag force per 1-m width of the plate acting
over the distance 0.3m from the leading edge.
This Reynolds number is less than the critical Reynolds number Re, =5 x 10°;
therefore the flow is laminar. The average drag coefficient c,, over the length
x=0 to x= L is given by Eq. (7-20b):
1.328 1.328 .
Cc m Rei@ = (2.47 x 10)” =2.85x 107?
L .
Then the drag force acting on the plate is determined by Eq. (7-7):
(0.988)(15)*
F=wLe,, pu, = (1)(0.3)(2.85 x 107°)
2 2
= 0.095 N
zh)
k
_ 9.330 pr (HH)
y
OT
ual lu 1/2 1
“ye
5.82 ,
h(x — l) = o( 25)
5.82 _ 11.64
~ pe
x=]
— 40
| 30
Example 7-8. Mercury at 70°C flows with a velocity of 0.1 m/s over a 0.4-m-long
flat plate maintained at 130°C. Assuming that the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow takes place at Re, =5 x 10°, determine the average heat transfer
coefficient over the length of the plate.
re
Solution. The physical: properties of the fluid are taken at the film temperatu
T, = (70 + 130)/2= 100°C as follows:
k = 10.51 W/(m-°C) vy =0.0928x10°°m’/s_ Pr =0.0162
ed to be
For Re, = 5 x 10°, the location x, where the transition occurs is determin
yRe, (0.0928 x 107*)(5 x 10°)
x= = 0.464 m
. u- 0.1
length of
Hence L =0.4m< x, = 0.464 m and the flow is laminar over the entire
the plate. .
at
The local Nusselt number for the laminar boundary layer is determined
x= L by Eq. (7-28):
Nu|,_, = 0.564 Pe”? -
= 0.564 (Re, Pr)"
(0.4)(0.1) \"
=0.5 4] C0), 0.0162 = 47.1
64l x 107°
T0028 0162) ;
and the average Nusselt number is calculated from Eq. (7-14):
Nu,, =2Nul,.7
= 2(47.13) = 94.26
L = 0.4m
Then the average heat transfer coefficient over the length of the plate
becomes
k
h m
=7 Nu,
1
= (05) 94.26 = 2476.64 W/(m? -°C)
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 205
c(x)
= 0.370 (log Re, 77" (7-30)
valid for 10’< Re, <10°.
, Inmany applications, the flow is laminar over the part of the plate surface
0<x<x,, where x, is the location of the transition from laminar to turbulent,
and turbulent over ‘the remaining region x,<x= L. The drag coefficient for
the laminar region was given previously by Eq. (7-19a), and for the turbulent
flow region Eq. (7-29) can used. Then the mean drag coefficient c,, over the
entire region 0<x<L can be determined by proper averaging of"these two
local drag coefficients. The resulting expression for the average drag coefficient.
c,, becomes
B
Cm = 0.074 Re>?? — for Re, <Re, <10’ (7-31)
Re,
which is valid over the entire region of laminar and turbulent flow. The value
of B depends on the value of the critical Reynolds number Re, chosen for the
transition from laminar flow; corresponding values are listed in Table 7-1.
206 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
TABLE 7-1
Constant B of Eq. (7-31)
B Re,
700 2x 10°
1050 3x 10°
1740 3x 10°
3340 1x 10°
RELATION BETWEEN c(x) AND h(x). The drag and heat transfer coefficients for
laminar flow over a flat plate can readily be determined by theoretical means;
but this is not quite true for the case of turbulent flow. Therefore, the drag and
heat-transfer coefficients for turbulent flow are generally’ determined by
experimental means. It is easier to measure the drag force than the heat
transfer coefficient. Furthermore, correlations are generally available for the
. determination of the drag coefficient in turbulent flow. Therefore, efforts have
been directed toward developing relations between the drag coefficient and the
heat transfer coefficient so that h(x) can be determined once c(x) is known.
One such relation is given in the form , ,
where
x v _ h(x)x
* v a ana
and all properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
The following expression for the local heat transfer coefficient in turbul-
ent flow over a flat plate has been proposed [Whitaker, 1976]:
where all properties are evaluated at the film temperature. A large number of
experimental data are found-to correlate well with this expression.
In most practical applications the flow is laminar over a portion0<x <x,
of the plate and turbulent over the remaining portion x, <x < L of the plate,
where x, is the location of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The
average value of the heat transfer coefficient h,, over the entire region
Q0<x<L can be determined by properly averaging the local heat transfer
coefficients for the laminar and turbulent flow regions. Taking the loca] heat
transfer coefficients from Eqs. (7-24a) and (7-35) for the laminar- and tur-
bulent-flow regions, respectively, averaging them properly, and assuming that
the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at a critical Reynolds
number Re, =2 10°, the following expression is obtained for the average
Nusselt number applicable over the entire region 0<x<L:
0.25
Nu,, = 0.036 Pr?(Re?® — 200)( =} (7-37)
Ww
All physical properties are evaluated at the free-stream temperature except y.,,,
which is evaluated at the wall temperature. The viscosity correction factor
takes care of the effects of the property variation with temperature in liquids.
For gases, the viscosity correction is neglected, and for such a case the physical
properties are evaluated at the film temperature.
The relation given by Eq. (7-37) is plotted in Fig. 7-5 as a function of the
Reynolds number Re, for several different values of the Prandtl number. This
figure also shows the average drag coefficient determined from Eq. (7-13).
Equation (7-37) gives the average Nusselt number over the laminar and
208 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
10° 4x 103
10° ‘ 3X 1073
\ Gn es ss
etx 10-3
Z 108 ph OL,
°
NS Le
10 +—, eelone
.> EF - 1x 103
0.7 :
0
10° 108 107
Re,
FIGURE 7-5
Average Nusselt number (Eq. 7-37) and the average drag coefficient (Eq. 7-31) for turbulent flow
over a flat plate. ,
turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate for Re, >2X 10°. It has been
proposed to correlate the experimental data for air, water, and oil covering the
following ranges:
Equation (7-37) correlates the experimental data reasonably well when the
free-stream turbulence is small. If high-level turbulence is present in the free
stream, Eq. (7-37) without the constant 9200 correlates the data reasonably
well.
Example 7-9. Atmospheric air at T,,= 40°C with a free-stream velocity u,=
8m/s flows along a flat plate L =3m long which is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 100°C. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the
entire length of the plate. Assume that transition occurs at Re, = 2 x 10°.
“ “= 19.4 Wi(m?-°C)
Here the physical properties are evaluated at the film temperature because the
viscosity correction is neglected. We note that when the viscosity correction needs
to be included, the physical properties are evaluated at the free-stream tem-
perature.
Example 7-10. Calculate the total heat transfer rate Q from the plate of Example
7-9 to the air over the length L = 3m and width w=1m.
Re= . . (7-38)
FIGURE 7-6
Flow around a circular cylinder at various Reynolds numbers.
the Reynolds
affects the formation of various types of flow patterns. Here
number is based on the diamete r D of the cylinder . For a Reynold s number
around the cylinder remains unsepar ated, and the
less than about 4, the flow
flow patterns are relatively simple. At a Reynold s number of about 4, vortices
start to form in the wake region, and for Re>4 the flow patterns become very
the
complicated. The iocal drag and heat transfer coefficients vary around
circumference of the cylinder .
and heat
In most engineering applications the average values of the drag
transfer coefficients over the circumf erence are of interest. Therefo re, we focus
our attention on the determi nation of the average drag and heat transfer
coefficients. ,
(7-39)
Here LD represents the area normal to the flow; the density p and the
free-stream velocity u,, are known. Then, given cp, the drag force F acting
over the length L of the tube can be readily determined from Eq. (7-39).
Figure 7-7 shows the drag coefficient cp for flow across a single cylinder.
The physical significance of the variation of cp with the Reynolds number can
be better envisioned if we examine the results in Fig. 7-7 in relation to the
sketches in Fig. 7-6. For Re <4, the drag is caused by viscous forces only, since
the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder. In the region 4<Re<
5000, vortices are formed in the wake; therefore, the drag is due.partly to the
viscous forces and partly to the wake formation, that is, the low pressure
caused by the flow separation. In the region 5 x 10° <Re<3.5 x 10°, the drag
is caused predominantly by the highly turbulent eddies in the wake. The
sudden reduction in drag at Re=3.5 x 10° is caused by the boundary layer
changing to turbulent; this causes the point of flow separation to move toward
the rear of the cylinder, which in turn reduces the size of the wake, and hence
the drag.
Drag Coefficient, ep
oe
ba
0.2
0.1
1o7! 2 46 190 2 4 6jq! 2 46 jg? 2 46 393 2 4 6 jot 2 4 6495 2 4 6 396
u,,D
Re=
v
FIGURE 7-7
Average Drag coefficient for flow across a single circular cylinder. (From Schlichting). .
A sufficienty general correlation for h,, is given in the form [Churchill and
Bernstein]
=0.3+4+ — 2
Ss.
Nu,,
(1 + (0.4/Pr)*?]'" 282,000
106
10°
In the above relations all properties are to be evaluated at the film temperature
T, =(T, + T,,)/2, and the Reynolds and Peclet numbers are defined as
u,,D
Re= y (7-43a)
= Re Pr=
Pe a
u,,
(7-43b)
800 |
700 -—
600
|
Re = 219.000
= DA(O/k
Lvwr| ON LY
500
=
ss rah dN S
Local Nusselt number Nu,
AA
J
a
N
rT
| 101.300
300 Poh \. S|
| uN | lA
Ss
q
200 -— Re = \\ Log
—
100 o
0 £
FIGURE 7-9
Variation of the local heat transfer coefficient h(@) around a circular cylinder for flow of air. (From
Giedt)
LU = 3385 W
vy 1,94 10°
= 6443
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 215
TABLE 7-2
Constants c and n of Eq. (7-44)
Example 7-14. Calculate the heat transfer rate from the duct to the air per meter
length of the duct of Example 7-13.
F pu,
4 (7-45)
where A is the frontal area (that is, A= aD7/4) and u,, is the free-stream
velocity. We note that F/A is the drage force per unit frontal area of the
‘sphere.
Figure 7-10 shows the average drag coefficient cp plotted as a function of
FIGURE 7-10
Schlichting).
Average Drag coefficient for flow over a single sphere. (From
400
200
100
60
40
20
Drag coefficient cp
10
6
nn
I
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
1 -
0.06 46 193 2 4 6 94 2 46 jQs 2 4 6 196
lo-!2-4 6 yp?2 4 6 joi2 4 & JQ?2
uD .
Re=
v
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 217
the Reynolds number for flow across a single sphere. A comparison of the drag
coefficient curves for a single cylinder and a single sphere, shown in Figs. 7-7
and 7-10, respectively, reveals similar behavior on the part of these two curves.
where D is the diameter of the sphere and u,, is the free-stream velocity.
For ready reference, the expression given by Eq. (7-46) is plotted in Fig.
7-11 as a function of the Reynolds number Re for several different values of
the Prandtl number.
Z 102 : ae os
Pr=: 380 “| |
10 100
ea
1 : / 2 :
1 10 10? 103 10+ 108
218 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
of u.. =1m/s
|| Example 7-14, Water at T_, = 20°C flows with a free-stream velocity
surface is maintain ed at a uniform tempera-
over a 2.5-cm-diameter sphere whose
Determi ne the average heat transfer coefficie nt.
ture of T,, = 140°C.
ure T, =
Solution. The physical properties of water at the free-stream temperat
20°C are
k=0.597Wi(m-°C) Pr=7.02 “py = 1.006 x 107° m?/s
~ , = 1.006 x 10°? kg/(m-s)
and the viscosity of water at T,, = 140°C is
L,, = 0.198 x 107* kg/(m -s)
The Reynolds number becomes
Rew Ua _ 1% 0.025
vp 1,006 x 107°
= 24,850
= 375.1
k 0.597
h,,= D Nu,, = 0.025 (375.1)
NOTE
The differential equation (7-22g) is of the form
dy
xa t+ Ay=B
_
is given
where A and B are constants. A particular solution y, of this equation
by
yp
_8A
and the homogeneous solution yj, is
yu %
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODIES 219
PROBLEMS
Basic Concepts
7-1. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 400 K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of
5 m/s. The transition fronr laminar to turbulent flow is assumed to take place at a
Reynolds number of 5 x 10°; determine the distance from the leading edge of the
plate at which transition occurs. :
7-2. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 350 K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of
5m/s. The average drag coefficient c,, over a distance of 2m from the leading
edge is 0.0019. Calculate the drage force acting per 1-m width of the plate over
the distance of 2m from the leading edge.
Answer: 0.0477 N
7-3. Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and at 350K flows over a flat plate with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is assumed to take
place at a Reynolds number of 5 x 10°; determine the distance from the leading
. edge of the plate at which the transition occurs.
7-4, Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and at 350K flows over a flat plate with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The average drag coefficient c,, over a distance of 2m from the
leading edge is 0.005. Calculate the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate
over a distance of 3m from the leading edge.
7-5. Air at 1/20 atm and at 345K has p = 0.0508 kg/m’, c, = 1.009 k3/(kg-°C), k=
0.03 W/(m-°C), and ps = 2.052 x 107° kg/(m:s). Calculate the Prandtl number.
7-6. Mercury at 205°C has = 135168 kg/m’, c, = 0.1356 kI/(kg-°C), k=
12.63 Wi{m-°C), and w =1. 005 x 107? kg/(m:s). Calculate the Prandtl number.
7-10. Engine oil at 80°C flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 1 m/s. Determine (a)
the local drag coefficient at a distance of 2m from the leading edge, and (b) the
average drag coefficient and the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate over
the distance of 2m from the leading edge.
7-11. Ethylene at 80°C flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 0.2 m/s. Determine (a)
the local drag coefficient at a distance of 2m from the leading edge, and (b) the
average drag coefficient and the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate over
the distance of 2m from the leading edge.
7-12. Air at 2atm pressure and at 350K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of
1.5m/s. Determine the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate over a
distance of 0.3m from the leading edge. .
7-13. Air at 2 atm pressure and at 350 K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 2 m/s.
Determine the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate over a distance of
0.5 m from the leading edge. —_
7-14. Air at 0.5atm pressure and at 350K flows over a flat plate with a velocity of
m/s. Determine the drag force acting per 1-m width of the plate over a distance
of 0.5m from the leading edge. /
7-15. Determine the drag force exerted on a 2-m-long flat plate per meter width by the
flow of the following fluids at atmospheric pressure and at 350 K with a velocity of
5 m/s: (a) air, (b) hydrogen, and (c) helium.
- Answers: (a) 0.0477 N, (b) 0.0088 N, (c) 0.0189N
7-16. A fluid of 80°C flows with a free-stream velocity of 0.8 m/s along a 5-m-long flat
plate. Compute the average drag coefficient and the drag force acting per 1-m
width of the plate over a distance of 0.5 m from the leading edge for the following
fluids: (a) air and (b) CQ.
Answers: (a) 0.0048 N, (b) 0.0054.N
7-17. A fluid at 80°C flows with a free-stream velocity of 0.5 m/s along a 5-m-long flat
plate. Compute the average drag coefficient and the drag force acting per 1-m
width of the plate over a distance of 0.5 m from the leading edge for the following
fluids: (a) water and (b) ethylene glycol.
Answers: (a) 52.8N/m’, (b) 79.7 N/m?
7-18. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 40°C flows with a velocity of Sm/s over a
2-m-long flat plate whose surface is kept at a uniform temperature of 120°C.
Determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the 2-m length of the plate.
Answer: 6.14 W/(m? - °C)
plate
7-19. Engine oil at 40°C flows with a velocity of u,, = 1m/s, over a 2-m-long flat
of 80°C. Determine the
whose surface is maintained at a uniform temperature
average heat transfer coefficient over the 2-m length of the plate.
Answer: 74.5 W/(m? - °C)
7-20. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 40°C flows with a velocity of 5m/s over 4
2-m-long flat plate whose surface is kept at a uniform temperature of 120°C.
Determine the rate of heat transfer between the plate and the air per meter width
of the plate.
Answer: 982.4 W/m width
over a
7-21. Air at atmospheric pressure, and at 54°C flows with a velocity of 10 m/s
flat plate maintained at 200°C. Calculate the average drag and heat
1-m-long
heat
transfer coefficients over the 1-m length of the plate. Determine the rate of
transfer between the plate and the air per meter width of the plate.
Answer: —1790 W
FORCED CONVECTION OVER BODiES 221
7-22. Mercury at 65°C flows with a velocity of 0.1 m/s over a flat plate maintined at
120°C. Assuming that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at
Re, =5 x 10°, determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the length of
the plate where the flow is laminar.
Answer: 2267 W/(m* - °C)
7-23. Atmospheric air at 24°C flows with a velocity of 4m/s along a 2-m-long flat plate
maintained at a uniform temperature of 130°C. ~
(a) Determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the
plate.
(b) Determine the heat transfer rate from that plate to the air per meter width of
the plate.
7-24. Consider the flow of air, hydrogen, and helium at atmospheric pressure and at
77°C with a velocity of 4m/s along a 2-m-long flat plate. Determine the value of
the local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 1 m from the leading edge of the
plate.
Answers: 3.88 W/(m? -°C), 10.2 W/(m? -°C), 7.64 W/(m? - °C)
7-25, Determine the value of the local heat transfer coefficient h, at a distance of 1m
from the leading edge of a flat plate for the flow of air at 77°C with a velocity of
4m/s at pressures of 0.5, 1.0, and 2 atmospheres.
Answers: 2.74 W/(m?- °C), 3.88 W/(m?- °C), 5.48 W/(m" - °C)
7-26. Ethylene glycol at 70°C flows over a 0.5-m-long flat plate at 90°C with a velocity
of 2m/s. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of
the plate.
Answer: 654 W/(m? - °C)
7-27, Helium at atmospheric pressure and at 20°C flows with a velocity of 10 m/s over a
L=2m long flat plate maintained at a uniform temperature of 140°C. Calculate
the rate of heat loss from the plate per meter width of the plate.
Answer: 4.1 kW/m width
7-28. Atmospheric air at 20°C flows with a velocity of 2 m/s over the 3m X 3m surface
of a wall that absorbs solar energy flux at a rate of 500 W/m? and dissipates heat
by convection into the air stream. Assuming negligible heat loss at the back
surface of the wall, determine the average temperature of thé wall under
equilibrium conditions.
Answer: 178°C
7-29. Atmospheric air at 27°C flows with a velocity of 4m/s over a 0.5mx0.5m flat
plate which is uniformly heated with an electric heater at a rate of 2000 W/ m*.
Calculate the average temperature of the plate.
7-30. Air at atmospheric pressure and at 24°C flows with a velocity of U, = 10 m/s
along a L =4m long flat plate which is maintained at a uniform temperature of
130°C. Assuming R, =2 x 10°, calculate (a) the local heat transfer coefficient at
the locations x = 2, 3, and 4m from the leading edge of the plate; (b) the average
heat transfer coefficient over the length L = 4m; and (c) the heat transfer rate
from the plate to the air per meter width of the plate.
7-31. Ethylene glycol at 40°C flows with a free-stream velocity of 8m/s along a
3-m-long flat plate maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the plate. Assume
transition occurs at Re, =2 x 10°.
222 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
W) 7-32. Helium at atmospheric pressure and at 300 K flows with a velocity of 30 m/s over
a 5-m-long and 1-m-wide plate which is maintained at a uniform temperature of
600 K. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient and the total heat transfer
rate. Assume that transition occurs at Re, =2 x 10°.
Answers: 39.5 W/(m? -°C), —59.3kW
7-33. Ethylene glycol at 300K flows with a velocity of 15 m/s over a 5-m-long and
1-m-wide plate which is maintained at a uniform temperature of 330K. Calculate
the average heat transfer coefficient and the total heat transfer rate. Assume that
transition occurs at Re, =2 x 10°.
© 7.34. Air at 24°C flows along a 4-m-long flat plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. The plate is
maintained at 130°C. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the
entire length of the plate and the heat transfer rate per meter width of the plate.
Answers: 9.73 Wi(m? -°C), —4120 W/m width ,
© 7-35. For the plate in Problem 7-34, calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over
the entire length of the plate and the heat transfer rate per meter width of the
plate if the air velocity is increased at 10 m/s.
Answers: 22.6 W/(m? -°C), —9560 N/m width
transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rate between the plate surface and the oil
per meter length of the plate.
7-43. Water at 20°C with a free-stream velocity 1.5 m/s flows across a 2.5 cm by 2.5 cm
duct which is maintained at a uniform temperature of 80°C and oriented such that
one of its lateral surfaces is perpendicular to the direction of flow. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rate per meter length of the
tube.
REFERENCES
. Churchill, S. W., and M. Bernstein: “A Correlating Equation for Forced Convection from
Gases and Liquids to a Circular Cylinder in Cross Flow,” J. Heat Transfer, 99:300-306
(1977).
. Giedt, W. H.: “Investigation of Variation of Point Unit-Heat-Transfer Coefficient around a
Cylinder Normal to an Air Stream,” Trans. ASME, 71:375-381 (1949).
. Jakob, Max: Heat Transfer, vol. 1, Wiley, New York, 1949.
. Kreith, F.: Principles of Heat Transfer, Intext, New York, 1973.
. Nakai, S., and T. Okazaki: ‘(Heat Transfer from a Horizontal Circular Wire at Small Reynolds
and Grashof Numbers—1. Pure Convection,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 18:387 (1975).
. Pohlhausen, E.: Angew. Math. Mech., 1:115 (1921).
. Schlichting, H.: Boundary Layer Theory, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
. Schutz-Grunow, F.: “Neues Widerstandsgesetz fiir glatte Platten,” Luftfahrtforschung, 17:239
(1940); also NACA Tech. Memo 986, 1941.
. Whitaker, S.: Elementary Heat Transfer Analysis, Pergamon, New York, 1976.
. Whitaker, S.: “Forced Convection Heat Transfer Calculations for Flow in Pipe, past Flat
Plates Single Cylinders, and for Flow in Packed Beds and Tube Bundles,” AIChE J.,
18:361-371 (1972).
CHAPTER
FORCED
CONVECTION
INSIDE
- DUCTS
This chapter is devoted to heat transfer and pressure drop in forced convection
inside ducts under both laminar and turbulent flow conditions, with emphasis
on the understanding of the physical mechanism and the use of various
correlations for predicting heat flow and pressure drop. Turbulent pipe flow is
widely used in various industrial applications, and the available correlations of
the heat transfer coefficient and the friction faétor are mostly of an empirical or
semiempirical nature. We present such corre}gfons with particular emphasis on
their ranges of validity.
Laminar pipe flow is encountered generally in compact heat exchangers,
cryogenic coolant systems, the heating or cooling of heavy fluids such as oils,
and many other applications. Numerous analytic expressions are available for
predicting the friction factor and heat transfer coefficient in laminar tube flow.
We present some of these results and discuss their range of validity.
Heat transfer correlations developed for ordinary fluids break down when
they are applied to liquid metals, because the Prandtl number for liquid metals
is very low. Therefore, heat transfer to liquid metals has been the subject of
numerous investigations, but reliable correlations are still rather limited. We
discuss some of the available correlations of heat transfer for the flow of liquid
metals in tubes.
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 225
n- DN.
: Re=—™ v
(8-1)
7 FIGURE 8-1
Concept of hydrodynamic entry region.
n :
5 : pena entry region bea——- Hydrodynamically developed region
if
it on
|
mn
226 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Um? (8-2)
Re= ' > 2300
FIGURE 8-2 :
Concept of hydrodynamic and thermal entrance lengths and the fully developed region.
i :
w-——— Heat transfer section
to — ane ” /
Ug
0 a
SS -—\—-:
228 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
fluid varies in both the radial and axial directions. The average temperature of
the fluid over the duct cross section at any axial location z is of practical
interest. Such an averaging cannot be performed by taking a simple arithmetic
average of the temperature over the cross section. The averaging must be
based on the thermal energy transported with the bulk motion of the fluid as it
passes through the cross section. If u is the axial velocity, the quantity
pc,ur
represents energy flux per unit of cross-sectional area of the duct. With this
consideration, the mean fluid temperature T,,(z) for flow inside « a circular tube
of inside radius R is given by
For a constant-property fluid, the pc, term cancels out, and Eq. (8-5a) reduces
to
R
[- u(r) T(r, z)(2ar) dr I u(r) T(r, z)(2ar) dr -
T,,(Z) = 7 = (8-5)
R u_awR 3
Mr)(2ar) dr "
In the case of flow between two parallel plates, the appropriate area term
should be used in the integration.
d0(r, z)
A(z)=—-k (8-9)
or r=R wail
An examination of Eq. (8-9) reveals that if 6(r, z) varies in the axial direction,
the heat transfer coefficient h(z) also varies with the position along the tube.
In the region sufficiently far away from the tube inlet, the velocity and the
dimensionless temperature profiles do not vary with the axial position. Hence
in the fully developed region the dimensionless temperature 0(r) is independent
of z, and Eg. (8-9) reduces to
where @(r) is defined by Eq. (8-4). This result implies that in the thermally
it developed region the heat transfer coefficient does not vary with the distance
along the tube; and it is valid for heat transfer under conditions of constarit
st wall heat flux or constant wall temperature. ©
al
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
'y
Consider the flow of a fluid inside a duct whose walls are maintained at a
uniform temperature T,,. Let the fluid enter the tube at a temperature T, and
leave it at a temperature 7,. Figure 8-3 illustrates the axial variation of the
bulk mean temperature T,,(z) along the tube for the case of a hot wall. In the
determination of the total heat transfer rate between the fluid and the wall, an
average temperature difference AT between the wall and the fluid is needed.
at Let AT, and AT, be the inlet and outlet temperature differences between the
>
o fluid and the wall at the inlet and outlet, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 8-3.
iS The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) between the wall and
230 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Temperature
FIGURE 8-3
Nomenclature for the definition :
of the Logarithmic Mean 0 L
Temperature Difference. Distance from the inlet
the fluid temperatures over the entire length L of the tube is defined as
_ AT,-—AT,
ATi = in (AT JAT,) (8-11)
whereas the arithmetic mean (AM) of AT, and AT, is defined as
Friction Factor
In engineering applications the pressure drop AP associated with the flow of
fluid inside a duct is a quantity of practical interest, because if the pressure
drop is known, the pumping power required to get the fluid pumped through
the fluid can be determined.
Consider a fluid flowing with a mean velocity u,, through’a circular tube
of inside diameter D and length L. The pressure drop AP over the length L of
the tube is related to the friction factor f by the following expression:
In the case of flow through a duct which is not circular, the tube diameter D in
_ the above expression is replaced by the hydraulic diameter D,,, and we obtain
AP=F5-5 (8-14a)
je
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 231
D,=—>! (8-14b)
Dimensionless Parameters
The dimensionless parameters, such as the Reynolds, Prandtl, Nusselt, and
Stanton numbers, have been used in the study of forced convection over
surfaces. They will also be used for forced convection through ducts. There-
fore, it is instructive to discuss the physical significance of these parameters in
relation to fluid flow and heat transfer.
We consider the Reynolds number based on a characteristic length L,
rearranged in the form
Und _ u2/L __ inertia force
Re= = vu,,/L? _ viscous force (8-164)
Then the Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia force to viscous
force. This result implies that viscous forces are dominant for small ‘Reynolds
numbers and inertia forces are dominant for large Reynolds numbers. Recall
that the Reynolds number was used as the criterion for determining the change
from laminar to turbulent flow. As the Reynolds number is increased, the
inertia forces become dominant, and small disturbances in the fluid may be
amplified to cause-the transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
The Prandtl number can be arranged in the form
Pr= Coe wp _ » _ molecular diffusivity of momentum
Tk ki(pe,) molecular diffusivity of heat
(8-16b) ©
Thus it represents the relative importance of momentum and energy transport
by the diffusion process. Hence for gases with Pr=1, the transfer of momen-
tum and energy by the diffusion process is comparable. For oils, Pr>1, and
hence the momentum diffusion is much greater than the energy diffusion; but
for liquid metals, Pr<1, and the situation is reversed. We recall that in
discussing the development of velocity and thermal boundary layers for flow
232 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
along a flat plate, the relative thickness of velocity and thermal boundary layers
depended on the magnitude of the Prandtl number.
The Nusselt number, based on a characteristic length L, can be rear.
ranged in the form
hL hAT
Nu=
“kK ATIL: (8-16¢)
where ATis the reference temperature difference between the wall surface and
the fluid temperature. Then the Nusselt number may be interpreted as the ratio
of heat transfer by convection to that conduction across the fluid layer of
thickness L. Based on this interpretation, a value of the Nusselt number equal
to unity implies that there is no convection—the heat transfer is by pure
conduction. A larger value of the Nusselt number implies enhanced heat
transfer by convection.
The Stanton number can be rearranged as
St ho AAT _ (8-16d)
PC Up, PC,U,, AT
[| Example 8-1. Engine oil (v = 0.75 x 107* m?/s) flows with a mean velocity of
u,, = 0.3 m/s inside a circular tube that has an inside diameter D=2.5cm.
Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Example 8-2. Consider a flow of a fluid in a channel whose walls are maintained
at a uniform temperature T,, = 100°C. The fluid is heated from T, = 30°C to
T, = 70°C over the length L of the channel. Determine the logarithmic mean
temperature difference between the channel wall and the fluid.
Example 8-3. A fluid flows through a square duct 2cm by 2cm. Calculate the
hydraulic diameter.
Solution. From Eq. (8-14b) the hydraulic diameter of the duct is calculated as
4A, 422) | 2m
Lo a” p 4x2
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 233
_
=(3N m/s)| aes 1 (hp: s)/(N-
(hp-s)/(N m) |
= 0.004 hp/tube
é
Then
W(for 500 tubes) = 0.004 x 500 = 2 hp
-— 8 du
f= pur, dr |r=R , (8-17)
and the fully developed velocity profile for flow inside a circular tube is given
by
#0 (2) est
Then the velocity gradient at the wall surface is determined from this ex-
pression:
du(r) _ 4uy, _ 8u,,
dr |r=R ~ R ~ : D (8-18)
Introducing Eq. (8-185) into Eq. (8-17), the following expression is obtained
234 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
for the friction factor f for laminar flow inside a circular tube:
_ 644 _ 64
f= pu,D Re (8-192)
-] Example 8-5. Compare the mean velocities, friction factors, and pressure drops
for fully developed laminar flow at 20°C of Freon [p = 2.65 x 107~* kg/(m-s),
p =1330kg/m°], ethylene glycol: [j= 2.24 x 107” kg/(m-s), p =1117 kg/m’),
and engine oil [2 =0.8kg/(m-s), 6 = 888 kg/m*] through a 2.5-cm-diameter,
50-m-long tube at a rate of 0.01 kg/s.
These Reynolds numbers are less than 2300; therefore, the flows are laminar. The
friction factors for laminar flows inside a circular tube, according to Eq. (8-192),
become
64 64
Freon: f= Re * 19347 0.0331
The pressure drops across the tube from Eq. (8-142) are calculated as
L pu, 100 (1330)(0.0153)° 2
Freon: AP=f = D ie m9, 0331 105 42 7=20.6N/m
2 100 CHL)
(1117)(0.0182)?
WU loe)” 2
Ethylene: AP = 2.82 ~~~
0.025 3 = 2087 N/m
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT. The heat transfer coefficient for flow inside a
circular tube in the thermally developed region is related to the dimensionless
temperature gradient at the wall by Eq. (8-10) as
. _ d0(r)
| “pak dpMS lear (8-20a)
99)=F G)—T,(@) -
To determine h, the temperature distribution in the flow is needed. We
consider below two specific cases: (1) constant heat flux at the wall, and (2)
constant temperature at the wall.
1. Constant heat flux at the wall. Consider laminar flow inside a circular tube
of radius R that is subjected to a uniform heat flux at the wall. In the region
sufficiently away from the inlet where the velocity and temperature profiles are
fully developed, the dimensionless temperature distribution 6(r) in the fluid is
given by
+aelr)
(7) = lig ti 4 (ey1(6))
and the derivative of this temperature at the wall r = R becomes
~alr/] >. Cte)
d6(r) _ 48 1 _ 48
dr \r-r 112R: 11D (8-210)
Introducing Eq. (8-21) into Eq. (8-20a), the expression for the heat transfer
coefficient h becomes
48 k
h=a5h (8-224)
Or
The result given by Eqs. (8-22a) and (8-22b) represents the heat transfer
coefficient for laminar forced convection inside a circular tube in the hyd-
rodynamically and thermally developed region under the constant wall heat
flux boundary condition.
2. Constant wall temperature. The heat transfer problem described above for
the hydrodynamically and thermally developed region also can be solved under
a constant wall temperature boundary condition; the resulting expression for
the Nusselt number is
which is valid for laminar forced convection inside a circular tube in the
hydrodynamically and thermally developed region under the constant wall
temperature boundary condition.
In the results given by Eqs. (8-22) and (8- 23), the thermal conductivity of
the fluid k depends on temperature. When the fluid temperature varies along
the tube, & may be evaluated at the fluid bulk mean temperature T,,, defined as
s | (8-25)
where A, = cross-sectional area for flow and P =the wetted perimeter. Then
the Nusselt and Reynolds numbers for such cases are defined as
Nu = nD, (8-262)
k
Re= Ha (8-266)
The basis for choosing D, as in Eq. (8-25) is that for a circular tube D,
becomes the tube diameter D, since A, = (a/4)D* and P = wD. The hydraulic
diameter D, for parallel plates is twice the distance between the plates.
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 237
In Table 8-1 we present the Nusselt number and the friction factor for
laminar flow inside ducts of various cross sections. Here the notation Nu; and
Nu, refers to the Nusselt number under constant wall temperature and
" constant wall heat flux, respectively. The friction factor f is given as a product
of f and Re. Both the Nusselt and the Reynolds number are based on the
hydraulic diameter D,, as specified by Eqs. (8-25) and (8-26).
TABLE 8-1
Nusselt number and friction factor for
hydrodynamically and thermally developed
laminar flow in ducts of various cross sections
Geometry
(L/D, > 100) Nu; Nu, fRe
60° 2b V3
2b a OAT 3.111 53.33
2a
2a
2b :
‘2b [| 5a = 3.391 4.123 62.20
2a
5 b Cc 2b,
aa 78 5.597 6.490 82.34
a
| 2b
—— 39 * 0 7.541 8.235 96.00
2b t
ee =0
FITTTIT} @ 4.861 5.385 96.00
Insulated
Example 8-6. Consider the flow of water with a velocity of 0.0379 m/s through a
tube 2. cm in diameter whose wall is maintained at constant temperature. The flow
is hydrodynamically and thermally developed. Calculate the heat transfer coefficj-
ent by taking the water properties at 50°C.
Example 8-7. The wall of the tube in Example 8-6 is heated by electric resistance,
thus maintaining a uniform surface heat flux. Calculate the heat transfer coeffici-
ent for this boundary condition.
Solution. The Nusselt number for a constant wall heat flux boundary condition for
laminar flow inside a circular tube in the hydrodynamically and thermally
developed region is given by Eqs. (8-22). Therefore the heat transfer coefficient is
determined as
h=
48 k
11D
_ 48 0.64 = 139.6 W/(m’ -°C) 7
LU ~ 11 0.02
Example 8-8. Consider the flow of water with a velocity of 0.0379 m/s through a
square duct 2cm by 2cm whose walls are maintained at a uniform temperature
T,, = 100°C. Assume that the flow is hydrodynamically and thermally developed.
Determine the duct length required to heat the water from T, =30°C to T, =
70°C.
Nu = 2.976
k 0.64 2
h=Nu D, = 2.976 ——~
0.02 = 95.23 W/(m* -°C)
Hence
Q=hA,(LMTD)
and
mce,(T, - T,)=hA,(LMTD)
where m is the mass flow rate of water and A, is the surface area of the. square
duct.
m= pAu,,
= (990)(2 x 2)(0.0379) = 0.015 kg/s
and
gives
A, = 0.5582 m* = (4 x 0.02)L o
and .
| L=7m
TABLE 8-2
Hydrodynamic entrance length L, and thermal entrance
length L, for laminar flow inside ducts
i
L/D, ,
Pe
2b 0.008 0.012
0.011
2b
; =0.25 - 0.075 0.054 0.042
flow inside conduits of various cross sections based on the definition discussed
previously. Included in this table are the thermal entrance lengths for constant
wall temperature and constant wall heat flux boundary conditions for thermally
developing, hydrodynamically developed flow. In this table, D, is the hydraulic
diameter, and the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter.
We note from Table 8-2 that for a given geometry, the hydrodynamic
entry length L, depends on the Reynolds ‘number only, whereas the thermal
entry length L, depends on the Peclet number Pe, which is equal to the product
of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. Therefore, for liquids that have a
Prandtl number of the order of unity, L, and L, are of comparable magnitude.
For fluids, such as oils, that have a large Prandtl number, L,>L,; and for
liquid metals that have a small Prandtl number, L,< L,.
The thermal entry lengths given in Table 8-2 are for hydrodynamically
developed, thermally developing laminar flow.
Example 8-9. Determine the hydrodynamic and thermal entrance lengths in terms
of the tube inside diameter D for flow at a mean temperature T,, = 60°C and
Re = 200 inside a circular tube for mercury, air, water, ethylene glycol, and
engine oil, under the constant wall heat flux boundary condition.
cca
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 241
Solution. The hydrodynamic entrance length L,, for laminar flow inside a circular
tube, is obtained from Table 8-2 as
L, = 0.056 Re D
= (0.056)(200)D = 11D
Thus, L, is approximately 11 diameters from the tube inlet for all the fluids
considered here.
The thermal entrance length, given heat transfer under the constant wall
heat flux boundary condition, is obtained from Table 8-2 as
L, = 0.043 Re Pr D
= (0.043)(200) Pr D = 8.6 Pr D
Here L, depends on the Prandtl number, and for the fluids considered in this
example it is determined as follows:
Fluid Pr LJd
Mercury 0.02 0.17
Air 0.7 6
Water 3 26
Ethylene glycol 50 430
Engine oil 1050 9030
We note that for flow at Re = 200, the thermal entrance length varies from a
fraction of the tube diameter for mercury to about 9000 diameters for engine oil,
while the hydrodynamic entrance length is about 11 diameters for all the fluids
- considered here.
1. There are situations, as illustrated in Fig. 8-2, in which the heat transfer
starts as soon as fluid enters the duct. Then, both the velocity and the
thermal boundary layers begin to develop simultaneously, and L, and L, are
measured from the tube inlet. The region where the velocity and tempera-
ture boundary layers grow together is called the simultaneously developing
ms region.
nd
nd . In some situations, heat transfer to the fluid begins after an isothermal
calming section, as illustrated in Fig. 8-4. For such cases, L, is measured
942 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Ug ~ ~ :
ed ~ ae
~
fa L
FIGURE 8-4 .
Hydrodynamically developed, thermal developing region concept.
from the duct inlet, because the velocity boundary layer begins to develop
as soon as the fluid enters the duct, but L, is measured from the location
where the heat transfer starts, because the thermal boundary layer begins to
develop in the heat transfer section. The region L, is referred to as the
hydrodynamically developed, thermally developing region.
ay
{e007} ee . :
uvoy 9
ereh
nis
elt
7)
he
he
TAREE REE
‘ ‘saqeyd jotjered usamjoq
‘ ‘
Joy sioquinu yJossnN [eoo] pue ues,
Moy Ieuruey padopeasp AqjeonueuXpospAy ‘Suidopaaop Ayjewieyy
9-8 GUND
£qg-3u/('a/*) = 1 -(29)
@ “,018 9S PE c pOl8 9Sbh E C s~Ol
€ 2 7OIB 9S v E @ zOl8 9S bE
pols 9S - v
10 [e207]
ainyeradutay
con
o xn Way, : dep. ~~
9
[TEM JuRysUOD
ne
2
iqy
Yo
°
jR207 ——-———
uray
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 245
Here D is the inside diameter of the tube, and the Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers are defined as
u,D ° v
Re= Pr=— (8-28)
Vv a
In Fig. 8-5, the results are given for both the constant wall temperature and
constant wall heat flux boundary conditions. The average Nusselt number
represents the average value of the local Nusselt number over a distance from
the inlet to the location considered. We note from Fig. 8-5 that at distances
sufficiently far away from the tube inlet, the asymptotic values of the Nusselt
number for the constant wall temperature and the constant wall heat flux are
3.66 and 4.364, respectively. These results are the same as those shown in
Table 8-1 for the fully developed region.
Figure 8-6 gives the local and average Nusselt numbers for thermally
developing, hydrodynamically developed laminar flow between parallel plates
plotted against the dimensionless parameter (x/D,,)/(Re Pr), where D,, is the
hydraulic diameter and x is the distance along the plate measured from the
beginning of the heating section in the direction of flow. The Nusselt numbers
FIGURE 8-7
Mean and local are given for both constant wall heat flux and constant wall temperature. The
Nusselt numbers for asymptotic values of the Nusselt numbers 8.235 and 7.541 for constant wall
thermally developing, heat flux and constant wall temperature, respectively, are the same as those
hydrodynamically given in Table 8-1 for the hydrodynamically and thermally developed region.
“= developed laminar
flow inside a square
Figure 8-7 shows the mean Nusselt numbers for thermally developing,
duct.
12
bo fT |
11 Mean
NX : aoe oe Lal
10 NO -
a).2“ ot__LN
e ~
A : : \ e Constant wall
E gh . 7 heat flux:
z a
NN "
bee .
2 7 Io NS -
3 6 PL MN
5 oe mee .- * oe a
2 ONE rN aS TN
3 N Poi TP
= 5 Maley she ~~
A mee P| : Mh
NS co
4 : p> — ~~ “= Pa
| : ~~. oT ee ee ee 3.608
Constant wall ’ [oot ——!
3 ~ temperature = at a 2.976
FIGURE 8-8 .
Mean Nusselt numbers for simultaneously developing laminar flow inside a circular tube subjected
to constant wall temperature. (Based on the results from Shah, and Hornbeck).
100
8
6
5
4
Qe 3
A
= 2
am
3
&
2 10
3 8
3
Z 6
& 5
= 4
3
(Gz)7! = (x/D,,)/Re*Pr
247
‘
‘(qeys ul uoAIs BuuME 7] ‘SD Jo syNsar ay] UO poseg) s]feM YJoq ye oiNjerodui9) owes oy) pur JULIsUOD
0} paysolqns sojyerd jayeaed usamjoq Moy IeUlWE, SuidopaAop snoauEyNuUls JO} Joquinu yassnyy URLs
68 WANS
td on/C!g/x) = (29)
to 829 S$) + #& £ c 0 849 S$ F¥ € c 1000 8 L9 GS £ c 1000°0
wn
9 |
L |
8
6
ol z
8
(Moy padojaaap a .
AjyearueuApoipAy 10) 2
oo = Ig 2
-
c
8
c
3
so
g
« #£
ul
P orlE
¢ ==
9
L
8
6
001
JA
248 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
seit number for all the cases shown in this figure is equal to the fully develope
value 3.66.
Figure 8-9 shows the mean Nusselt number for simultaneously developing
flow inside a parallel-plate channel subjected to the same constant temperature
at both walls. The results are given for the Prandtl numbers 0.72, 10, and
and are plotted against the dimensionless parameter (x/D,,)(Re Pr). Here, the
case for Pr= corresponds to thermally developing, but hydrodynamically
developed flow.
Empirical Correlations
et
hy
0.0668 Gz a)
= 3.66 + — ae
Nu
om 1+0.04(Gz)"" (8:29)
where
Nu, = —2—
h,,D
(8-30a)
k
Re Pr . :
Gz= LID L = distance from the inlet | (8-305)
D .
Re= “a (8-30c)
This relation is recommended for Gz< 100 (see Table 8-3), and all properties
TABLE 8-3
A comparison of empirical and theoretical correlations for mean Nusselt number
for simultaneously developing laminar flow inside a circular tube
0.14
Nu (4) :
Nu,, m\ p, Nu,, from Fig. 8-8
Gr = x/D (Hausen), (Sieder-Tate),
Re Pr Eq. (8-29) Eq. (8-31) Pr=0.7 Pr=5 Pr=o
are evaluated at the fluid bulk mean temperature. Clearly, as the length L
increases, the Nusselt number approaches the asymptotic value 3.66.
A rather simple empirical correlation has been proposed by Sieder and
- Tate to predict the mean Nusselt number for laminar flow in a circular tube at
constant wall temperature:
a 0.14
[] Example 8-10. Engine oil at 40°C with a flow rate of 0.3 kg/s enters a2.5-cm-ID, .
40-m-long tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C. The flow is
hydrodynamically developed. Determine (a) the mean heat transfer coefficient,
and (b) the outlet temperature of the oil.
and the flow is laminar. For fluids with a high Prandtl number (e.g., the oils), the
hydrodynamic entrance length is short compared with the thermodynamic en-
trance length. Therefore, the flow can be regarded as thermally developing anq
hydrodynamically developed.
We calculate the parameter
LID _ _40/0.025
RePr ~ 72.7x 2870 77 * 10
aananaiinninii — “ 73
From Fig. 8-5, the mean Nusselt number for constant wall temperature is
determined as
N Up, alm
= pe a47. 5
. e kL 0.144 2 acy ’
A, =715 5 7.025 ~ 49-2 im Cc)
in te Tin _ (@DL Yh
T,.- To me,
Gz
1 x/D _ x/0.025 0,
-* RePr 1621x302 82%10 xx
For the given tube lengths the Gz number can be calculated and the local heat
transfer coefficient h(x) can be determined from
k 0.651
A(x) = D Nu, = 0.025 Nu, = 26 Nu,
. NU,
: Nu,
x,m = =Gz (From Fig. 8-8) h(x), W/(m? -°C)
1 8.2 x107% 7.8 203
2 164x107 62 - 162
3 2.46107? 5.6 146
a
Friction Factor
The hydrodynamic development for turbulent flow occurs for x/D much
shorter than that for laminar flow. For example, hydrodynamically developed
flow conditions occur for x/D greater than about-10 to 20.
Somewhat simpler approximate expressions for f are also ‘given in the
form ,
The analysis of heat transfer for turbulent flow is much more involved than that
for laminar flow. Therefore, a large number of empirical correlations have
been developed to determine the heat transfer coefficient.
where n = 0.4 for heating (T,, > T,) and n = 0.3 for cooling (T,,< T,) of the
254 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
fluid, and Nu=hD/k, Re=u,,D/v, and Pr= v/a. Equation (8.35) is applic-
able for smooth pipes:
0.7<Pr< 160
Re > 10,000
L
m0"
All properties are evaluated at the. bulk mean temperature T,,, except for y,,,
which is evaluated at the wall temperature.
PETUKHOV EQUATION. The previous relations are relatively simple, but they
give maximum errors of +25 percent in the range of 0.67< Pr <.100 and apply
to turbulent flow in smooth ducts. A more accurate correlation, which is also
applicable for rough ducts, has been developed by Petukhov and coworkers at
the Moscow Institute for High Temperature:
a= A (82)
where
yo
for liquids
_ f0.11 heating (T,, > T,)
~ 10.25 cooling (T,, < T,)
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 255
10°<Re<5x
10°
2<Pr<140 with 5 to 6 percent error:
0.5 < Pr < 2000 with 10 percent error
Noncircular Ducts
So far, discussion of the friction factor and heat transfer coefficient for
turbulent flow has been restricted to flow inside circula
r tubes. Numerous
engineering applications involve turbulent forced convec
tion inside ducts of
noncircular cross section. The friction factor for
a circular tube given by the
Moody chart (Fig. 8-10) applies to turbulent flow inside
noncircular ducts if the
tube diameter D is replaced by the hydraulic diameter
of the noncircular duct,
defined by Eq. (8-25); that is,
. 4A
D he > (8-38)
where A. is the cross-sectional area for flow and P
is the wetted perimeter.
For noncircular ducts, the turbulent flow also occurs
for Re > 2300, where
the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diamete
r. ,
With noncircular ducts, the heat transfer coefficient varies around
the
perimeter and approaches zero near the sharp corners.
Therefore, for certain
Situations, difficulties may arise in applying the
circular-tube results to a
noncircular duct by using the hydraulic diameter
concept.
Ne = (£) (8-392)
k
- = (2) (8-396)
where
fe (=) ‘
Fiso 7 T,, (8-400)
where 7, and T,, are the absolute bulk mean and wall temperatures, respec-
tively.
A number of experimental investigations and variable-property analyses
to determine the values of the exponents n and & appearing in Eqs. (8-39) and
(8-40) have been reported in the literature. In Table 8-4 we present recommen-
ded values of these exponents. Thus, by using the corrections given by Eqs.
(8-39) and (8-40), we can adjust the Nusselt number and the friction factor for
ideal isothermal conditions for the effects of property variations, if no viscosity
correction is included in the equation.
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 257
TABLE 8-4
The exponents x and m associated with Egs. (8-39)
and (8-40)
Type of T,, = constant
flow Fluid condition n k
Laminar - Liquid Cooling or heating 0.14
: Gas Cooling or heating 0 -1
Turbulent Liquid Cooling 0.25
Liquid Heating 0.11
Liquid Cooling or heating —0.25
Gas Cooling 0 0.1
Gas Heating 0.5 0.1
Example 8-12. Water flows with a mean velocity of u,, = 2m/s inside
a circular
smooth pipe of inside diameter D = 5 cm. The pipe is of commercial steel,
and its
wall is maintained at a uniform temperature T,, = 100°C by condensing steam
on
its outer surface. At a location where the fluid is hydrodynamically and thermally
developed, the bulk mean temperature of the water is T, = 60°C. Calculate the
heat transfer coefficient h by using
(a) The Dittus and Boelter equation
(b) The Sieder and Tate equation
(c) The Petukhov equation
Then
Nu = 704
h=704 9.651 _ 9166 W/(m? -°C)
0.05
258 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
smooth pipes:
where
Peclet number = Pe = Re’Pr
for 10°<Pe<10*, L/D > 60, and properties evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature.
Skupinski, Tortel, and Vautrey, basing their heat transfer experiments on
sodium-potassium mixtures, recommended the following expression for liquid
metals in fully developed turbulent flow in smooth pipes:
Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Pe®®* pr?-8 for 0.004 < Pr<0.1, Re < 500,000
7 (8-44)
In calculating Nu, Pe, and Pr in these expressions, the physical properties are
evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature; the expressions are applicable
for L/D > 60.
smooth pipes:
where
I Peclet number = Pe = Re Pr
for 10° <Pe<10*, L/D > 60, and properties evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature.
; Skupinski, Tortel, and Vautrey, basing their heat transfer experiments on
| sodium-potassium mixtures, recommended the following expression for liquid
metals in fully developed turbulent flow in smooth pipes:
e
.
‘
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 Pe° 8” (8-42)
In calculating Nu, Pe, and Pr in these expressions, the physical properties are
evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature; the expressions are applicable
for L/D > 60.
wall heat flux and uniform wall temperature. They noted that the local Nusselt
number for the thermal entrance region can be correlated within 20 percent
_ with
where
Nu = 6.3 + 0.0167 Pe°® Pr°®® for uniform wall heat flux (8-46)
Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Pe°® pr? for uniform wall temperature (8-47)
and applies in the range 0.004 <Pr<0.1. oO
Example 8-13. Liquid sodium at 180°C with a mass flow rate of 3kg/s enters a
2.5-cm-ID tube whose wall is maintained at a uniform temperature of 240°C.
Calculate the tube length required to heat sodium to 230°C.
Solution. The physical properties of sodium at the bulk mean temperature T,,
, 180 + 230
(T= 3S = 205°C
are taken as
Then
m 3
tm = 5A (907. 5)(m/4)(0.025)" = 6.73 m/s
and
uD 6.73
x 0.025
Re= = 3,36 x 10°
vy 0.501
x 10°
Pe = Re Pr = (3.36 X 10°)(0.0075) = 2520
Using Eq. (8-44), we find
Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Pe™®* Pr”?
= 4,8 + 0.0156(2520)°*°(0.0075)°"* = 13
RA 80.81 2
h= 5 Nu= 55g X 13 = 42,021 Wi(m?-°C)
(3)(1339) = 1.792
eee
Rie geyser
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 261
gives
L=2.18m
We check our assumption: ,
LE 2.18
D ~ 0.025 ~ 8770
hence the use of Eq. (8-44) is justified.
PROBLEMS
Air (v= 20.76 x 107° m’/s) flows with a mean velocity of u,, = 0.5 m/s inside a
circular tube that has an inside diameter d = 2cm. Determine whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
. Air flows inside a duct of square cross section with sides of 2 cm. For experimen-
tal purposes a Reynolds number of 50,000 is required. Calculate the velocity of
the air. Air properties are to be evaluated at 350K.
Answer: 51.9 m/s
8-3. A fluid flows through a duct of rectangular cross section with sides 2cm x 1.5 cm.
Calculate the hydraulic diameter.
Answer: 1.71cm
8-4, Engine oil is cooled from 120°C to 80°C while it is flowing with a mean velocity of
0.02 m/s through a circular tube of inside diameter2 cm. Calculate the Reynolds
number of the flow.
Answer: 19.7
8-30. Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s enters a 2-cm-diameter tube which is
maintained at 100°C. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the
tube length required to heat the water to 70°C.
Answer: 5m
8-31. Engine oil at 60°C with a flow rate of 0.2kg/s enters a 2-cm-ID tube which is
maintained at 120°C. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the
tube length required to heat the oil to 80°C. .
Answer: 66.2 m
8-32. Water at an average temperature of 60°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s flows
through a square duct 2cm by 2cm in cross section which is maintained at a
uniform temperature. Assuming a fully developed velocity profile, determine the
average heat transfer coefficients over 1, 2, and 3m from the inlet. Determine the
average heat transfer coefficient for the hydrodynamically and thermally de-
veloped region.
8-33. Water at an average temperature of 50°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s flows
through a tube with a 2-cm ID which is subjected to uniform heat flux. Assuming
a fully developed velocity profile, determine the average heat transfer coefficient
for the hydrodynamically and thermally developed region.
Answer: 139.65 W/(m? -°C)
8-34, Water at an inlet temperature of 50°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s flows through a
square duct 2cm by 2cm in cross section which is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 100°C. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the
length of the duct needed to heat the water to 70°C.
Answer: 1.06m
8-35. Engine oil at 20°C with a fiow rate of 0.1 kg/s enters a 100-m-long square duct
lcm by 1 cm in cross section whose walls are maintained at a uniform tempera-
ture of 80°C. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the duct
length required to heat the oil to 60°C.
8-36. Water at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.02 kg/s enters a square duct 2cm by 2cm in
cross section whose walls are maintained at a uniform temperature of 80°C.
Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the thermal entry length.
8-37. Engine oil at 20°C with a flow rate of 0.001 kg/s enters a 3-cm-long duct 1 cm by
icm in cross section whose walls are maintained at a uniform temperature of
100°C. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the outlet tem-
perature of the oil. ‘
8-38. Water at a mean temperature of 60°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s flows through a
1-m-long square duct 2cm by 2cm in cross section maintained at a uniform
temperature. Assuming hydrodynamically developed flow, determine the local
heat transfer coefficient at a location 1m from the inlet.
8-40. Water at an average temperature of 60°C with a flow rate of 0.015 kg/s flows
through a 2.5-cm-ID tube which is subjected to uniform wall temperature.
(a) Assuming a fully developed velocity profile, determine the local heat transfer
coefficient at locations 1 and 3m from the inlet.
(b) Assuming simultaneously developing velocity and temperature, determine the
mean heat transfer coefficients over distances of 1 and 3m from the inlet.
Answers: (a) 143 W/(m? -°C), 106.6 W/(m?- C)
(b) 203 W/(m? -°C), 145.8 W/(m? -°C)
8-41. Engine oil at an average temperature of 40°C with a flow rate of 0.3 kg/s enters a
2.5-cm-ID, 40-m-long tube maintained at constant wall temperature. The velocity
and temperature profiles are simultaneously developing. Determine the heat
transfer coefficient at the exit.
8-42. Water at 15°C with a flow rate of 0.01 kg/s enters a 2.5-cm-ID, 3-m-long tube
maintained at a uniform*’temperature of 100°C by condensing steam on the outer
surface of the tube. The velocity and temperature profiles are simultaneously
developing. Determine the average outlet temperature of the water.
8-43. Engine oil at 30°C with a flow rate of 0.2kg/s enters a 1-cm-ID tube which is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 120°C. The velocity and temperature
profiles are simultaneously developing. Determine the tube length needed to heat
the oil to 40°C.
8-50. Air at 1 atm and 27°C mean temperature flows with a velocity of 10 m/s through a
5-cm-ID, 5-m-long tube. The flow is hydrodynamically developed and thermally
developing. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length
of the tube for air to be heated. ‘
8-51. Pressurized cooling water at a mean temperature of 200°C flows with a velocity of
2m/s between parallel-plate fuel elements in a nuclear reactor. Assuming fully
developed turbulent flow and a spacing of 0.25 cm between the plates, determine
the average heat transfer coefficient. ,
8-52. Cooling water with a velocity of 2 m/s enters a condenser tube at 20°C and leaves
the tube at 40°C. The inside diameter of the tube is D=2cm. Assuming fully
developed turbulent flow, determine the average heat transfer coefficient.
Answer: 7865 W/(m? - °C) ,
Be
REFERENCES
- Azer, N. Z., and B. T. Chao: “Turbulent Heat Transfer in Liquid Metals—Fully Developed
Pipe Flow with Constant Wall Temperature,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 3:77-83. (1961).
- Dittus, F. W., and L. M. K. Boelter: Univ. Calif., Berkeley, Publ. Eng. 2:433 (1930).
- Graetz, L.: “Uber die Warmeleitungsfahigkeit von Flussigkeiten (On the thermal conductivity
of liquids) Part 1,” Ann. Phys. Chem., 18: 79-94 (1883); Part 2, Ann. Phys. Chem.
25:337-357 (1885).
. Hausen, H.: “Darstellung des Warmeuberganges in Rohren durch verallgemeinerte Potenz-
beziehungen, VDIZ 4:91 (1943).
. Hornbeck, R. W.: “An All-Numerical Method for Heat Transfer in the Inlet of a Tube,”
ASME paper No. 65-WA, HT-36 (1965).
. Lubarsky, B., and S. J. Kaufman: “Review of Experimental Investigation of Liquid Metal
Heat Transfer,” NACA Tech. Note 3336, 1955.
. Moody, L. F.: “Friction Factor for Pipe Flow,” Trans. ASME 66:671-684 (1944).
. Nikuradse, J.: Forsch. Arb. Ing. Wes. no, 361 (1933); also,, “Laws of Flow in Rough Pipes”
(trans), NACA Tech. Memo 1292, 1950.
. Notter, R. H., C. A. Sleicher: “A Solution to the Turbulent Graetz Problem III. Fully
Developed and Entry Heat Transfer Rates,” Chem. Eng. Sci. 27:2073-2093 (1972).
FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE Ducts 267
10. Petukhov, B. S.: “Heat Transfer and Friction in Turbulent Pipe Flow with Variable Physical
Properties,” in J. P. Hartnett and T. F. Irvine (eds.), Advances in Heat Transfer, Academic,
New York, 1970, pp. 504-564.
11. Shah, R. K., and A. L. London: Laminar Flow: Forced Convection in Ducts, Academic, New
York, 1978.
12. Shah, R. K.: “Thermal Entry Length Solutions for a Circular Tube and Parallel Plates,” Proc.
Nat. Heat, Mass Transfer Conf., 3d, Indiana Inst. Technol., Bombay, vol. 1, Papar no.
HMT-11-75 (1975). *
. Sieder, E. N., and G. E. Tate: “Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop of Liquids in Tubes,” Ind.
Eng. Chem. 28: 1429-1435 (1936).
14. Skupinski, E. S., J. Torel, and L. Vautrey: “Determination des coefficients de convection d’un
alliage sodium-potassium dans un tube circulaire,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 8:937 (1965).
15. Sleicher, C. A., A. S. Awad, and R. H. Notter: “Temperature and Eddy Diffusivity Profiles in
Nak,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 16:1565-1575 (1973).
CHAPTER
FREE
CONVECTION
268
FREE CONVECTION 269
the no-slip condition; it increases with distance from the wall but, after
ny
Vv
si
g
=
reaching some maximum value, decreases to zero because the fluid at distances
Turbulent
© C2 osC2
distance from the leading edge of the plate, transition to a turbulent boundary
layer begins; eventually, a fully developed turbulent boundary layer is estab-
lished.
Wall
Figure 9-1 illustrates the development of the velocity boundary layer for
the case of a cold vertical wall in a large body of hot fluid at rest. In this case,
as expected, the direction of fluid motion is reversed; namely, the fluid in front
T, a
os of the cold plate moves vertically down. The velocity profile is similar to that
5
Ea discussed: above for the hot plate, but the flow direction is reversed..
aa
The flow velocity in free convection is much smaller than that encoun-
tered in forced convection. Therefore, the rate of heat transfer by free
convection generally, is much smaller than that by forced convection.
aly / We recall that in forced convection, the Reynolds number was an
/
6 ee Ye
important dimensionless parameter that affected the flow regime; that is,
depending on the magnitude of the Reynolds number, the flow regime could be
(a) Hot wall
identified as laminar or turbulent. In the case of free convection, the Grashof
Ty, <T., number, a dimensionless quantity, plays the same role as the Reynolds number
spol
ye
in forced convection. Let X be the characteristic dimension of the body which
is. subjected to free convection, T,, its surface temperature, and T., the
temperature of the bulk fluid at rest. Then the Grashof number, Gr, is defined
as
_-y\y3
.Wallel
In the case of free convection, the Nusselt number generally depends on the
Grashof and Prandtl numbers, and the heat transfer correlation can be
expressed formally in the form
Vertical Plate
where the Grashof number Gr, and the mean Nusselt number Nu,,, based on
the plate height L, are defined as
} T,,- T.)L°
Nu,, = eu Gr, = EE
SB = ) (9-7a,b)
and the Rayleigh number Ra, becomes
T,,-T,)L*
Ra, =Gr, Pr= ge Ey Ta) (9-8)
The recommended values of the exponent n and the constant c of Eq. (9-6) are
listed in Table 9-1 for both laminar and turbulent flow conditions. The physical
properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature
T, = 3(T,, + T..) . (9-9)
An examination of the values of the exponent n given in Table 9-1 réveals that
in turbulent flow the mean heat transfer coefficient A,, is independent of the
plate height L, since Gr, ~ L® and h,, ~ (1 /L\(Gr,)'”
A more elaborate but more accurate correlation has been proposed by
Churchill and Chu for free convection from an isothermal vertical plate:
which is applicable for both laminar and turbulent flow conditions. Again, the
physical properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature, defined by
_ Eq. (9-9). The Rayleigh number Ra, and the mean Nusselt number Nu,, were.
given previously by Eqs. (9-7) and (9-8). Figure 9-2 shows the mean Nusselt
number Nu,, plotted as a function of the Grashof number Gr, for several
different values of the Prandtl number as calculated from Eq. (9-10).
Example 9-1. A vertical plate 0.3m high and 1m wide, maintained at a uniform
temperature of 124°C, is exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at 30°C. Calculate
the average heat transfer coefficient #,, over the entire height of the plate by using
the correlations given by both Eqs. (9-6) and (9-10).
Solution. The physical properties of air at atmospheric pressure and the film
temperature T,= (124 + 30}/2 = 77°C = 350K are
vp = 2.076 x 107° m*/s Pr= 0.697
104
Pr : 7
103 +1000 ott
~ 100 NX LEI,
10 oy a:
102 iSoreee Zo a
fl | | pss
Lee Cp ~
°
(eet
107!
1074 I 104 108 10?
Gr,
FIGURE 9-2
Average Nusselt number as a function of Grashof number for free convection on an isothermal
plate calculated from Eq. (9-10).
FREE CONVECTION 273
0.03
Gq Ob = 4.5858 Wi(m?- °C)
Equation (9-10) gives
° 0.387 Raj’® 2
Nu, = {0.825 + ax |
[1 + (0.492/Pr)”’*
= . nt
eee
0.387(1.15 x 10%)'/° }'
{0 825 [1 + (0.492/0.697)919]
#2”
= 63.51
and h,, becomes
h,, = 4.763
Solution. The physical properties of air at atmospheric pressure and the film
temperature T, = (80 + 24)/2 = 52°C = 325 K are
vy = 1.822 x 107° m7/s Pr = 0.703
_ eB(T,, - T.)L? :
Gr, -0.15 ST
then
Pad
h,, = L Nu,,
(b) When the L = 0.3 m side is vertical, the Rayleigh and Nusselt numbers are
0.3 \°
Ra, ~9.3 = Razao.1s * (3)
h,, = ; Nu,,
oe
= 58.5 = 5.49 Wi(m? -°C)
and the heat transfer rate from one surface becomes
Oy 203 = Alig (Ty ~ To)
~ = (0.3 x 0.15)(5.49)(80 — 24)
=13.8W
L
2. UNIFORM WALL HEAT FLUX. Free convection on a vertical wall of height
wall surface has been studied by
subjected to a uniform heat flux q,, at the
several investigators. Based on the experiments with air and water by Vliet and
Liu and by Vliet, the following correlations have been proposed for the mean
Nusselt number for the laminar and turbulent flow regimes:
Nu, =0.75(Gr3 Pr)"> for 10° < Gr, Pr<10"" (laminar) (9-11)
Nu,, = 0.645(Gr* Pr)°” for 2x 10° <Gr, Pr< 10°° (turbulent) (9-12)
Horizontal Plate
The average Nusselt number for free convection on a horizontal plate depends,
among other parameters, on the orientation of the heat transfer. surface—that
is, whether the hot surface is facing up or down, and conversely, whether the
cold surface is facing down or up. We examine free convection on a horizontal]
plate for both uniform wall temperature and uniform wall heat flux.
1. UNIFORM WALL TEMPERATURE. The mean Nusselt number Nu,, for free
convection on a horizontal plate maintained at a uniform temperature T,, in a
large body of fluid at temperature T., has been correlated by McAdams by the
following simple expression:
where
hy L T,,~T..)L*
Nu,, = i Gr, = Pe - EE (9-145)
Ne
The coefficient c and the exponent n are listed in Table 9.2. The physica]
properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature T,, defined by Eq.
(9-9). Note that the values of c and n depend on the orientation of the heat
coe transfer surface as well as on the flow regime. The characteristic length L of the
plate is taken as:
TABLE 9-2
Constant c and exponent 7 of Eq. (9-14) for free convection on a
horizontal plate at uniform temperature
L A? (9-15)
iI
where A is the surface area of the plate and P is the perimeter that
encompasses the area A.
It is apparent from Table 9-2 that for a turbulent flow regime the Nusselt
number Nu,, is independent of the characteristic length.
A=GD 7D
= 5 (0.2) = 0.0314 m?
The characteristic length L =0.9D for a - circular disc of diameter D is
suggested by McAdams. Then the Grashof number becomes
h,,L
Nu,, = —— = 0.14(Gr, Pn”
Then
k 0.03
. hm== 7 NUm= Tx
0.0 (42-3)
2
ho
Nu,, = “> = 0.59(Gr, Pr)?
= 0.59(2.76 x 107)" = 42.8
Then
k 0.03
(c)
hn = 7 Nim oxo 8)
FIGURE EXAMPLE 9-3 =7.1 Wi(m’ -°C)
A circular disc heater
(a) hot surface faces and
up, (b) hot surface
faces down, (c) O = AR(T,, — T..) = 0.0314(7.1)(130 — 25)
vertical. Ld =23.4W
2. UNIFORM WALL HEAT FLUX. The average Nusselt number for free convec-
tion on a horizontal plate subjected to uniform surface heat flux q,, and
exposed to an ambient at constant temperature T,, has been studied ex-
perimentally by Fujii and Imura, and the following correlations are proposed
for the cases in which the heated surface is facing up and facing down.
278 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Nu,, m = 0.58(Gr, “L
Pr)’” for 10°<Gr, L
Pr<10" /
9-17 )
Inclined Plates
The heat transfer coefficient for free convection on an inclined plate can be
predicted by the vertical plate formulas if the gravitational term g is replaced
by g cos 6, where @ is the angle the plate makes with the vertical. However, the
orientation of the heat transfer surface, whether the surface is facing upward or
downward, is also a factor that affects the Nusselt number. In order.to make a
distinction between the two possible orientations of the surface, we designate
the angle @ that the surface makes with the horizontal as positive if the hot
surface is facing downward and negative if the hot surface is facing upward, as
shown in Fig. 9-3.
Based on the extensive experimental studies by Fujii and Imura, the
following correlations are recommended for free convection on an inclined
surface subjected to a uniform surface heat flux q,, and exposed to an ambient
at a uniform temperature T,,. The notation for the angle of inclination is as
defined in Fig. 9-3.
For an inclined plate with the heated surface facing downward,
(9-19)
FREE CONVECTION 279
Hot surface When the plate is slightly inclined with the horizontal (that is, 88°< 6 < 90°)
facing upward and the heated surface is facing downward, Eq. (9-19) is applicable. The power
of4 in Eq. (9-19) implies that the flow is always in the laminar regime.
/ ative
negative For an inclined plate with the heated surface facing upward, the heat
transfer correlation has been developed as
yk
(a) |
Nu, = 0.145[(Gr, Pr)"? — (Gr, Pr)?] + 0.56(Gr, Preos @)'* |. (9-20)
for Gr, Pr<10"', Gr, >Gr,, and @ lying between —15° and —75°. Here, the
value of the transition Grashof number Gr, depends on the angle of inclination
6, as listed in Table 9-3.
In Eqs. (9-19) and (9-20), all physical properties are evaluated at the
6 mean temperature
positive
T,, = T,, ~0.25(T, — T.)°
Hot surface and £ is evaluated at T,, + 0.25(T,, — T.,).
| facing downward
(b) [] Example 9-4. Consider a 60cm by 60cm electrically heated plate with one of its
surfaces thermally insulated and the other surface dissipating heat by free
FIGURE 9-3 convection into atmospheric air at 30°C. The heat flux over the surface of the
The concept of positive and plate is uniform and results in a mean surface temperature of 50°C. The plate: is
~gegative inclination angles from inclined, making an angle of 50° from the vertical. Determine the heat loss from
the vertical to define the the plate for the following cases: (a) heated surface facing up; (b) heated surface
orientation of the hot surface. facing down.
TABLE 9-3
Transition Grashof number (See
Fig. 9-3 for the definition of @)
6, degrees Gr
~15 5x 10°
—30 10°
~60 10°.
-75 10°
From the experimental data of T. Fujii and H.
Imura, “Natural Convection Heat Transfer
from a Plate with Arbitrary Inclination,” Int.
J. Heat Mass Transfer 15:755 (1972).
280 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Hot Surface (a) For the hot surface facing up, as illustrated in the accompanying figure,
6 = —50°, and we have
—50°
Gr, = 3.33 x 10°
1 i
and Gr, >Gr,. Then, from Eq. (9-20) we obtain
= 71.39
Therefore, k 0.0276
° hi, = L Nu,,, = “O68 (71.39)
I Hot surface
k _ 0.0276
m= 7 NU = 995 (34.7)
= 3.83 W/(m? -°C)
and
= 27.58 W
Vertical Cylinder
The average Nusselt number for free convection on a vertical cylinder is the
same as that for a vertical plate if the curvature effects are negligible.
Therefore, for an isothermal vertical cylinder, the average Nusselt number can
be determined from the vertical plate correlation given by Eq. (9-6) or (9-10).
FREE CONVECTION 281
where D is the diameter of the cylinder and L is the height of the cylinder.
Horizontal Cylinder
Morgan presented a simple correlation for free convection from a horizontal
isothermal cylinder, covering the range 10°'°<Ra, <10™. It is given in the
form
_A,,D
Nu mo k (9-23a)
T,-~T.)D
Ra, = Grp Pr= sA(T, —T.)P"
v ,
Pr (9-23b)
Figure 9-4 shows the isotherms for free convection on a uniformly heated
horizontal circular cylinder 6cm in diameter and 60cm long at a temperature
- 9°C above the ambient air and with a Grashof number of 30,000.
TABLE 9-4
Constant c and: exponent 7 of Eq.
(9-22) for free convection on a
horizontal cylinder
Ra, c n
107-107? - 0.675 0.058
107? -107 1.02 - 0.148
10° -10° 0.850 0.188
10° ~107 0.480 0.250
10’ -10” 0.125 0.333
Source: V. T. Morgan, “The Overall Convective Heat
Transfer from Smooth Circular Cylinders,” in T. F.
Irvine and J. P. Hartnett (eds.), Advances in Heat
Transfer, vol. 16, Academic, New York, 1975, pp.
199-269.
we
ORoe s
ag
tert
re
RO ett
g?
aaa
ST
eee
a
net
mast
Rae
ee,
Me
.
"
as
te,
ty,
hy
FIGURE 9-4 Free convection from horizon tal cyl inder. (From Grigu H and Hauf).
282
FREE CONVECTION 283
k __ 0.03
hi= D Nu,, = 05 (13.17)
LI . =7.9 W/(m*-°C)
h,D | .
Nu, = “te =2+0.43 Ray" (9-24)
for 3x 10°<Ra, <8 x 10° and 10=Nu,,<90. Here the Rayleigh number,
based on the sphere diameters, is defined as
_ gBD* (Py ~ T. =) p
Ra, = Gr, Pr (9-26)
The properties are evaluated at the film temperature T, = 3(T,, + T,.).
284 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
ow
Gr, = gp ATL
AT L
v
TABLE 9-5 .
Simplified equations for free convection to air at atmospheric pressure and moderate
temperatures
Ra =
gA(T, ~ T.)L? Pr
Vv
_ (9.81)(1/450.5)(230 — 25)(1)°
x 0.689
(2.59 x 107°)?
= 5.16 x 10°
Example 9-7. A block 10cm x 10cm x 10cm in size, illustrated in the accom-
panying figure, is suspended in quiescent atmospheric air at 10°C with one of its
surfaces in a horizontal position. All surfaces of the block are maintained at
150°C. Determine the free-convection heat transfer coefficient for all the surfaces
of the block, and compare these results with those obtainable from the simplified
expressions given in Table 9-5 for air at atmiospheric pressure.
Basic Concepts
The onset of free convection inside enclosed spaces involves an interesting but
very complicated flow phenomenon. The subject has been studied experimen-
tally, analytically, and numerically by various investigators, and- correlations
for predicting the free-convection heat transfer coefficient have been proposed.
Before presenting such correlations, however, we shall provide some insight
into the physical nature of the problem and give a qualitative discussion of the
conditions leading to the onset of free convection in enclosed spaces.
As a classical example, we consider a fluid contained between two large
horizontal plates separated by a distance 6, as illustrated in Fig. 9-5. The lower
plate is maintained at a uniform temperature 7, which is higher than the
temperature T. of the upper colder plate. Then there is a heat flow through the
fluid layer in the upward direction, and a temperature profile decreasing
upward is established within the fluid. Clearly, the physical situation is such
that the denser cold fluid lies above the lighter, warm layers. The fluid remains
stationary and the heat transfer takes place by pure conduction so long as the
viscous forces are stronger than the buoyancy forces.
Suppose that the temperature difference T,—T, between the plate’
temperatures is increased to a value such that the buoyancy forces overcome
the viscous forces. Then the fluid layer can no longer remain stationary, but
gives rise to a convective motion under the influence of the buoyancy forces.
Theoretical and experimental investigations have verified that, for such a
horizontal enclosure, the fluid layer becomes unstable and convection currents
are established if T,,— 7, is increased beyond a value corresponding to the
critical Rayleigh number Ra,:'
gB(T, ~ T.)8°
- Ra, = Gr Pr = ———5—*— Pr = 1708 - (9-27)
v
FIGURE 9-5
A layer of fluid contained
between two large horizontal
plates.
Cold upper
plate at T,
Hot lower
8 plate at T),
288 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Figure 9-6 shows the formation of convective flow patterns giving rise to
hexagonal cells called Bernard cells. The criterion given by Eq. (9-27) is
important in practical applications, because it signifies the transition in the
mechanism of heat transfer from pure conduction to convection. Note that heat
transfer across the fluid layer is higher with convection than with conduction.
If the lower plate temperature were less than the upper plate tempera-
ture, the fluid would always remain stationary, because there would be no
buoyancy forces to initiate a convective motion.
These basic concepts concerning the onset of free convection inside
horizontal layers can be extended to inclined layers, but the resulting convec-
tive flow patterns are more complicated. Consider a fluid contained between
two large parallel plates of height H separated by a distance 6 and inclined at
an angle’, as illustrated in Fig. 9-7. The lower plate is maintained at a uniform
temperature T,, which is higher than the temperature T, of the upper, colder
plate. This situation gives rise to temperature gradients within the fluid that
generate a buoyancy force opposing the stabilizing effects of the viscous forces.
Under certain conditions the fluid layer remains virtually stagnant. However,
in most practical cases the fluid circulates as a result of the buoyancy produced
by the temperature gradients. For this particular situation, the dimensionless
parameters that affect the onset of free convection in the fluid include the
inclination @ of the enclosure from the horizontal plane in addition to the
Grashof and Rayleigh numbers, defined as
= gB(T, ~ T,)8°
Gr, (9-284)
Vv
va
(9-28)
which implies that one should select the maximum of the three Nusselt
numbers Nu,, Nu,, and Nu,, which are defined as
a =5 to 110
FIGURE 9-7
Geometry and coordinates for Gravity, g
free convection in an inclined
layer.
Plate, T,
Hot
Plate, T,,
Horizontal Plane
290 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Noy = 2
KT, — T.)
since g = h(T,, — T,), and all physical properties are evaluated at (T,, + T.)/2.
_ The experimental data for air agree with Eq. (9-29) to within 9 percent.
Therefore, knowing the Nusselt number, the heat flux q can be determined.
where one should select the maximum of Nu, and Nu,, defined as
0.093Ra°?** T4417 :
The experimental data with air agree with Eq. (9-35) to within 6.5 percent.
Racos @ Racos @
(eee ay | 636
for high aspect ratio (i.e., H/5—> high) and in the range of 0< Ra<10°. Here
the Nusselt number is defined as
FIGURE 9-8
A plot of Nusselt number for free convection inside inclined enclosures for o< ¢ <60°, computed
from Eq. (9-36).
10
Nu,
tw
which is consistent with the fact that, as we have previously discussed, the
free-convection flow between parallel plates sets up at a critical Rayleigh
number 1708, and for Ra<1708 the conduction regime prevails.
_ &BC
T,- T.)8*
hh 5 ) Pr
Ra
Vv
- (9.81)(1/300)(35)(0.015)°
(0.708)
7 (1.568 x 107°)?
= 1.112 x 10°
The aspect ratio is
_H_ 16
a=
5 = 0.015 = 106.67
We use Eqs. (9-29) and (9-30a) to (9-30c) to calculate the Nusselt number:
Nu = [Nu,, Nu,, Nu,] max .
where Nu is the maximum of the following three Nusselt numbers:
Nu, = 0.0605 Ra’? = 0.0605(1.112 x 10*)'’* = 1.35
ve "2fef_O2meme™
1+ (6310/Ra)' PP
0.104 Ra??93 3 ws
1.32
0.272
Therefore
Nu =Nu,,,, = 1.35
k 0.02624
h= 5 Nu= 0015 1.35 = 2.36 W/(m*-°C) ©
Example 9-9. In a horizontal flat-piate solar collector the absorber plate and the
glass cover are separated by an air gap at atmospheric pressure. Estimate the heat
transfer coefficient for free convection across the air gap for a gap spacing 3.0 cm,
tore
assuming that the absorber plate is at 60°C and the glass cover at 30°C.
serene
Ra — oe T,)6 Pr
_ 20k gH
Q= in, 1D) T~ T.) WwW (9-38)
where
294 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
FIGURE 9-9
Free convection in horizontal
cylindrical annulus or spherical
annulus. e
Kote Pr Me yt
= 0.386—t _) Ra,,)"
k 0.861 + Pr (Rae)
* \1/4 in (D,/D,) 14
2+ - Ra;
(Rae) _
= apr Dry"
. gB(T, ~ T,)5°
Ra, = av Pr
d= 35(D, — D;)
This correlation is applicable over the range 10° <Ra3, < 10’. Figure 9-10
shows the flow path in free convection between two concentric horizontal
‘cylinders for D,/D,;=3, T,;- T,=14.5°C, and Grashof number 120,000.
at
"Cigarette smioke shows the fully developed laminar flow pattern in air
atmospheric pressure.
Spherical Annulus
We now consider a fluid contained between two concentric spheres of inner
and outer diameters D; and D,, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 9-9. The
surfaces are maintained at uniform temperatures T, and T,. Raithby and
Hollands proposed the following correlation for the total heat transfer rate
from the spheres: _
D.D
O= key 2 (7,-T,) |W (9-39)
where
Kas _ ( Pr yo * \i/4
FIGURE 9-10 Isotherms in convection between concentric cylinders. (From Grigull and Hauf).
and
eas ils Ral!
(Ra.on) = D,D,(D, + D,
Ra;
T.-T,)8°
= gB(T,~ T Je Pr
v
é= 3(D, ~ D;)
|| Example 9-10. The space between two concentric thin-walled spheres of diame-
ters D, =10cm and D, = 14cm contains air at atmospheric pressure. Calculate
the heat transfer rate across the spheres by free convection for a temperature
difference of 50°C and a mean air temperature of 27°C.
_ 0.190.)
= 0.0578 0.02 (50)
Ld = 6.35 W
PROBLEMS
Free Convection on a Flat Plate : . .
9-1. A vertical plate 0.4m high and 2 m wide, maintained at a uniform temperature of
92°C, is exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at 32°C. Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient h,, over the entire height of the plate, using the correlations
given by both Eqs. (9-6) and (9-10).
9-2. Calculate the heat transfer rates by free convection from a 0.3-m-high vertical
plate maintained at a uniform temperature of 70°C to ambient air at 34°C at 1.0
and 2.0 atm.
9-3. A vertical plate 0.3 m high and 1 m wide, maintained at a uniform temperature of
134°C, is exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at 20°C. Calculate the total heat
transfer rate from the plate to the air. |
9-4. Calculate the heat transfer rate from a 0.3-m-high vertical plate at a uniform
temperature of 80°C to quiescent ambient air at 24°C at 3 atm pressure.
Answer: 525 W/m?
FREE CONVECTION 297
9-5. Calculate the total heat transfer rate by free convection from a vertical plate 0.3 m
by 0.3 m with one surface insulated and the other surface maintained at 100°C and
exposed to atmospheric air at 30°C.
Answer: 36 W
9-6. Compare the heat transfer rates by free convection from a 0.3m by 0.3m plate
with one surface insulated and the other surface maintained at 7,, = 100°C and
exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at T,, = 30°C for the following conditions:
(a) the plate is horizontal with the heated surface facing up; (by the plate is
horizontal with the heated surface facing down.
9-7, Consider a 0.15 m by 0.3m rectangular plate maintained at a uniform tempera-
ture T,,=80°C placed vertically in quiescent atmospheric air at temperature
T,, = 30°C. Compare the heat transfer rates from the plate’ when 0.15 m is the
vertical height and when 0.3 m is the vertical height.
» Answers: 16.5 W, 13.8W :
. The south-facing wall of the building is 7m high and 10 m wide. The wall absorbs
the incident solar energy at a rate of 600 W/m”. It is assumed that about 200 W/ m*
of the absorbed energy is conducted through the wall into the interior of the wall
and that the remaining is dissipated by free convection into the surrounding
quiescent atmospheric air at 30°C. Calculate the temperature ‘of the outside
surface of the wall.
9-9, An electrically heated 0.5m by 0.1m vertical plate is insulated on one side and
dissipates heat from the other surface at a constant rate of 600 W/m” by free
convection into atmospheric air at 30°C. Determine the surface temperature of
the plate.
9-10. A cube 5cmx5cmX5cm in size is suspended with one of its surfaces in a
horizontal position in quiescent atmospheric air at 20°C. All surfaces of the cube
are maintained at a uniform temperature of 100°C. Determine the heat loss by
free convection from the cube into the atmosphere.
Answer: 9.4 W
. A circular hot plate D = 25 cm in diameter with both of its surfaces maintained at
a uniform temperature of 100°C is suspended in a horizontal position in atmos-
pheric air at 30°C. Determine the heat transfer rate by free convection from the
plate into the atmosphere. , ~
Answer: 31.4W
9-12. A thin electric strip heater 30cm in width is placed with its width oriented
vertically. It dissipates heat by free convection from both its surfaces into
atmospheric air at T,,= 20°C. If the surface of the heater should not exceed
225°C, determine the length of the strip needed to dissipate 1500 W of energy into
the room.
9-13. A hot iron block at 425°C 10cm x 15 cm x 20cm in size is placed on an asbestos
sheet with its 10-cm side oriented vertically. There is negligible heat loss from the
surface that is in contact with the asbestos sheet. Calculate the rate of heat loss
from its five boundry surfaces by free convection into the surrounding quiescent
air at atmospheric pressure and 25°C.
Answer: 528.5 W
9-14. A horizontal square plate heater 0.3m by 0.3m is thermally insulated on the
bottom side and exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at T., = 30°C on the top
side. The plate heater is electrically heated at a rate of 400 W/ m’, and heat
dissipates by free convection into the air. Calculate the equilibrium temperature
of the plate. [Assume fh = 6 W/(m* -°C) as a first approximation.]
298 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
9-15, A circular hot plate D =50cm in diameter with both surfaces maintained at a
uniform temperature of 300°C is suspended in a vertical position in water at 20°C,
Determine the heat loss from the hot plate to the water.
9-16. A circular hot plate D =50cm in diameter with both surfaces maintained at a
uniform temperature of 300°C is suspended in a vertical position in atmospheric
air at 20°C. Determine the heat loss from the plate to the air.
9-40. A horizontal electric heater with an outside diameter of 2.5cm and length of
0.5m is exposed to atmospheric air at 15°C. If the surface of the heater is at
130°C, determine the heat transfer coefficient for free convection, and compare it
with that obtainable from the simplified expression for air at atmospheric
pressure.
9-41. A vertical plate 0.3m by 0.3m in size, maintained at a uniform temperature of
70°C, is exposed to cold atmospheric air at a temperature of 10°C. Calculate the
free-convection heat transfer coefficient, and compare it with that obtainable from
the simplified expressions for free convection to air at 4 atm.
Answers: 5.65 (or 5.34) W/(m? -°C), 11.4 (or 12.9) Wi (ent °C)
tee
te i jh cas
Free Convection in Enclosed Spaces
9-42. A double-glass window consists of two vertical parallel sheets of glass, each 1m
by 1m in size, separated by a 1-cm air space at atmospheric pressure. Calculate
the free-convection heat transfer coefficient for the air space for a temperature
difference of 30°C. Assume the mean temperature for the air to be 27°C.
9-43, Two vertical parallel plates, each 1 m X 1 m in size, are separated by a distance of
3cm filled with atmospheric air. One of the plates is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 250°C and the other at 100°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate by
free convection between the plates.
9-44, Two parallel vertical plates, each 2m high, are separated by a 6-cm air space.
One of the plates is maintained at a uniform temperature 130°C and the other at
25°C. Determine the free-convection heat transfer coefficient for free convection
between the two plates.
Answer: 3.05 W/(m? - °C)
9-45, Atmospheric air is contained between two large horizontal parallel plates sepa-
rated by a distance of 5 cm. The lower plate is maintained at 100°C and the upper
plate at 30°C. Determine the heat transfer rate between the plates by free
convection per square meter of the plate surface.
Answer: 233.1 W/m*
9-46. Two parallel horizontal plates are separated by a distance of 26m. The lower
plate is at a uniform temperature of 220°C, and the upper plate is at 35°C.
Determine the heat transfer rate between the plates per square meter of the plate
surface.
Answer: 1006.5 W/m?
9.47, Water is contained between two parallel horizontal plates separated by a distance
of 2cm. The lower plate is at a uniform temperature of 130°C, and the upper
plate is at 30°C. Determine the heat transfer rate between the plates per square
meter of the plate surface.
Answer: 58.1 kW/m?
9-48. In a horizontal flat-plate solar collector the absorber plate and the glass cover are
separated by an air gap at atmospheric pressure. Estimate the heat transfer
coefficient for free convection across the air gap for a gap spacing of 2cm and
4cm, assuming that the absorber plate is at 80°C and the glass cover at 30°C.
9-49, A 50cm by 50cm horizontal double window glass is constructed of two glass
plates separated by a 2-cm air gap at atmospheric pressure. If the upper and lower
glass plates are at temperatures of —15°C and 20°C, respectively, calculate the
heat transfer rate across the gap.
Answer: 23.2 W
|
| FREE CONVECTION 301
| 1
9-50. The annular space between two horizontal thin-walled coaxial cylinders contains
cre er
Calculate the heat transfer rate by free convection across the air space per meter
length of the cylinders.
Answer: 42.9 W/m length
iret
9-51. The annular space between two horizontal thin-walled coaxial cylinders contains
air at atmospheric pressure. The diameters of the inner and outer cylinders are
eet
REFERENCES
. Amato, W. S., and C. Tien: ‘Free Convection Heat Transfer from Isothermal Spheres in
Water,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 15:327-—339 (1972).
. Churchill, S. W., and H. H. S. Chu: “Correlating Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Free
Convection from a Vertical Plate;” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 18:1323 (1975).
- El Sherbiny, S. M., G. D. Raithby, and K. G. T. Hollands: “Heat Transfer by Natural
Convection across Vertical and Inclined Air Layers,” J. Heat Transfer 104C:96~102 (1982).
. Fujii, T., and H. Imura: ‘Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Plate with Arbitrary
Inclination,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 15:755 (1972).
OMe”
. Morgan, V. T.: “The Overall Convective Heat Transfer from Smooth Circular Cylinders,” in
T. F. Irvine and J. P. Hartnett (eds.), Advances in Heat Transfer, vol. 16, Academic, New
York, 1975, pp. 199~264.
. Raithby, G. D., and K. G. T. Hollands: “A General Method of Obtaining Approximate
Solutions to Laminar and Turbulent Free Convection Problems,” in T. F. Irvine and J. P.
Hartnett (eds.), Advances in Heat Transfer, vol. 11, Academic, New York, 1975, pp. 265-315.
10. Rich, B. R.: “An Investigation of Heat Transfer from’ an Inclined Flat Plate in Free
Convection,” Trans. ASME 75:489-499 (1953).
11. Sparrow, E. M., and J. L. Gregg: Laminar Free Convection from a Vertical Plate,” Trans.
ASME, 78:435-440 (1956).
12. Vliet, G. C.: “Natural Convection Local Heat Transfer on Constant-Heat-Flux Inclined
Surfaces,” J. Heat Transfer 91C:511-516 (1969).
13. Vliet, G. C., and C. K. Liu: “An Experimental Study of Natural Convection Boundary
iiipt jae
Layers,” J. Heat Transfer 91C:517-531 (1969).
14. Yuge, T.: “Experiments on Heat Transfer from Spheres Including Combined Natural and Free
Convection,” J. Heat Transfer 82C:214—220 (1960).
CHAPTER
CONDENSATION
AND
BOILING
Condensers and boilers are important and widely used types of heat exchangers
with unique characteristics of the heat transfer mechanism. If a vapor strikes a
surface that is at a temperature below the corresponding saturation tempera-
ture, the vapor will immediately condense into the liquid phase. If the
condensation takes place continuously over a surface which is kept cooled by
some process, and if the condensed liquid is removed from the surface by the
force of gravity, then the condensing surface is usually covered with a thin
layer of liquid, and the situation is known as filmwise condensation. Under
certain conditions, for example, if traces of oil are present during the conden-
sation of steam on a highly polished surface, the film of condensate is broken
into droplets, and the situation is known as dropwise condensation. The
droplets grow, coalesce, and increase in size; eventually they run off the
condensing surface under the influence of gravity, sweeping off other droplets
in their path. Therefore, with dropwise condensation the condensing surface
between the drops is exposed to condensing vapor; as a result, the thermal
resistance to heat flow of the condensate layer is much less, and hence the heat
transfer rates are several times higher with dropwise condensation than with
filmwise condensation.
The presence of condensate acts as a barrier to heat transfer from the
vapor to the metal surface, and dropwise condensation offers much less
303
304 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
resistance to heat flow on the vapor side than does filmwise condensation. If
the vapor contains some noncondensable gas, this gas will collect on the
condensing side while condensation takes place, and the noncondensable gas
will act as a resistance to heat flow on the condensing side. Therefore, an
accurate prediction of the heat transfer coefficient for condensing vapors with
and without the presence of noncondensable gas, is important in the design of
condensers.
When a liquid is in contact with a surface that is maintained at a
temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid, boiling may occur.
‘The phenomenon of heat transfer in boiling is extremely complicated because a
large number of variables are involved and because’ very complex hyd-
wae
rodynamic developments occur during the process. Therefore, considerable
work has been directed toward gaining a better understanding’ of the boiling
mechanism. ,
In this chapter we present some of the recommended correlations for
predicting the heat transfer coefficient during condensation and boiling.
' 1. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature T,, that is less than the
saturation temperature T, of the vapor.
2. The vapor is stationary or has low velocity, and,so it exerts no drag on the
motion of the condensate.
3. The downward flow of condensate under the influence of gravity is laminar.
4. The flow velocity associated with the condensate film is low; as a result, the
flow acceleration in the condensate layer is negligible.
- ee 5 (1)
5. Fluid properties are constant.
6. Heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction; hence the
liquid temperature distribution is linear.
FIGURE 10-1
. . . ; ;
Schematic of filmwise
condensation on a With these considerations, Nusselt developed the following expression for the
vertical surface. average value of the heat transfer coefficient h,, for filmwise condensation over
a vertical plate of height L:
8P1(P; ~ Py )Aygk; Ms
h,, = 0.943) SPP Porat Wi(m?-°C) (10-14)
AT, ™ T,)L
_ h k3 1/4
. h,,=1.13| Sei. P1— Podight | for Re<1800
:
‘ AAT, ~ T,,)L
(10-16)
where g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s”
hy = latent heat of condensation, J/kg
k,= thermal conductivity of liquid, W/(m-°C)
L = length of vertical plate, m
(1, P, = density of liquid and vapor, kg/m°
#4,= viscosity of liquid, kg/(m.s)
T,, T,,= vapor and wall temperature, respectively, °C
and the physical properties, including h,,, are evaluated at the film tem-
perature
T; = 3(T,, + T,) (10-2)
The additional energy needed to cool the condensate film below saturation
306 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Re=— =P
4m
| (203)
10-3
minis Here m is the total mass flow rate of condensate at the lowest part of the
condensing surface (i.e., at x= L), in kilograms per second; and P is the
wetted perimeter, defined as
p= {™ for vertical plate of width w 10-4
~la#D for vertical tube of outside diameter D (10-4)
Experiments have shown that the transition from laminar to turbulent conden-
sate flow takes place at a Reynolds number of about 1800. Therefore, the
a . correlation given by Eq. (10-1)) is valid only for the laminar flow of condensa-
ei tion over the surface. Generally, p, <p,; hence Eq. (10-1b) reduces to
| 2 3. . 1/4
SPA pgk;
h,,= 1.13] ee for Re < 1800 10-5
-a(T, ~ T,,)L ( )
2 \173 .
hy 5) = 1.76 Re? for Re > 1800 (10-6)
kK; p78 -
ok and the physical properties, including hy, are evaluated at the film tempera-
2 . ture, defined by Eq. (10-2). .
_ h ke 1/4
:
- h = 1.13] BPiC Pr ~ Pu) Myke in @| for Re<1800 = (10-7)
” AT, _ T,,)L
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 307
2h ke nll4
h,, = 1.3| ere sina| forRe>1800 (10-8)
1 uv w . , ‘
whered is the angle between the plate and the horizontal. The physical
properties are evaluated at the film temperature T,, defined by Eq. (10-2).
Example 10-1. Air-free saturated steam at T, = 90°C and P = 70.14 kPa conden-
FIGURE 10-2
ses on the outer surface of a L =1.5m long, D=2.5m outside diameter (OD)
Nomenclature for
filmwise condensation
vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature T,, = 70°C. Assuming filmwise
on an inclined plane condensation, calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length
surface. of the tube.
Solution. The physical properties of water at the film temperature T,= (70+
90) /2 = 80°C are
k,= 0.668 W/(m -°C) pH, = 0.355 X 107 kg/(m -s)
p, = 974 kg/m? Hyg = 2309 kIT /kg
and g=9.8m’/s. The average heat transfer coefficient h,, for laminar filmwise
condensation on a vertical surface of the tube with Pp, <p, is determined from Eq.
(10-5):
and g=9.8m7/s. The average heat transfer coefficient h,, for laminar filmwise
condensation on.an inclined plate with p, <p, is determined from Eq. (10-8):
gp;h ky us
h,, = 1.13]
nT TE |
= 1.13]
(9.81)(985)7(2358.5 x 10°)(0.651)° _, as]
(0.471 x 107*)(75 — 45)(0.5)
= 5639 W/(m? -°C)
308 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
2h ke v4
h =0,723| Pt seine | (10-10)
™ LAT, ~ T,,)D
This result implies that for a given T,—T,,, the average heat transfer
coefficients for a vertical tube of length L and a horizontal tube of diameter D
become equal when L =2.87D. For example, when L = 100D, theoretically
hin nore WOuld be 2.44 times A,, ye... Given this consideration, horizontal tube
arrangements are generally preferred to vertical tube arrangements in conden-
ser design.
Condensation on a single horizontal tube hardly changes into turbulent
flow. Therefore, Eq. (10-10) is valid for all practical purposes.
gp1(p; — Pade" 1
I i[Pmlimpe |
~ Ni“ for Re < 1800
[Andy tubes =0.725|
u(T,-T,)NDJ
(10-12)
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 309
This equation generally yields conservative results, since some turbulence and
disturbance of the condensate film are unavoidable during drainage, and this
increases the heat transfer coefficient.
Equation (10-12) is valid for laminar filmwise condensation, namely, for
Re < 1800. However, for horizontal tubes arranged in a vertical tier, turbulent
condensation may be possible at the bottom tubes. The Reynolds number for
condensation was defined by Eq. (10-3) as .
4m
Re= —~ 10-134
MP , ( )
where “is the mass flow rate of condensate in Kilograms per second at the
HH lowest part of the tube bank and P is the wetted perimeter. For horizontal
tubes, each of length L, arranged in vertical tiers, P is given by
FIGURE 10-3
Film condensation on
horizontal tubes
arranged in a vertical P=2L (10-13b)
tier.
m= 2 (10-146)
. fg
hy, :
Introducing Eq. (10-14c) into the definition of the Reynolds number given by
Eq. (10-134), we obtain
Re
_ Atay (Ts = Tn) (10-15)
Agg byP
310 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Thus, the Reynolds number can be calculated, since the wetted perimeter Pp
was defined previously by Eqs. (10-4) and (10-135); namely,
wD for a vertical tube of outside diameter D
w for a vertical or inclined plate of width w
P=
2L for horizontal-tubes, each of length L, arranged
in vertical tiers ,
(10-16)
Example 10-3. Calculate the total mass flow rate of condensation m,.the total
heat transfer rate QO over the entire surface, and the Reynolds number Re at the
aida bottom of the surface in Example 10-1.
a
Solution. The total mass flow rate of condensate at the bottom of the tube of
Example 10-1 is determined from Eq. (10-14c): .
|1/
_ (wDL)(h,,)(T, — T,,)
Nye
Q=AAh,,(T,
h ~ Ty)
= mh, -
= 13.184 kW
The Reynolds number at the bottom of the tube, from Eqs. (10-3) and (10-16), is
Re = am where P= 7D
bP
Then,
new — 6-71 x 10°)
= 819.2
(0.355 x 107*)(0.025
77)
which is less than 1800. Hence the condensate flow is in the laminar range and the
decision made in Example 10-1 to use Eq. (10-5) which is valid for Re < 1800, is
justified.
Example 10-4. Calculate the Reynolds number at the bottom of the inclined plate
of Example 10-2.
Solution. First we need to calculate the total mass rate of condensation m over
the entire surface of the plate. In Example 10-2 the plate width w is not specified,
but this is immaterial because the width cancels out in the calculation of the
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 311
Reynolds number. Therefore we determine m from Eq. (10-14c) for a unit width
by setting A,=0.5 x 1, and obtain
on A.h,,(T, ~ T,,)
hgg
__ (0.5 x 1.0)(5639)(75 — 45)
5358.5 x 10? = 2.582 x 10°* kg/s
Then the ‘Reynolds number at the bottom of the inclined plate with the wetted
perimeter P = w = 0.5m becomes
Re=—5
HP
. “ (4)(2.582 x 1077)
= (o.47ix 1005) 8°
which is less than 1800, and the laminar flow assumption in Example 10-2 is valid.
Example 10-5. Consider N horizontal tubes arranged in a vertical tier. What is the
number of tubes that will produce an average condensation heat transfer coeffici-
ent for the vertical tier equal to one-half of that for the single horizontal tube at
the top?
5 hada se 5yr7# Ps ne
1 1
27
which gives :
N= 16
4
2 1/3
1.00
0.10 - sh
100 §=6— 200—Ss 400 +600 1000 2000 10,000 40,000
x=Re
Reynolds number for condensate flow in the laminar and turbulent regimes,
respectively.
Solution. To start the calculations, the physical properties of water at the mean
film temperature are needed. As a first guess we take an average film temperature
of 60°C. The properties of water at this temperature were given in Example 10-2,
and therefore are not repeated here..
Let w be the width of the plate. The total condensate flow rate at the
bottom of the plate at the transition Reynolds number Re = 1800 is determined
from Eq. (10-3) by setting P= w:
4m
Re= —-~ .
H,(w) 7
4m
1800= ——>-—_>— >
8 (0.471 x 107*)(w)
which gives
m=0.212w
Using Eq. (10-17), the heat transfer coefficient at Re = 1800 is determined to be
2, 1/3
(9.81)(985)" |"
= (0.0077)(1800)"*(0.651)| oan x 1037
= 3518.4 W/(m? -°C)
The expressions for the total heat transfer rate Q are taken as
Q=mh,,=A,h,,(T, - T,)
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 313
and the above values of , f,,, and A, are introduced into this equation:
(0.212)(w)(2358.5 x 10°) = (w x 2)(3518.4)(100 — T,,)
The plate width w cancels out, and the plate temperature T,, is determined to be
T,,, = 28.9°C
To check the accuracy of the initial guess of 60°C for the mean condensate
temperature, the film temperature T, is computed: .
_ 28.9 + 100
fy = 64.5°C
i The initial guess is sufficiently close to this result; therefore there is no need for
iteration.
e
FIGURE 10-5 .
Dropwise condensation of steam under ideal conditions. (From Hampson and Ozisik).
has been done with the objective of producing long-lasting dropwise condensa-
tion. Various types of promoters—such as oleic, stearic, and linoleic acids;
benzyl mercaptan; and many other chemicals—have been used to promote
dropwise condensation. The periods for which continuous dropwise conditions
are obtainable with different promoters vary between 100 and 300h with pure
steam and are shorter with industrial steam or intermittent operations. Failure
occurs because of fouling or oxidation of the surface, because of the gradual
removal of the promoter from the surface by the flow of condensate, or
because of a combination of these effects.
To prevent failure of dropwise condensation as a result of oxidation,
noble-metal coating of the condensing surface has been tried; coatings of gold,
silver, rhodium, palladium, and platinum have been used. Although some of
these coated surfaces could produce dropwise condensation under laboratory
conditions for more than 10,000 h of continuous operation, the cost of coating
the condensing surface with noble materials is so high that the economics of
such an approach for industrial applications has yet to be proved.
It is unlikely that long-lasting dropwise condensation can be produced
under practical conditions by a single treatment with any of the promoters
currently available. Although it may be possible to produce dropwise conden-
sation for up to a year by injecting a small quantity of promoter into the steam
at regular intervals, the success of this operation depends on the amount and
cost of the promoter and on the extent to which the cumulative effect of the
injected promoter can be tolerated in the rest of the plant. Therefore, in the
analysis of a heat exchanger involving the condensation of steam, it is
recommended that filmwise condensation be assumed for the condensing
surface.
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 315
I Iv V: VI—
. oD
2 | &z
Q
—
2
oS
5 os?
S|
mA
2
22 3 &
& Sa¢6 2 8
= OS QZin E 2
ag vis g
53 2 m S32
2 | 36
ae
fee
5g BPs;
Cas 3 go
aos od Ss
s m8 5 wa a &
a
omot ,:
gD
=a
(
\
Logh (h
1.0 1000
0.1
FIGURE 10-6
Principal boiling regimes in pool of boiling water at atmospheric pressure and saturation tempera-
ture T, from an electrically heated platinum wire. (From Farber and Scorah).
Free-Convection Regime
In this regime, the heat transfer from the heater surface to the saturated liquid
takes place by free convection. The heater surface is only a few degrees above
the saturation temperature of the liquid, but the flow produced by free
convection in the liquid is sufficient to remove the heat from the surface. The
Lp
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 317
Once the heat transfer coefficient h is obtained, the heat flux for the free-
convection regime is determined from
q=WT,—Ten) _ (10-19)
Various correlations are given in Chap. 9 for determining the free-
convection heat transfer coefficient A for various geometries, such as vertical,
inclined, and horizontal plates; vertical and horizontal cylinders; and many
others.
cy AT q {= in 10-20
:
a=C, oT
hy, Pr, TL why, ¥ 8(01~ Py) ( )
In Eq. (10-20) the exponent n and the coefficient C,, are the two provisions for
adjusting the correlation for the liquid—surface combination. Table 10-1 lists
the experimentally determined values C,, for water boiling on a variety of
surfaces. The value of n for water should be taken as 1.
Table 10-2 gives the values of vapor-—liquid surface tension for water at
different saturation temperatures.
TABLE 10-1 . oe
Values of the coefficient C,, of Eq. (10-20).for water
surface combinations
Liquid-surface combination Cy
Water—copper 0.0130
Water-scored copper ‘ 0.0068
Water—emery-polished copper 0.0128
Water—emery-polished, paraffin-treated copper 0.0147
Water~chemically etched stainless steel 0.0133
Water—mechanically polished stainless steel 0.0132
Water—ground and polished stainless steel 0.0080
Water—Tefion pitted stainless steel 0.0058
Water—platinum 0.0130
Water—brass 0.0060
TABLE 10-2
Values of liquid—vapor surface tension o* for
water
0 75.6
15.56 73.2
37.78 69.7
93.34 60.1
100 58.8
160 46.1
226.7 31.9
293.3 16.2 —
360 - 1.46
374.11 0
Example 10-7. During the boiling of saturated water at T,= 100°C with an
electric heating element, a heat flux of g=7%x 10° W/m’ is achieved with a
temperature difference of AT=T,,—T, =10.4°C. What is the value of the
constant C,, in Eq. (10-20)? ,
Solution. The physical properties of saturated water and vapor are taken as
Cop = 4216 T/(kg-°C) ay, = 2257 X 10° I/kg
p, = 960.6 kg/m° ~ p,
= 0.6 kg/m?
Pr, = 1.74 p, = 0.282 x 107° kg/(m- s)
o* =58.8x 107° N/m
These numerical values are substituted into Eq. (10-20) with n= 1;
cA? fg fe
fy, PY, *L phy, ¥ 8(Pr— Py)
Example 10-8. A brass heating element of surface area A = 0.04 m?, maintained
at a uniform temperature T,, = 112°C, is immersed in saturated water at atmos-
pheric pressure at temperature T, = 100°C. Calculate the rate of evaporation.
Solution. The physical properties of saturated water and vapor at 100°C were
given in Example 10-7. Introducing these properties into Eq. (10-20) with n=1
and AT= T,, — T, = 112 — 100 = 12°C, and obtaining the coefficient C,, for water-
320 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
brass from Table 10-1 as C,,= 0.006, the heat flux becomes
m= 2
Hyg
_ 100.85 x 10°
=/16s0.9 kg/h
~ = Sepp 7 00447 ke
Peak Heat Flux
the heat flux
The correlation given by Eq. (10-20) provides information about
The determination
in nucleate boiling, but it cannot predict the peak heat flux.
because of burnout
of: peak heat flux in nucleate boiling is of interest
peak heat flux, the
considerations; that is, if the applied heat flux exceeds the
regime, in
transition takes place from the nucleate to the stable film boiling
at temperature
which, depending on the kind of fluid, boiling may occur
differences well above the melting point of the heating surface.
proposed by
Lienhard and coworkers modified the correlations originally
for determina-
Kutateladze and Zuber; they proposed the following expression
tion of the peak heat flux: o
other quantities
where L is the characteristic dimension of the heater and the
propert ies of the vapor
are as defined previously. In eq. (10-21) the physical
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 321
TABLE 10-3
Correction factor F(L’) for use in Eq. (10-21)
Infinite flat plate facing up 1.14 L' 22.7; L is the heat width or
diameter
Horizontal cylinder 0.894+2.27e° "VE L'=0.15; L is the cylinder radius
Large sphere 0.84 L' = 4.26; L is the sphere radius
Small sphere : 1.734 0.15= L'=4.26; L is the sphere radius
(L')'?
should be evaluated at ‘
T; = 3(T,, + Tear)
The enthalpy of evaporation A,, and the liquid properties should be evaluated
at the saturated temperature of the liquid.
Solution. The physical properties of saturated water and vapor at 100°C «were
given in Example 10-7. Introducing these properties into Eq. (10-21), with the
correction factor F(L’) = 1.14 obtained from Table 10-3 for a large plate heating
element facing up, the peak heat flux q,,,, is determined to be
= (0.131)(1.14)(0.6)*/"(2257 x 10°)
x [(58.8 x 107*)(9.81)(960.6 — 0.6)]/*"
L = 1.27 MW/m?
k° p,(p,
— Pode
p,)gh 0.4c,, AT\]1/4
0 uD, AT ig )
ho = 0.62] <ePeX Pr (1 + awe) . (10-23
hy = 0.62
kK Oo(2: ~ Py lrg (: 0-46hinyi ty) us
B,D, AT
62{
= 0.6
.0422)°(0.365)(960.6—0.365)(9.81)(2257 x 10°)
B
(2.067 x 10~°)(0.002)(454)
(0.4)(2026)(454)
x(1+ 2257 x 10° yr
| = 270.3 W/(m? -°C)
CONDENSATION AND BOILING 323
PROBLEMS
Laminar Film Condensation
10-1. Air-free saturated steam at T, = 100°C condenses on the outer surface of a
L=2m long, D=2cm OD vertical tube, maintained at a uniform temperature
T,, = 60°C. Assuming filmwise condensation, calculate the average heat transfer
coefficient over the entire length of the tube and the rate of condensate flow at
the bottom of.the tube. ,
10-2. Air-free saturated steam at T,, = 65°C condenses on the outer surface of a 1 m by
1m plate, maintained at a uniform temperature T,, = 35°C by the flow of cooling
water on one side. Assuming filmwise condensation, calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient over the entire length of the plate and the rate of condensate
flow at the bottom of the plate.
10-3. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient of Problem 10-1 when the tube is
horizontal.
10-4. Air-free saturated steam at T, = 65°C condenses on the surface of a vertical tube
with D=2cm OD which is maintained at a uniform temperature T,, = 35°C.
Determine the tube length L for a condensate flow rate of 5 x 107* kg/s per
tube.
10-5. Air-free saturated steam at T, = 50°C (P = 12.35 kPa) condenses on the outside
surface of aD =2.5cm OD, L =2 m long vertical tube maintained at a uniform
temperature of T,,=30°C by the flow of cooling water through the tube.
Assuming filmwise condensation, calculate: (a) the average condensation heat
transfer coefficient over the entire length of the tube, and (b) the rate of
condensate flow at the bottom of the tube.
Answers: (a) 4356 W/(m?-°C), (b) 5.685 x 107° kg/s
10-6. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient h,, and the total condensation rate
at the tube surface for Problem 10-5 when the tube is in the horizontal position.
10-7. Repeat Problem 10-5 for a tube length of 3m. Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient #,, and the total condensation rate at the tube surface for the
condensation problem when the tube is in the horizontal position.. -
10-8. Saturated, air-free steam at T, = 65°C (P = 25.03 kPa) condenses on the outer
surface of a D=2.5cm OD vertical tube whose surface is maintained at a
uniform temperature of T,,=35°C. Determine the tube length needed to
condense 30 kg/h of steam.
Answer: 2.06m
10-9. Saturated, air-free steam at a temperature T,, = 80°C (P = 47.39 kPa) condenses
on the outer surface of a L=1.2m long, D =0.1m in diameter vertical tube
which is maintained at a uniform temperature of T,, = 40°C. Calculate: (a) the
_ average heat transfer coefficient /,, for filmwise condensation over the entire
‘tube length, (b) the total rate of steam condensation at the tube surface, and (c)
the condensate thickness at the bottom of the tube.
Answers: (a) 4597 W/(m* - °C), (b) 2.939 x 107* kg/s, (c) 0.189 mm
10-10. Saturated air-free steam at a temperature T, = 80°C (P = 47.39 kPa) condenses
on the outer surface of a L = 2m long, D =2.0cm OD vertical tube maintained
at T,, = 40°C. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for filmwise conden-
sation over the entire tube length and the total rate of condensation at the
surface of the tube.
324 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
uniform temperature T,, = 30°C. Calculate the tube length required to condense
W= 50 kg/h steam.
10-21. Air-free saturated steam at T, = 85°C (P = 57.83 kPa) condenses on the outer
ee iaaerr ror ernie tion tnociemesicchemntsn
- Pool Boiling
10-25. Saturated water at 7,= 100°C is boiled inside a copper pan with a heating
surface A=5X107? m? that is maintained at a uniform temperature T,,=
110°C. Calculate the surface heat flux and the rate of evaporation.
Answers: 7.173 kW, 11.4 kg/h : .
10-26. Saturated water at 7, =55°C (P= 15.76 kPa) is boiled with a copper heating
element that has a heating surface A = 5 X 107? m?, and maintained at a uniform
temperature T,, = 65°C. Calculate the rate of evaporation. . ,
Answer: 0.235 kg/h :
10-27; Saturated water at T, = 100°C is boiled in a D = 20cm diameter Teflon pitted.
stainless steel pan with a temperature difference of T,,— T, = 10°C. Calculate
the rate of evaporation.
Answer: 80.9 kg/h
10-28. Saturated water at T, = 100°C is boiled with a copper heating element. If the
surface heat flux is g = 300 kW/ m7’, calculate the surface temperature of the
heating element.
10-29. Saturated water at T, = 100°C is boiled with a copper heating element. If the
surface heat flux is g=400kw/m’, calculate the surface temperature of the
heating element.
Answer: 114°C
10-30. An electrically heated copper plate with a heating surface A =0.2m’, main-
tained at a uniform temperature T,, = 108°C, is immersed in a water tank at
T, = 100°C and atmospheric pressure. Calculate the rate of evaporation.
Answer: 23.4 kg/h
ea
Answer: 106°C
10-33. Determine the peak heat flux obtainable with nucleate boiling of saturated water |
|
oy
£
at 1 atm pressure in a gravitational field one-eighth that of the earth. Compare E
E
this result with that obtainable at the earth’s gravitational field. Assume a large
heating element.
Answers: 0.753 MW/m’; 1.27 MW/m?
10-34. An electrically heated, copper spherical heating element of diameter D = 10cm
-is immersed in water at atmospheric pressure and saturation temperature. The
surface of the element is maintained at a uniform temperature T,, = 115°C,
Calculate: (a) the surface heat flux, (b) the rate of evaporation, and (c) the peak
heat flux.
10-35. Water at saturation temperature and atmospheric pressure is boiled ‘with an
electrically heated platinum wire of diameter D,=0.2cm in the stable film
boiling regime with a temperature difference of T,, — T, = 654°C. In the absence
of radiation, calculate the film-boiling heat transfer coefficient and the heat flux.
10-36. Water at saturation temperature and atmospheric pressure is boiled with an
electrically heated platinum wire of diameter D,=0.6cm, in the stable film
boiling regime with a temperature difference of T,, — T, = 654°C. In the absence
of radiation, calculate the film-boiling heat transfer coefficient and the heat flux.
REFERENCES
. Bromley, L. A.: “Heat Transfer in Stable Film Boiling,” Chem. Eng. Prog. 46:221~—227
(1950).
. Ded, J.S., and J.H. Lienhard: ‘The Peak Pool Boiling Heat Flux from a Sphere, ” AIChE J.
18:337-342 (1942).
. Farber, E.A., and R.L. Scorah: “Heat Transfer to Water Boiling under Pressure,” Trans.
ASHE ::369-384 (1948).
. Hampson, H., and M.N. Ozisik: “An Investigation into the Condensation of Steam,” Proc.
Inst. Mech. Engin., London 1B:282-284 (1952)..
. Kirkbride, C. G.: ‘Heat Transfer by Condensing Vapors,” Trans. AIChE 30: 524 (1951).
. Kutateladze, S. S.: “A Hydrodynamic Theory of Changes in Boiling Process under Free
Convection,” Iz. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, Otd. Tekh. Nauk. (4):524 (1951).
. Lienhard, J. H., and V. K. Dhir: ““Hydrodynamic Prediction of Peak Pool-Boiling Heat Fluxes
from Finite Bodies,” J. Heat Transfer 95C:152—158 (1973).
. Nukiyama, S.: “The Maximum and Minimum Values of the Heat Q Transmitted from Metal to
Boiling Water under Atmospheric Pressure,” J. Jap. Soc. Mech. Eng. 37:367-374 (1934).
. Rohsenow, W. M.: “A Method of Correlating Heat Transfer Data for Surface Boiling
Liquids,” Trans. ASME 74:969-975 (1952).
10. Schmidt, E., W. Schurig, and W. Sellschopp: “‘Versuche uber die Kondensation von Wasser-
dampf in Film und Tropfenform,” Tech. Mech. u. Thermodynam. 1:53 (1930).
il. Sun, K. H., and J. H. Lienhard, “The Peak Pool Boiling Heat Flux on Horizontal Cylinders,”
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 13:1425-1439 (1970).
12. Vahon, R. L., G. H. Nix, and G. E. Tanger: ‘Evaluation of Constants for the Rohsenow
Pool-Boiling Correlation,” J. Heat Transfer 90C:239-247 (1968).
13. Zuber, N.: “On the Stability of Boiling Heat Transfer,” J. Heat Transfer 80C:711 (1958).
CHAPTER
RADIATION
327
CHAPTER
RADIATION
327
ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
applications, the bulk of the energy emitted by a body lies in the wavelengths,
approximately, between A=0O.lym and A=100ym. For this reason, this
portion of the wavelength spectrum is generally referred to as the thermal
radiation. For example, the Sun emits thermal radiation at an effective surface
temperature of about 5760 K, and the bulk of this energy lies in wavelengths
between A=0.1 pm and A=3 ym; therefore, this portion of the spectrum js
generally known as the solar radiation. The radiation emitted by the sun at
wavelengths between A4=0.4m and A=0.7 pm is visible to the eye; there.
fore, this portion of the spectrum is called visible radiation (i.e., light). Figure
11-1 illustrates such subdivisions on the electromagnetic wave spectrum.
Other types of radiation, such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, etc.,
are well known and are utilized in various branches of science and engineering,
X-rays are produced by’ the bombardment of a metal with’ high- frequency
secon and the bulk of the energy is in the range between A =107* um and
= 107° um. Gamma rays are produced by the fission of nuclei or by radioac-
tive disintegration, and the bulk of the energy is concentrated at wavelengths
shorter than those of x-rays. In this book, we are not concerned with such
radiation; our interest is only in thermal radiation as a mechanism of energy
transport between objects at different temperatures.
The. wave nature of thermal radiation implies that the wavelength A
should be associated with the frequency of radiation v. The relation between A
and v is given by
—— (11-1)
where c is the speed of propagation in the medium. If the medium in which
radiation travels is a vacuum, the speed-of propagation is equal to the speed of
light, that is,
Cy = 2.9979 x 10° m/s (11-2)
By utilizing this relationship between A and v, we included the corresponding
frequency spectrum in Fig. 11-1.
FIGURE 11-1
Typical spectrum of electromagnetic radiation due to temperature of a body.
Thermal radiation
~O0.} - 100 pm Solar radiation
~0.1-3 pm
a 108 103 10? 19! 10° = yor! 07? 10-3 Wavelength (um)
| 1 i | I t ! 1
T 7 T 7 i T T *
v 191 102 198 104 1045 1916 1017 Frequency (s')
Infrared
~0.7- 1000 pm
Ultraviolet
Visible range = ~9.4— 102 ym
~0.4- 0.7 pm
RADIATION 329
Cy Wi(m?-pm) (11-3)
E,,(T) = d°{exp [c,/(AT)] — 1}
Here E,,(T), called the spectral blackbody emissive power, represents the
amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at an absolute temperature
T, per unit time, per unit area of the surface, per unit wavelength about the
wavelength A. Thus it has the units W/ (m?- jm). The validity of this formula
. has also been verified experimentally.
Figure 11-2 shows a plot of the function E,,(T) against the wavelength of
radiation for several different values of temperature. An examination of this
figure reveals the following features of emission of radiation by a blackbody:
330 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
7
10 CTT TTT
+107
W/(m?-um)
104
103
T=300°R ~110
(278 K) :
[. bet ot of db be
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
A, wavelength, um
FIGURE 11-2
Spectral blackbody emissive power at different temperatures.
\
T=5762K of the sun’s surface, the application of Wien’s law gives the
wavelength at which the peak occurs as
ax =0.5 pm ~ (11-5)
which lies in the visible range of the spectrum.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
E,(T)=oT*
b W/m? (11-7)
This relation is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Here E,(T) is called the
blackbody emissive power, T is the absolute temperature in K, and o is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, which has the numerical value
[ E,,(T) da ft E,,(T) da
fo(T) =~ oT’ (11-10)
E,,(T) da
Here, f,,(T) is called the blackbods radiation function. It represents the
emission of radiation by a blackbody over the wavelength band from A=0 to A
as a fraction of the total emission. In Table 11-1, f,(T) is listed as a function
of AT. Here, A is in micrometers and T is in Kelvins.
The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at temperature T over a
finite-wavelength band from A= A, toA=A, asa fraction of the total emission
from A=0 to A= A can be determined in the following manner.
We obtain from Table 11-1 the fractional functions fo-a,(T) and fy_ a(T),
corresponding to A,T and A,T, respectively. Then their difference gives
fuy-a(T)= fo-a.(T)~ fo-a(7)
where Tyra (T) represents the energy contained over the finite-wavelength
band between A, and A, as a fraction of the total energy emission.
Solution. Given X= 4pm and E,,(T)= 10° W/(m*: wm), and using the spectral
blackbody emissive power expression given by Eq. (11-3), we solve for the
temperature T as follows:
10° = 3.743 x 10°
4° {exp [1.4387 x 10°/(4T)] — 1}
or
1.4387 x 10°
TF = In 366.53 .
‘and
Ly T=609K
Solution. Give T = 1500 K, from Wien’s displacement law, Eq. (11-4), we have
max = 2897.6 pm
(AT) max K
or
2897.6
LU A= e990 = 1.93 pm
AT, AT,
pm-K SulT) pom: K Sy (T)
333
334 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Solution. Given T = 800 K, the blackbody emissive power can be calculated from
the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
E,(T)=oT* -
= (5.67 x 107*)(800)* = 23,224.3 W/m?
The hole area is A= 7(0.002)? m*. Therefore the rate of emission of radiation
energy g through the hole becomes
Q=AE,(T)
LJ = m(0.002)7(23,224.3) = 0.29 Ww
Solution. The visible range of the spectrum is A, =0.4 um to A, = 0.7 pm. Given
T =2500K, from Table 11-1, for A,T=0. 4(2500) == 1000 pm- K+, we obtain
fo-a, = 0.00032
Then
fo-a, 7 fo-a, = 9-03392 — 0.00032 = 0.0336
|| Therefore 3.36 percent of the energy is in the visible range.
Pd
RADIATION 335
Emissivity
Radiation emitted by a real body at a temperature T is always less than that of
the blackbody. Therefore, the blackbody emission is chosen as a reference.
The emissivity e of a surface is defined as the ratio of the energy emitted by a
real surface to that emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature; it has a
' value between zero and unity. Clearly, these are numerous possibilities for
making such a comparison: for example, the comparison can be made at a
given wavelength, over all wavelengths, for the energy emitted in a specified
direction, or for the energy emitted into the hemispherical space. Most
emissivity data reported in the literature are in the form of hemispherical
emissivity averaged over all wavelengths. By definition, the hemispherical
emissivity is the ratio of the radiation flux q(T) emitted by a real surface at -
temperature T over all wavelengths into the hemispherical space, to that which
would have been emitted by a blackbody, E,(T), at the same temperature T.
Then the hemispherical emissivity e(T) is defined as
EX (11-11)
Given the emissivity of a real surface, the radiation energy q(T) emitted by the
surface per unit area at temperature T is determined by
= = = (11-13)
° ET) . oT*
[, Banyan .
SB
336 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Temperature, °C
500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
0 250
1.0
I [ i it [. l
bee
4 PRL
0.8
Copper, oxidized
oT cm
Bepyfiium oxide
black disk
0.7 7
4 .
Brass,
oxidized LA
p> 06
% WA Staifiless steel 301
3 :
= . A
Y~
8 05
5
=
& ery}ium oxide
5 ite disk
0.4 - / ———
=
/' :
Nickel, oxidized
03 L
Zinc, oxidized
Z 7 nen meee a
0.1 —— -
LO _|_atiiminum alloy, polished Co
Zinc, pure, polished ° . aanie e
| . . .
0 Brass, polished
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
0 500 1000
°F
FIGURE 11-3
on data from
Effects of temperature and oxidation of hemispherical emissivity of metals. (Based
Gubareff, Janssen and Torborg.)
Note that, in this averaging process, the spectral blackbody emissive power
E,,(T) is used as the weight factor, because the energy emission is governed
by the magnitude of E,,(T).
Generally it is quite laborious to perform the integration in Eq. (11-13)
when experimental data are to be used for e,. To alleviate this difficulty, the
integration can be transformed into a summation involving several wavelength
bands, over each of which e, can be regarded as uniform and taken out of the
RADIATION 337
1.0 PTO
0.9+- (_T. .
a Window
= glass, 1000°C _
= i+— 0.3 cm. thick
€ |—1 om thick 4
ian
wn
0 | Joop td :
0.3 04 O58 06 07 0.8 0.91.0 2 3 4 5 6
Wavelength A, pm
FIGURE 11-4
Spectral emissivity of materials.
integral sign. Then the resulting integrals are recast as the blackbody radiation
functions, which are readily available from Table 11-1.
To illustrate this matter, we consider the entire wavelength spectrum to
be divided into three wavelength bands:
From 0 to A, : &, = €, = constant
From A, to A,: £, = & = constant
From A, to ©: €, = €, = constant
Then the integral in Eq. (11-13) is separated into three parts, and the definition
of the blackbody radiation function given by Eq. (11-10) is utilized.
Ay Aa a
I E,,(T) da h E,,(T) da I. E,,(T) da
oS apt pF 3
e= € fo-.,(T) + €9[ fo-.,(T) ~ fo-a,(T)] + e,[1 ~ for (11-14)
Clearly, knowing ¢,, ¢,, and ¢,, the evaluation of emissivity e from Eq. (11-14)
by. using Table 11-1 is a relatively easy matter.
338 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
1.0
= 7
9 peer
a aN
ogee p> |
a 0.
2 1, White fireclay \ i
B 2. Asbestos
E 3. Cork
B 4, Wood N 2 |
<= 0.4 5. Porcelain
e 6. Concrete . ’ 3 pnd
° 7. Roof shingles .
8. Aluminum 4
9. Graphite . 8
0.2 a
FIGURE 11-5
| . ee
Variation of absorptivity with
source temperature of incident a
radiation for various common :
: 0 600 1000 . 5000 4000 6000
materials at room temperature. 300400
From Sieber.
( Source temperature, K
Absorptivity
A blackbody absorbs all radiation incident upon it, whereas a real surface
absorbs only part of it. The hemispherical absorptivity a of a real surface is
defined as the fraction of the radiation energy incident upon a surface from all
directions over the hemispherical space and over all wavelengths that is
absorbed by the surface. We can also speak of spectral hemispherical absorp-
tivity a, if the absorptivity refers to radiation incident at a specific wavelength
A. .
Figure 11-5 shows the absorptivity of various materials at room tempera-
ture as a function of the source temperature at which the incident radiation is
originating. For example, the absorptivity of white fireclay for incident radia-
tion originating from a source at 300K is about 0.9, whereas for an incident
radiation from a source at 6000K it is about 0.1. On the other hand, the
absorptivity of aluminum and graphite increases with an increase in the source
temperature.
Relatively few data are available in the literature on the effect of source
temperature on absorptivity of surfaces. except for the case of solar radiation.
Graybody- Approximation .
The radiation properties of a surface, such as absorptivity and emissivity, in
general, depend on the wavelength of radiation. However, in radiation calcula-
tions, it is not practical to consider heat transfer at each wavelength. To
RADIATION 339
o
Kirchhoff’s Law
Under certain conditions, the absorptivity and emissivity of a body are related
to each other by Kirchhoff’s law. According to this law, the spectral emissivity
é,(T) for the emission of radiation by a body at temperature T is equal to the
spectral absorptivity @,(7) of the body for radiation originating from a black-
body source at the same temperature T. Hence, by Kirchhoff’s law we write
. - €(T)=a,(T) _. (11-15a)
Care must be exercised in generalizing this result to the average values of
emissivity and absorptivity over the entire wavelength spectrum. That is, Eq.
(11-15) is always valid, but the equality
e(T) = a(T) | (11-15)
is applicable only where the radiation properties of the body are independent
of the wavelength (i.e., a graybody) or when the incident and the emitted
radiation have the same spectral distribution.
Reflectivity
When radiation is incident on a real surface, a fraction of it is reflected by the
surface. If the surface is perfectly smooth, the incident and the reflected rays
are symmetric with respect to the normal at the point of incidence, as
illustrated in Fig: 11-6a. This mirrorlike reflection is called specular reflection.
If the surface has some roughness, the incident radiation is scattered in all
directions. An idealized reflection law assumes that in such a situation the
" intensity of the reflected radiation is constant for all angles of reflection and
FIGURE 11-6 :
Reflection from surfaces. (a) Specular reflection, (b) diffuse reflection, (c) irregular reflection.
|
ray ie
6 6
(a) (c)
340 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER.
a=1~-p (11-16)
The spectral hemispherical reflectivity p, is the reflection at.a specific
p,
wavelength A. For an opaque surface, the spectral hemispherical reflectivity
and the spectral hemispherical absorptivity a, are related by
a,=1-p, ~ (41-17)
Transmissivity
If the body is semitransparent to radiation, as glass is to solar radiation, part of
the incident radiation is reflected by the surface, part is absorbed by the
oy
%e Reflected
medium, and the remainder is transmitted, as schematically shown in Fig. 11-7.
Then the sum of absorptivity and reflectivity is less than unity, and the
difference is called the transmissivity of the body. With this consideration we
4. Absorbed write
atp+7%=1 (11-182)
Transmitted
atpt7=1 (11-185)
FIGURE 11-7
sivity.
where we define 7, as the spectral transmissivity and 7 as the transmis
Reflection, absorption,
and transmission of
incident radiation by a
given by
semitransparent Example 11-5. The spectral emissivity of an opaque surface at 1000 K is
material.
ێ,=0.1 for A, =0 to A, =0.5 pm
€, = 0.7 for A, = 15 pm
= 6 to A,
Determine the average emissivity over the entire range of wavelengths and the
radiation flux emitted by the material at 1000 K.
RADIATION 341
[ £,£,,(T) dar
E=
e,(T)
__ e, |
[* E,(T)
E,(T) dA + &,
* E,,(T)
4 E,(P) dd+e £5
SECT)
a E,(T) da
+ &,
* E,,(T)
as ET) da
The physical significance of the view factor between two surfaces is that it
represents the fraction of the radiative energy leaving one surface that strikes
the other surface directly. Therefore, the determination of the view factor
between two surfaces is merely a geometrical problem.
_ The elemental view factor dFj,,44, from dA, to dA, is now immediately
obtained from Eq. (11-19) by interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. We find
The reciprocity relation between the view factors GF 44,-aa, aNd dF,44 '
FIGURE 11-8
Coordinates for the definition of
view factor.
RADIATION 343
dA dF
j4 aa, = dA,dF 44,44, (11-21)
This relation implies that for two elemental surfaces dA, and dA,, when one
of the view factors is known, the other can be readily computed by the
reciprocity relation. .
Although developing formal expressions for the view factor between two finite
surfaces from the definition of elemental view factors given above is a relatively
easy matter, computing the resulting expressions is very difficult except for
very simple geometrical arrangements. To illustrate this, we consider the view
factor F', _,, from a finite surface A, to another finite surface A,, as shown in
Fig. 11-8. By integrating the elemental view factor dF, 44, over the areas A,
and A, and dividing the reswne expression by A,, we obtain the following
formal expression for F, _
1 cos 6, cos 6
Fy -4,= a), 1 SERS 2dA,dA, (11-22)
1 cos
cos 6, 6,
Pao-a,= ale Lr dA, dA, (11-23)
From Eqs. (11-22) and (11-23), the reciprocity relation between the view
factors F,, 4, and F, 4, is obtained as
The reciprocity relations given above are useful for determining one of the
view factors, given knowledge of the other.
The view factor F ‘A,~A, Tepresents the fraction of the radiation energy
leaving surface A, diffusely that strikes surface A, directly. The evaluation of
the double surface integrals that appear in the resulting formal expressions is
extremely difficult.
FIGURE 11-9
An N-zone enclosure.
isothermal, a diffuse emitter, and a diffuse reflector. The surface of each zone
may be plane, convex, or concave. The view factors between surfaces A, and
A, of the enclosure obey the following reciprocity relation:
‘where N is the number of zones in the enclosure. In this summation the term
F,,-4,18 the view factor from the surface A, to itself; it represents the fraction
of radiative energy leaving the surface A, that strikes itself directly. Clearly,
F, 4, vanishes if A; is flat or convex, and it is nonzero if A; is concave; this is
stated as
Example 11-6: Two small surfaces dA, =5 cm? and ‘dA, = 10cm? are separated
by r=100cm and oriented as illustrated in the accompanying figure. Calculate
the view factors between the surfaces.
Example 11-7. The view factor F,_, between the base and the top surface of the
cylinder shown in the accompanying figure is available from the charts. Develop a
relation for the view factors F,_, and Fy_, between the base and the lateral
cylindrical surface in terms of F 3
F,+F_.+F3=1
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-7 Since F,_, =0, we have
F_,=1-F_,
From the reciprocity relation, Eq. (11-25),
. A\F,_.= AaFy_;
Therefore
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.05
Faay-ay
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
S a Ge
0.002 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30
0.1 0.2 03 04 06 0.81.0
FIGURE 11-10
et
View factor F,,,_,,, from an element surface dA, to a rectangular surface A,. (From Mackey
al.) °
Figure 11-14 shows the surfaces and their subdivision. Then the view factor
from A, to A, can be written as
which is consistent with the definition of the view factor. That is, the fraction of
the total energy leaving A, that strikes A, and A, is equal to the fraction that
strikes A,.
Additional relationships among these view factors can be obtained. For
example, suppose both sides of Eq. (11-29) are multiplied by A,:
A,Fi_1=A\Fi_3
+ Ay Fi_4
Fay-Ay
oS
2
oo
oO
in
an
Ne
>
L,
Ratio D
FIGURE 11-11
View factor F, ,, from a rectangular surface A, to a rectangular surface A, which are adjacent
and in perpendicular planes. (From Mackey etal.)
Ax ws 2
i Ly .
Asymptote
7 0.1
rrryprrrery
bib a
TTT
en ee
PTTT
ee
bh
i bi
Litt
2 .
0 ee Oe trp th dt be tt al
0.1 0.2 03 040.506 08 | 2 3 4 56 8 10 20
Ly
Ratio ~>
Ky
FIGURE 11-12
‘View factor F, _,, from a rectangular surface A, to a rectangular surface A, which are parallel to
and directly opposite each other. (From Mackey et al.)
FIGURE 11-13
View factor F, _.,, between two coaxial parallel disks.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Pa 4
348
RADIATION 349
Example 11-8. Determine the view factor F,_, between an elemental surface
dA, and the finite rectangular surface A, for the geometric arrangements shown —
in the accompanying figure.
Alw
SLE oP
|
|
Lua, = i’
Din
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-8 _ 4, from Fig. 11-10 as
Then we read the view factor F,,
F,_. = 0.09
e
Example 11-9. Determine the view factors F,_, and F,_, between two rectangu-
lar surfaces for the geometric arrangement shown ‘in the accompanying figure.
Lb, 5 |
wW6 = 0.833
(a)
Then we read the view factor F, _,, from Fig. 11-11 as
Fy, = 0.285
) Given L,=1m, L,=5m, and W=6m, we have
L, 1
Weé 0.167
L, 5 _
WG = 0.833
(6)
Example 11-10. Determine the view factor F,_, between two rectangular sur-
faces A, and A, for the geometric arrangement shown in the accompanying
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-9 figure.
Solution. We split up this arrangement into the parts similar to those considered
in Example 11-9. Then the view factors for the split-up arrangements are
available in Fig. 11-11. From the laws of view-factor algebra applied to this
configuration, we write
AF. = AyFy_2 + A3F3_,
FIGURE 11-15
Determination of view factor
between the surfaces A, and A,
‘ of a long enclosure.
Crossed-String Method
Consider an enclosure, as shown in Fig. 11-15, consisting of four surfaces that
are very long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The
surfaces can be flat, convex, or concave. Suppose we wish to find the view
factor F,_, between surfaces A, and A,. We assume that imaginary strings,
shown by dashed lines in Fig. 11-15, are tightly stretched among the four
corners A, B, C, and D of the enclosure. Let L, (i= 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6) denote the
lengths of the strings joining the corners, as illustrated in the figure. Hottel has
shown that the view factor F,_, can be expressed as
Ly F,_;
_
5
(L; + Lg) — (L, + L,)
(11-33)
Here we note that the term L,+L, is-the sum of the lengths of the cross
strings, and L, + L, is the sum of the lengths of the uncrossed strings. Equation
(11-33) is useful for determining the view factor between the surfaces of a long
enclosure, such as a groove, which can be characterized as a two-dimensional
geometry of the form illustrated in Fig. 11-15. ,
olution. The dashed lines in the figure are the imaginary strings. The view factor
, between surfaces A, and A, is given by Eq. (11-33). Because of the
anetry we have L,= Le and L,==L,, and so Eq. (11-33) gives
Le- Ls,
Fi,=
L,
Le=[(e+ bf + d7]'”
L,=2b
Substituting the expressions for L,, L,, and L, into the above expression, the
view, factor F,_, is determined as
[(c+ b)? + ay? =[(e- b)? + dy?
a F-3* 2b
Radiosity Concept
We focus our attention on any one of the zones of the enclosure, say zone i. By
assumption 3, the radiation energy leaving the surface is assumed to be
uniform. We introduce the concept of radiosity J; at zone i to represent the
radiation energy leaving this surface per unit area per unit time, as viewed by
an observer immediately above the surface of zone i. Figure 11-165 illustrates
this hypothetical location symbolically by the dashed line. From physical
considerations we conclude that the radiosity J, is composed of two compo-
nents:
radiation radiation
emitted by reflected by 2
Ji=\ surface A; * | surface A; Wim (11-34a)
per unit area per unit area
Radiation emitted
by surface A, per Ey (11-345)
unit area
where ¢, is the emissivity and E,,= oT? is the blackbody emissive power at
temperature T, of the zone A,.
Radiation reflected
(u surface A; per |=p,G,=(1-«,)G; (11-34c)
unit area
where G, is the irradiation or the radiation flux incident on the surface of zone
i, in watts per square meter, which is considered uniform over the zone by
assumption 4. In addition, we assumed an opaque surface and set p, = 1-— ¢;.
By introducing Eqs. (11-34b) and (11-34c) into (11-342), we obtain the
following expression for the radiosity:
Q;= aa J Ww : . (11-394)
where
R,= a (11-39)
J,= E,,=0T; t
for ¢,=1 or black surface (11-40)
Thus, for a black surface, the radiosity is equal to the blackbody emissive
Actual power of the surface.
surface Figure 11-17 illustrates the concept of surface thermal resistance to.
FIGURE 11-17
radiation between the potentials £,, and J;.
Surface resistance to When the net radiation heat flow Q, at the surface A, vanishes, the zone
radiation. A, is called a reradiating or adiabatic zone. For such a case, we set Q; equal to
354 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER ~ oy a
Ey = Ji (11-41)
This result implies that at a reradiating or adiabatic zone, the radiosity J, is
equal to E,,= oT}, and that the emissivity e, does not enter the analysis.
To evaluate the two terms on the right-hand side of this equation, we consider
J; and J,, the radiosities at the surfaces of zone i and zone j, respectively, and
the view factors F,_, and F;_,; between the two zones. Then, the mathematical
expressions for each term on the right-hand side are written as
Q;_; = JA F,_; ~ JAF; (11-43)
We utilize the reciprocity relation A ,F,_, = A,F,_,; between the view factors and
rewrite Eq. (11-43) as
FIGURE 11-18
Various resistances to radiation
in the path of heat flow between
surfaces A, and A,.
RADIATION 355
where
ar (11-45b)
Clearly, Eq. (11-45a) is analogous to Ohm’s ldw, where R,_, j =1/A;,F; vi i-j
represents the radiation resistance to heat flow across the fictitious potentials J;
and J;, which are considered to exist just above the surfaces A; and A,,
' respectively.
R,=1=
i Ajé; an
and - R=
i A;e;
11-46a,b
(11-46a,5)
and the resistance across the fictitious surfaces is given by
1
R= AF, (11-46c)
Then the total heat flow Q;_; from zone i to zone j across the potential .
difference E,,,— E,, is determined by Ohm’s law as
o(T - T2)
QO,..= R,+RatR (11-482)
356 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Surface Surface
FIGURE 11-19
Radiation transfer between two
opaque large parallel plates.
where . .
_ il _i-g&
R,
_i-eg
(11-48b,c,d)
~ Ag, Ria= AF,_5
For two large parallel plates, F,_,=1; then Eq. (11-48a) reduces to the
following expression for heat flow per unit area from surface 1 to surface 2:
N-2 + 1/e,—1
A tle, ™ (14)
and the radiation resistance across the fictitious surfaces above A, and A, is
given by . .
, 1 1
R (11-51)
i AF; AGE;
To illustrate the application, we consider a three-zone enclosure, as shown in
Fig. 11-20a. Zones 1, 2, and 3 have surface areas A,, Az, and A3, emissivities
€,, &, and ¢,, and temperatures T,, T,, and T;, respectively. Figure 11-205
shows the corresponding radiation network. To solve this problem, the algeb-
‘raic sum of the currents at the nodes J,, J,, and J; is set equal to zero. This
leads to three algebraic equations for the determination of three unknown
radiosities J,, Jy, and J,. Knowing the radiosities, the heat flow rates Q,;, Qs,
RADIATION 357
FIGURE 11-20
(a) A three-zone
enclosure and (b) the and Q, at each zone are determined by the application of Ohm’s law as
corresponding
radiation network.
. oTi- J, : 1l-e,
OQ, =o R, where
h R, = Ae, (11-52a)
11-52
4
oT,~ J, 1-e,
Q, =o
R where
h R, = Ane, ( 11-526 )
and
oT; — Js 1-e,
Q, aR, where © R, X3 = Ay E3 ( 11-52c )
Solution. The net radiation flux q,_, in this two-zone enclosure is given by Eq.
(11-49) as
_ a(Tt ~ T>) 2
N-2" Tie ie,-1 Wm
Therefore, for the specified problem, q,_, becomes
" . (5.67 x 107*)(1000* — 500*) _ 2
LU fi-a 1/0.6+1/0.8-—1 = 27,733.7 Wim
[] Example 11-13. Two black rectangular surfaces A, and A,, arranged as shown in
the accompanying figure, are located in a large room whose walls are black and
Ry kept at 300K. Determine the net radiative-heat exchange between these two
A, Fis
surfaces when A, is kept at 1000K and A, at 500K. Neglect the radiation from |
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-13 the room.
358 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
fA 0.625
W 16,
L, 0.8 _
ie 0.5 |
=0.2
The corresponding radiation network is illustrated in the accompanying figure.
The heat transfer rate becomes
° = A,F,_,0(T; - T3)
where
_ T, =343K
3m e, =0.8
A, =3X%3=9m?
. Ey J Jy) Ex
—> AA —o A ——
3m Q Ry R12 Ry Q,
Floor and walls
T> = 283K
jm & = 0.8
A, =5X9=45 m7?
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-14
Solution. The problem is illustrated in the accompanying figure, which shows the
various given values. The floor and walls are considered to be a single surface.
The problem is like a two-zone enclosure, and. the equivalent network is
illustrated in the accompanying figure. Various potentials and resistances are
E,, = oT} = (5.67 X 107*)(343)* = 784.8 W/m?
Ey. = OT} = (5.67 x 10-*)(283)* = 363.7 W/m?
_1l-e, 1-08
R,= Ae, = (oyco.gy = 902778
RADIATION 359
l-e 1-08 |
R,= Ase, ~ (45)(0.8) = 0.00556
1
R,2= =0.11111
2 AF. (OC)
The radiation heat exchange is determined from Eq. (11-47) as
Q = Fay — Ey,
1-2) R, +R,
1+ R,
784.8 — 363.7
i: - = 9.00778 + 0.11111 + 0.00550 PW
Example 11-15. A cubical’room 3 m by 3 m by 3 m is heated through the floor by
maintaining it at a uniform temperature of 310K. Since the side walls are well
insulated, the heat loss through them can be considered negligible. The heat loss
takes place through the ceiling, which is maintained at 280 K. All surfaces have an
emissivity « =0.85. Determine the rate of heat loss by radiation through the
ceiling.
F,,=02 F,_,=08
The equivalent network is illustrated in the accompanying figure.
(2) Ceiling, A, =9 m?
T, = 280K
: (1) Floor A, =9 m?
3m _ 7, =310K
FIGURE EXAMPLE 11-15
Various potentials and resistances are
5p = OT? = (5.67 X 107*)(310)* = 523.64 W/m?
E,.= oT 3 = (5.67 X 107*)(280) = 348.51 W/m’*
np .--t---t Lt
1-2 ALF. (9)(0.2) ‘1.8
1 1 1
a 1-3 AF, (90.8) 7.2
R, =R,.=- = =
_i-e 1-085 1
Aye, — (9)(0.85) ~ 51
360 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
O,..= E£,,7 bl E b2
equivalent
|
_= 523.640.2244
— 348.51 = 780.43W
_ Ao(T; ~ T3)
Qo= 1/e,+1/e,-1 Ww (11-53)
We now consider a radiation shield placed between the plates. Let e,, and e, 5
be the emissivities of the shield at the surfaces facing plates 1 and 2,
respectively. The radiation network for the assembly with one shield can be
constructed by utilizing Eqs. (11-39b) and (11-45b) for the radiation resist-
ances at the surface and across the surfaces, respectively. Figure 11-21 shows
the resulting radiation network. By utilizing this network and noting that
F,,;=F,,=1 for large parallel plates, the heat transfer rate Q, across the
system with one shield becomes
Q,=
Ao(T} — T3)
l/e, +1 —- €3,)/é3, +(1- E3 >) lez, +1/e,
which is rearranged as
Ao(T?— T3)
Q,= (1/e, + 1/e, —1) + (Les, + Ley - 1) W (11-54)
RADIATION 361
Shield
Plate 1 (plate 3) Plate 2
Ty T3) Ts Ty
A AJA A
FIGURE 11-21 /
Plate-shield assembly and the corresponding radiation network.
A comparison of Eq. (11-54) with Eq. (11-53) shows that the effect of the
radiation shield is to increase the thermal resistance. of the system.
If the emissivities of all surfaces are equal, Eq. (11-54) reduces to
_ Ao(T}—T) W (11-55)
1 2(2/e-1)
For a parallel-plate system containing N shields between two surfaces
with the emissivities of all surfaces equal, Eq. (11-55) is generalized as
__Ao(T}-T3)
On= We 1(2/e-1) Ww (11-56)
The ratio of the heat transfer rates for parallel-plate systems with N shields and
with no shield, when all emissivities are equal, is determined from Eq. (11-56)
as ;
Qv_
ONT1. (11-57)
Example 11-16. Consider two large parallel plates, one at T, K with emissivity
€, =0.8 and the other at T, K with emissivity «, =0.4. An aluminum radiation
shield with emissivity «,=0.05 is placed between the plates. Calculate the
percentage reduction in the heat transfer rate resulting from the radiation shield.
Solution. The heat transfer rate without the radiation shield is determined from
Eq. (11-53):
_ Ao(T; ~T:)
Qo 7. +1/e,-1
Ao(T; ~ T3)
7084 1/04—1 ~ P36AO(T: ~ To)
EEE eects 4 4 4
362 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
The heat transfer rate with the radiation shield is determined from Eq. (11-54);
0 = Ao(T}~ T3)
“1” (lle, + le, ~ 1) + Ves, # 1/e,—1)
_ Ao(T} - T3)
~ (1/0.8 + 1/0.4 = 1) + (1/0.05 + 1/0.05 — 1)
= 0.024A0(T} — T3)
The reduction in the heat transfer rate resulting from
the shield is
Qo~-Q, _ 0.36—0.024
= 0.934
On 0.36
Therefore the radiation shield reduces the heat loss by 93.4 percent.
PROBLEMS
View-Factor Concept
11-21. Two small surfaces dA, = 4 cm? and dA, =6 cm’ are separated by r = 50cm and
oriented as shown in the accompanying figure. Calculate the view factors
between the surfaces.
aoa
11-22. Determine the view factors F,_,, F,_,, between the surfaces of a long semicylin-
drical duct, shown in the accompanying figure, by view-factor algebra.
Answers: F,_,=1, F,_, = 0.637, F,_, = 0.363
11-29. Determine the view factors between the surfaces shown in the accompanying
figure.
(0)
FIGURE PROBLEM 11-29
11-30. For the grooves shown in the accompanying figure (an equilateral’ triangle and a
semicircle), determine the view factor of each groove ‘with respect to the
surroundings outside the groove.
11-31. For the rectangular groove with H=2W shown in the accompanying figure,
determine the view factor F,_,.
Answer: 0.618
11-32. Two aligned, parallel square plates 0.5m by 0.5m are separated ‘by 0.7m, as
illustrated in the accompanying figure. Determine the view factor By 3
Answer: 0.12
0.5 m
0.5 m
11-33. Two parallel circular disks of equal diameter 0.6m separated by 0.5m have a
common central normal, as illustrated in the accompanying figure. Determine
the view factor F_..
Answer: 0.22
366 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
11-34. Determine the view factors F,_,, F,_,, and F,_, of the infinitely long surfaces in
the accompanying figure.
11-35. Determine the view factor F,_, between surfaces A, and A; of ‘Example 11- M1
for b =3, c=5, and d=10cm.
g it
11-41. A cubical room 2m by 2m by 2m is heated through the floor by maintainin
at a uniform temperatu re T, = 250K, while the walls and the ceiling are at
RADIATION 367
200 K. Assume that the floor has an emissivity e, = 0.9 and the walls and the
ceiling have an emissivity ec, = 0.6. Determine the rate of heat loss from the
floor.
Answer: 420.3 W
11-42. A cubical room 2m by 2m by 2m is heated through the floor by maintaining it
at a uniform temperature T, = 250 K. The side walls are well insulated. The heat
loss takes place through the ceiling, which is maintained at 200 K. The floor has
an emissivity ¢,=0.9, and the ceiling has an emissivity of 0.6. Determine the
rate of heat loss from the floor.
Answer: 214 W
11-43, Two square plates, each 2m by 2m, are parallel to and directly opposite each
other at a distance of 3m apart. The hot plate is at T, = 1000K and has an
emissivity e,=0.7. The colder plate is at T,=400K and has an emissivity
e,= 0.6. The radiation heat exchange takes place between the plates as well as
with a large ambient at 7, =300K through the opening between the plates.
Calculate the net heat transfer raté by radiation at each plate and to the
ambient.
Radiation Shields
11-44. Consider two large parallel plates, one at T, = 1000K with emissivity 2, = 0.8
and the other at T,=500K with emissivity «,=0.4. An aluminium radiation
shield with an emissivity (on both sides) e, = 0.05 is placed between the plates.
Sketch the radiation network for the system with and without the radiation
shield. Calculate the percentage reduction in the heat transfer rate as a result of
the radiation shield.
Answer: 93.4 percent
11-45. Two large parallel plates are at temperatures T, and T, and have emissivities
é,= 0.9 and e,= 0.6. A radiation shield having an emissivity ¢, (on both sides) is
placed between the plates. Calculate the emissivity e, of the shield needed to
reduce the radiation loss from the system to one-tenth of that without the shield.
11-46. Consider two large parallel plates, one at T, = 1000K with emissivity ¢, = 0.8
and the other at T, = 300 K with emissivity ¢,= 0.6. A radiation shield is placed
between them. The shield has an emissivity e,, =0.1 on the side facing the hot
plate and emissivity «,,=0.3 on the side facing the cold plate. Sketch the
radiation network. Calculate the reduction in the heat transfer rate between: the
hot and the cold plates as a result of the radiation shield.
Answer: 86.6 percent
11-47. Consider two large parallel plates, one at T, = 800 K with emissivity e, = 0.6 and
the other at T,=300K with emissivity ¢,=0.5. A radiation shield is placed
between them. The shield has emissivity e,=0.2 (on both sides). Sketch the
radiation network. Calculate the reduction in the heat transfer rate between the
plates as a result of the radiation shield, and the final equilibrium temperature of
the: radiation shield.
11-48. Consider two large parallel plates, one at T, = 800 K with emissivity e, = 0.9 and
the other at T,=300K with emissivity «,=0.5. A radiation shield with an.
emissivity «, (on both sides) is placed between the plates. Calculate the
emissivity of the radiation shield needed to reduce the heat transfer rate to 10
percent of that without the shield.
Answer: 0.1
368 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
REFERENCES
. Gubareff, G. G., J. E. Janssen, and R. H. Torborg: Thermal Radiation Properties Survey,
Honeywell Research Center, Honeywell Regulator Company, Minneapolis, 1960.
. Hottel, H. C.: “Radiant Heat Transmission,” in W. H. McAdams (ed.), Heat Transmission, 34
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954, chap 4.
. Mackey, C. O., L. T. Wright, R. E. Clark, and N. R. Gray: “Radiant Heating and Cooling,
Part I,” Cornell Univ., Eng. Exp. Sta. Bull. 22 (1943).
. Sieber, W.: Zusammensetzung Der Von Werk-und Baustoffen Zuriickgeworfenen Warmes-
trahlung,” Z. Tech. Phys. 22:130-135 (1941).
mesg
CHAPTER
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are commonly used for the transfer of heat between a hot and
a cold fluid. For example, in car radiators, hot water from the engine is cooled
by atmospheric air. In household refrigerators, hot refrigerant from the
compressor is cooled by natural convection into the atmosphere by passing it
through finned tubes. In space radiators, the waste heat carried by the coolant
fluid is dissipated by thermal radiation into the atmosphere-free space. In
steam condensers, the latent heat of condensation is removed by the coolant
_ water passing through the condenser tubes. Clearly, different types of heat-
exchanging devices are needed for different applications. There are also
situations in which heat exchangers become among the most costly components
of the system. Therefore, the design of heat exchangers for new applications is
a very complicated matter. The design involves not only heat transfer and
pressure drop analysis, but also optimization and cost estimation.
In this chapter we discuss the classification of heat exchangers, the
determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient, the logarithmic mean
temperature difference and e-NTU methods for sizing, and heat transfer and
estimation in heat exchangers. The problems of optimization and cost estima-
tion are beyond the scope of this work.
12-1 CLASSIFICATION
Heat exchangers are designed in so many sizes, types, configurations, and flow
arrangements and used for so many different purposes that some kind of
classification, even though arbitrary, is needed in order to study heat exchan-
gers. Here we briefly discuss the basic concepts leading to classification.
Heat exchangers can be classified according to compactness. The ratio of
the heat transfer surface area on one side of the heat exchanger to the volume
369
370 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
FIGURE 12-1
shell pass and one tube pass.
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger; one
Rear-End
Shell Sheli-side Tube-side
Header fluidinlet fluid inlet
CORRUGATED
AIR FINS
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-2
A plate-fin and a round tube-fin heat exchanger. (Courtesy of Harrison Division of General
Motors Corporation).
FIGURE 12-3
(a) parallel-fiow, (b) counter flow, and (c) cross-flow arrangements.
Cold in |
Cold out
(a) (6)
Hot mc —— Hot
ino a out
371
372 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Counter-flow The hot and cold fluids enter at the opposite ends of the
heat exchanger and flow through in opposite directions, as illustrated in Fig.
12-3b. ;
Cross-flow In the cross-flow exchanger, the two fluids usually flow at
right angles to each other, as illustrated in Fig. 12-3c. In a cross-flow
arrangement, the flow may be what we call mixed. or unmixed, depending on
the design. To illustrate the physical significance of the concept of mixed and
unmixed, we refer to the illustration in Fig. 12-4. Here, Fig. 12-4a shows an
arrangement in which both hot and cold fluids flow through individual channels
formed by corrugation; therefore, the fluids are not free to move in the
transverse direction. In this case each fluid stream is said to be unmixed. In the
flow arrangements shown in Fig. 12-4b, the cold fluid flows inside the tubes and
so is not free to move in the transverse direction. Therefore, the cold fluid is
said to be unmixed. However, the hot fluid flows over the tubes and is free to
move in the transverse direction. Therefore, the hot fluid stream is said to be
mixed. The mixing tends to make the fluid temperature uniform in the
transverse direction; therefore, the exit temperature of a mixed steam exhibits
negligible variation in the crosswise direction. In a shell-and-tube heat ex-
changer, the presence of a large number of baffles serves to “mix” the
shell-side fluid in the sense discussed above; that is, its temperature tends to be
uniform at any cross section.
Multipass flow Multipass flow arrangements are frequently used in heat
exchanger design, because multipassing increases the overall effectiveness. A
wide variety of multipass flow arrangements are possible. Figure 12-5 illustrates
typical arrangements.
Heat exchangers can also be classified according to the heat transfer
mechanism—for example, condensers, boilers, and radiators. Condensers are
used in such varied applications as steam power plants, chemical processing
plants, and nuclear electric plants for.space vehicles. Steam boilers are one of
FIGURE 12-4 :
Cross-flow arrangements; (a) both fluids unmixed, (b) cold fluid unmixed, hot fluid mixed.
Hot
fluid Cold
fluid
inside
tubes
Shell-side fluid in
Shell-side fluid in
Tparnmee
Damme Tube-side
fluid in
Tube-side
fluid in
(a) (0)
FIGURE 12-5
aanvements, (a) one the earliest types of heat exchangers. Radiators for space applications are used
shell pass, two tube in space vehicles to dissipate the waste heat by thermal radiation into the space
pass; (b) two shell by taking advantage of the’ fourth-power relationship between the absolute
pass, four tube pass. temperature of the surface and the radiation heat flux. ,
AT,
2 = . 2
2 4 SS 2
5B Bi5 Sar, 0 ©& 5= Boiling AT, {
& = 7]
ot gut AT,
2 R
3 3 5
& & 3
z
Ee
3& ce
a>
Fa é AT,
FIGURE 12-6
Axial temperature distribution in typical single-pass transfer matrices.
|
Shell-side fluid
out
374
HEAT EXCHANGERS 375
TABLE 12-1
Unit fouling resistance (or fouling factor ) F
F, m’-°C/W
Water (52°C or less; velocity 1 m/s or less)
Seawater 0.000088
Distilled 0.000088 .
Engine jacket 0.00018
Great Lakes 0.00018
Boiler blowdown 0.00035
Brackish water 0.00035
River water
Minimum 0.00036
Mississippi 0.00053
Delaware, Schuylkill . 0.00053
East River & New York Bay 0.00053
Chicago Sanitary Canal 0.00141
Muddy or Silty 0.00053
Industrial fluids
Clean recirculating oil 0.00018
Vegetable oils 0.00053
Quenching oil 0.00070
Fuel oil , 0.00088
Organic vapors . 0.000088
Steam (non-oil-bearing) 0.000088
Steam, exhaust 0.00018
Refrigerating vapors 0.00035
Air 0.00035
Organic liquids 0.00018
Refrigerating liquids 0.00018
Brine (cooling) 0.00018
Source: Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.
It is apparent that U, is generally low for fluids that have low thermal
conductivity, such as gases or oils.
Example 12-1. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient U, based on the
outer surface of a D, =2.5cem, D, =3.34cm brass [k= 110 W/(m-°Q)] tube for
the following conditions: The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are,
respectively, h, = 1200 W/(m? -°C) and h, = 2000 W/ (m? °C); the fouling factors
for the inside and outside surfaces are R= F, = 0.00018 (m? -°C)/W.
U,= }
°- (D,/D,)A/h,) + (D,/D,)F, + (D,/2k) ln (D,/D,) + F + lh,
Introducing the numerical values, we obtain
Example 12-2. Hot water at a mean temperature T,, m = 80°C and with a mean
velocity u,,=0.4m/s flows inside a 3.8-cm-ID, 4.8-cm-OD steel tube [k=
50 W/(m-°C)]. The flow is considered hydrodynamically and thermally de-
veloped. The outside surface is exposed to atmospheric air at T_, = 20°C, flowing
with a velocity of u,=3m/s normal to the tube. Calculate the overall Aear
transfer coefficient U, based on the outer surface of the tube, and the heat loss per
meter length of the tube.
To evaluate the physical properties of air at the film temperature, the closest
approximation for the film temperature is taken as T, = (80 + 20)/2 = 50°C. Then
v=18.22x107° m/s .. k= 0.0281 W/im-°C
Pr= 0.703
The Reynolds number for the air flow becomes
u,D _-(3)(0.048)
Re= = 7990 -
vy -18.22.x 107°
The Nusselt number is determined from Eq. (8-81):
Nu = (0.4 Re°* + 0.06 Re”’’) Pr’
= [0.4(7990)°° + 0.06(7990)7/7](0.703)°*
= 51.9
aD,U,(T, ~T,)
Ht
(7)(0.048)(29.8)(80 — 20)
i
= = 269.6 W/m
Example 12-3. Engine oil at a mean temperature T,= 100°C flows inside a
D=3cm ID, thin-walled copper tube with a heat transfer coefficient 4,=
20 Wi(m? -°C). The outer surface of the tube dissipates heat by free convection
into atmospheric air at temperature T.,=20°C with a heat transfer coefficient
h, =8 Wi(m? -°C). Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat loss
per meter length of the tube.
Solution. We assume that the thermal resistance and the curvature effect of a
thin-walled copper tube are negligible. The overall heat transfer coefficient
becomes
1
U= l/h, +1/h,
1 26
= T0219 7771 Wm *°C)
Q=aDU(T, — T..)
integrating it over the entire path of the flow. It can be shown that this
temperature difference is a logarithmic mean of the temperature differences
between the hot and cold fluids at both ends of the heat exchanger, and is
given by
_ _ AT,—AT,
AT, = AT y= In (AT,/AT,) (12-9)
where AT,is called the logarithmic mean temperature difference, and
temperature differences between the hot and
AT,, AT, = se fluids at the two ends of the heat
exchanger x = 0 and x = L, respectively
The formula for AT,, given in Eq. (12-9) is applicable for the single-pass heat
transfer matrices illustrated in Fig. 12-6. We note that for the special case of
AT, =AT,, Eq. (12-9) leads to AT, = 0/0 = indeterminate. But by-the appli-
cation of L’Hospital’s rule [i.e., by differentiating the numerator and de-
nominator of Eq. (12-9) with respect to AT,], it can be shown that for this
particular case AT,,= AT, =AT,.
It is of interest to compare the LMTD of AT, and AT, with their
arithmetic mean:
AT, + AT,,.
AT, = 7, (12-10)
-We present in Table 12-2 a comparison of the logarithmic and arithmetic means
of the two quantities AT, and AT,. We note that the arithmetic and logarit-
hmic means are equal for. AT, =AT,. When AT,# AT,, the LMTD is always
less than the arithmetic mean; if AT, is not more than 50 percent greater than
AT,, the LMTD can be approximated by the arithmetic mean within about 1.4
percent.
Thus, the total heat transfer rate between the cold and-hot. fluids for the
single-pass arrangements shown in Fig. 12-6 can be calculated from the
following simple expression:
Q=A,U,, £ am AT,, " (12-11)
where A, = total heat transfer area
U,, = average overall heat transfer coefficient between the hot and cold
fluids
TABLE 12-2
Comparison of logarithmic AT,, . and
arithmetic AT, means of AT, and AT,
AT,
1 1.2 1.5 1.7 2
AT,
AT,
1 1.0028 1.0137 1.023 1.04
AT, In
HEAT EXCHANGERS 381
AT,, = logarithmic mean temperature difference between the hot and cold
fluids, defined by Eq. (12-9)
When A, and U,, are available and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot
and cold fluids are given, the total heat transfer rate Q for the heat exchanger
can be readily calculated from Eq. ( 12- 11).
Solution. The temperature profiles in the exchanger are shown in the accompany-
ing-figure. The logarithmic mean temperature difference becomes’
AT. = AT, ~ AT,
in“ In (AT,/AT,)
19-§ °
= inddorsy 7 2-7
The total heat transfer area is
~ Ge
A= U,, AT,
AT,,
10,000, og
= Gondi27y ~1?7™
PC
a it = 500 w/(m?+°
Water, 3
12°C GE ea OC “
Brine
32°C
Example 12-5. Engine oil at T,= 40°C, flowing at a rate of m = 0.05 kg/s, enters
a D,=2.5cm ID copper tube which is maintained at a uniform temperature
T,, = 100°C by steam condensing outside. Calculate the tube length required to
have the outlet temperature of the oil T, = 80°C.
Solution. The temperature profiles in the exchanger are shown in the accompany-
ing figure. The physical properties of engine oil are taken at (40 + 80)/2 = 60°C as
382 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Ty = 100°C
| 4
T,=40°C—fe D;=2.5cem — m=0.2 ke/s A 7, = 80°C
5 condensing steam
100°C 100°C
20°C 5
oil 80°C
60°C
40°C
_ O14 2.0
= 3.66 0.005 = 20.5 Wi(m* -°C)
Assuming that the thermal resistance of the copper tube is negligible, the overall
heat transfer coefficient becomes
U =h, = 20.5 Wi/(m?-°C) |
The logarithmic mean temperature difference is
” _ AT,-AT,
Als = i (AT,/AT, )
_ 60-20
~ In (60/20) = 36.4°C
The tube length L is determined from the overall energy balance for the tube:
me, AT,,, = UA, AT,,
where the subscripts c and h refer, respectively, to the cold and hot fluids.
Figure 12-8 shows the correction factor F for some commonly used heat
exchanger configurations. In these figures, the abscissa is a dimensionless ratio
P, defined as
p=— Tot,
bah
sy, (12-144)
R=
T, ~ T, _ (mc, ) ube side
(12-14b)
h-hh | (mc, )shett side ~
Note that the correction factors in Fig. 12-8 are applicable whether the hot
fluid is in the shell side or the tube side. Correction-factor charts for several
other flow arrangements are given by Bowman, Mueller, and Nagle.
. Generally F is less than unity for cross-flow and multipass arrangements;
it is unity for a true counter-flow heat exchanger. It represents the degree of
departure of the true mean temperature difference from the LMTD for a.
counter-flow heat exchanger.
We note from Fig. 12-8 that the value of the parameter P ranges from 0
to 1; it represents the thermal effectiveness of the tube-side fluid. The value of
R ranges from zero to infinity, with zero corresponding to pure vapor conden-
sation on the shell side and infinity to evaporation on the tube side.
Thus, if the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are
available, the simple LMTD based on the flow arrangement of Fig. 12-6e can
be corrected as described above and the corrected effective temperature AT,,,,
can be calculated. Then the total heat transfer rate Q between the hot and cold
fluids is calculated from Eq. (12-11) by replacing AT,, by AT,,,,.
384 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
F, correction factor
5 tow
oe r
S5 fh
oO
2bee
8 tI
i T;
T, -T
bah
(6) “0 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
font
8
3
§ a
8=
8
a
mop Ty
«) “0 Of 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 pi t-t
fan . t,-T,
“Ty, -t
FIGURE 12-8
Correction factor F for computing AT, corrected FOF Multipass and cross-flow exchanger. (a) one shell
pass and two tube pass or multiple of two tube pass; (b) two shell pass and four tube pass or
multiple of four tube pass; (c) Single pass, cross-flow, both fluids unmixed. (From Bowman,
Mueller, and Nagle.)
Solution. The temperature profiles in the exchanger are shown in the accompany-
ing figure. The logarithmic mean temperature difference becomes
_ ATo~ AT,
ATs = in(AT,/AT,)
75 — 20 5
= in (75/20) 7 ES
The parameters P and R are
P=
t— ty
Ty~ ty
_ 100-200 _
0.57
~ 25 —200
. 4 R= T,—T,
fy ty
257 80
_
= 0.55
100 — 200
Then, from Fig. 12-8a, the correction factor F is
F=0.89
and the corrected temperature difference becomes
AT.o:¢5 = FAT,
= (0.89)(41.6) = 37.02°C
The heat transfer area A is determined by an overall energy balance:
UA, AT sore = m.Cy (ty —t,)
ty = 100°C
75°C
T, = 25°C
386 SLEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
T, = 90°C
ty, = 20°C
FIGURE EXAMPLE 12-7
P=
b-~t
T,- 4,
_ 80-20
=0.5
~ 140-20
T,~-T,
R=
t,— t .
_ 140- 90
= 0.83
~ 80-20
Then, from Fig. 12-8, the correction factor F is
F=0.97
The required heat transfer area A is determined by an overall energy balance:
i)
388 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Here (mc,) min is the smaller of m,c,, A™ ph and m,c,, for the hot and cold fluids;
j, and T c,in are the inlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids, respec-
T,, h,in
tively.
Clearly, if the effectiveness « of the exchanger is known, Eq. (12-16)
provides an explicit expression for the determination of Q through the ex-
changer. .
A considerable amount of effort has been directed toward the develop-
ment of simple explicit expressions for the effectiveness of various types of heat
exchangers. For convenience in such developments, a dimensionless parameter
called the number of (heat) transfer units (NTU) is defined as
NTU = AU,/C._;, (12-17)
where Cui, = (77C,) min» that is, the smaller of mc,, and mc,.. The physical
significance of NTU can be viewed as follows:
_ AU,, _ heat capacity of exchanger, W/°C
NTU= Cinmin
-~+Heat capacity of flow, W/°C (12-18)
For simplicity in the notation, we adopt the abbreviation
For a specified value of U,,/C,;,, the NTU is a measure of the actual heat
transfer area A, or the “physical size” of the exchanger. The higher the NTU,
the larger the physical size.
Analytic expressions for e-NTU relations have been developed for vari-
ous types of heat exchangers, including parallel-flow, counter-flow, cross-flow,
multipass, and many others. The reader should consult Kays and London for
extensive documentation of effectiveness charts for various flow arrangements.
In Figs. 12-9 to 12-13 we present some effectiveness charts for typical flow
arrangements. Also, Table 12-3 lists some explicit expressions for the effective-
ness. In these figures, the physical significance of (C,.:,/ Cay)> 0 needs further
clarification.
Consider the actual heat transfer rate Q through the heat exchanger,
given by
Q = Mi Con(T yin _ Tr out) = MCyAT our ~ Tein) . (12-19)
~ Losinin)
~ Ti out)
(12-20)
© Corin(Tn
or
CAT
Teinn)
out 7 Tein)
(12-21)
° Coin(T~ni
where we define
Heat transfer
surface
100
min! Cc. max.
0.
80
Effectiveness €, percent
60
40
‘
FIGURE 12-9
Effectiveness for a parallel-flow
heat exchanger. (From Kays and
London.) N#=AU
yn [Cin
Heat transfer
surface
100
Corin! Crnax =-0
80+—
Effectiveness €, percent
60
40
20
1 2 3
N=AU,/C min
389
(nie, ), ! Cold fluid
ors
4
(mc,),
Hot fluid
100 -
: Crnin! Criax =|
80
Effectiveness ¢, percent
60
’
40}+—
FIGURE 12-11
Effectiveness for a cross-flow
heat exchanger, both fluids 0 ie Lt
unmixed. (from Kays and 0 ! 2 3 4
a
London.) N=AU,, Crnin
2
Shells
_ 80 5
5 0.75
5 00
= 60
. 2
. E
3 40
a
. 20
FIGURE 12-13
Effectiveness of a two shell pass
heat exchanger with four, eight, 0 5 4 5
twelve, etc. tube passes. (From 0 I . 3
Kays and London.) N= AU nIC in
TABLE 12-3
Heat exchanger effectiveness; NTU = UA/C,,,,,
: c= Corin! Cmax
_ 1l-exp[-(NTU)(1+ C)] :
Parallel flow é= inc 7
—>
CLLLLLLL
ALLL LLL LLL
_ 1-exp[-[-(NTU)(1- - C)]C)]
Counter flow E=T—G exp[-(NTU)—
—
CLLLLLLL LALA
—
Cross flow: Both fluids unmixed. Approximate formula is
1 2
e=1—exp { é (NTU) [exp (- C(NTU)””*) — uy}
391
392 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
stant. Now, if the effectiveness é as defined by Eqs. (12-20) and (12-21) should
remain finite while T, mn Tour
for the condensing or boiling side is practically
zero, C, or C,, on the phase change side should behave as an infinite specific
‘heat capacity. Such a requirement implies that for a boiler or condenser we _
must have C_,,-> ©, and as a result,
C= smn ig (12-23)
Therefore, the case C->0 implies a boiler or a condenser.
An examination of the results presented in Figs. 12-9 to 12-13 reveals that
for e <40 percent, the capacity ratio C = C,,,/C,,,, does not have much effect
on the effectiveness é. .
A counter-flow exchanger has the highest-« for specified values of NTU
and C compared with that for other flow arrangements. Therefore, for a given
NTU and C, a counter-flow arrangement yields maximum heat transfer per-
formance.
Having established the framework for the definition and the determina-
tion of the heat exchanger effectiveness ¢, we are now in a position to make
use of the effectiventss concept in solving rating and sizing problems.
RATING PROBLEM. Suppose the inlet temperatures Ti, and T, ;,, the flow
rates m, and m,, the physical properties of both fluids, the overall heat transfer
coefficient U,,, and the total heat transfer area A are all given. The type of
exchanger and its flow arrangement are specified. We wish to determine the
total heat flow rate Q and the outlet temperatures T,,,, and T,,,,. The
calculation is as follows:
T, hyout
out
Q
T,,hy, in’ C,
Q
Te out Tin C
c
The preceding discussion of the e-NTU method clearly illustrates that the
rating problem when the outlet temperatures are not given can readily be
solved with the e-NTU method, but a tedious iteration procedure would be
required to solve it with the LMTD method, and the convergence might not be
easy.
HEAT EXCHANGERS 393
SIZING PROBLEM. Suppose the inlet and outlet temperatures, the flow rate,
the overall heat transfer coefficient, and the total heat transfer rate are given,
and the flow arrangement is specified. We wish to determine the total heat
transfer surface A. The procedure is as follows:
1, Knowing the outlet and inlet temperatures, calculate e from Eqs. (12-20)
and (12-21)..
2 . Calculate C= C_../C
min max”
A=
(NTU) Coin
U, m
The use of the e-NTU method is generally preferred for the design of
compact heat exchangers for automotive, aircraft, air conditioning, and
various industrial applications where the inlet temperatures of the hot and
_cold fluids are specified and the heat transfer rates are to be determined. In
the process, power, and petrochemical industries, both the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are specified; hence the LMTD
method is generally used.
Solution. (a) We determine the heat transfer surface area by using the
effectiveness method: .
C,,= m,C,, = (1)(1370)= 1370 W/°C -
C,= m.C,. = (0.2)(4180) = 836 W/°C
Therefore C,,,, = C,<C,, and .
Cin _ 836
. C.. 1370 0%
The total heat transfer rate Q is
Q= Mi Con(T a in ~ Tour)
E>
Q =
Q
OQ
a max Cc min( hin ~ Tein)
_ 54,800
= 0.82
~ §36(110 — 30)
394 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
A - U,,
_ (2.7)(836) _ 2
= "359 9.03 m
(b) The exist temperature of the water T.,,, is determined from the energy
balance:
54,800 = (0.2)(4180)(T,
oy, ~ 30)
which gives
T, c,out = 95.6°C
Note: Once we know the inlet and exit temperatures, this problem can easily
be solved by LMTD, which gives a heat transfer area of A = 8.75 m*. Since
LMTD doesn’t involve reading values from a chart, it is more accurate.
Example 12-9. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown
in Fig. 12-11 is to heat water with hot exhaust gas. The exhaust gas [c, =
1050 J/(kg-°C)] enters at T,,,, =200°C and m, =2.5kg/s, while the water
enters at T,,, = 30°C and m, = 1.5 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
U,, = 150 W/(m?-°C), and the heat transfer surface is A = 17.5 m?. Calculate
(a) the total heat transfer rate, and (b) the outlet temperatures of the water and
exhaust gas.
Solution. (a) Since the exit temperatures are not known, the effectiveness
method should be used to solve this problem.
Cy, = MyCp_ = (2.5)(1050) = 2625 W/°C 7
C,= m,c,, = (1.5)(4180) = 6270 W/°C
Therefore Cj, = C, <C_, and
Cin _ 2625 _
Coax 6270 — 0.42
AU,, _17.5* 150 _
ieaaie pamareancer
= 0.48
The total heat transfer rate O is
O = Qa = ECmin(Tyin 7 Tin)
= (0.48)(2625)(200 — 30)
= 214.2 kW
HEAT EXCHANGERS 395
Q= My Co(Ty in ~ Ty out)
214,200 = 2625(200 — Ty, our)
which gives
Ty, Ayout
our = 118.4°C °
The outlet temperature of the water is
Cold Water
T, = 10°C
m, = 6ke/s
ty = 25°C
1 = 75°C
Water -
| my, = 5 kg/s
2
Um = 750 W/(m? °C) FIGURE EXAMPLE 12-10
Solution.
Canin = 7
20,900
= 0.83
C_.. max 25,080
The total heat transfer rate O is
The effectiveness é is
-=-2 -—___2
Omar Coia( Tn in ~ a)
1,045,000 _
= Goo00(75—10) 0”
From Fig. 12-13, we obtain
AU,,
NTU = Cc. 4.5
which gives
A _ (NTU) Chin
7 U.,
° (4.5)(2
“="—“7 0,900) _ 3
50.—O 125.4m
(b) The exit temperature of the coolant water Tou is determined from the
energy balance:
Q = mc, (T, ~ Tein)
= (6)(4180)(T.,ou ~ 10)
which gives
T c,out = 51.7°C
can easily
Note: Once we know the inlet and exit temperatures, this problem
of A = 113.7 m*. Since
be solved by LMTD, which gives a heat transfer area
doesn’t involve reading values from a chart, it is more accurate.
LI LMTD
:
|
| i
ii
where #1 = total mass flow rate of fluid in kilograms per second and A,,,, =
minimum free-flow cross-sectional area in square meters, regardless of where
this minimum occurs.
The hydraulic diameter D,, is defined as
FIGURE 12-15 .
Heat transfer and friction factor for low across circular finned-tube matrix. (From Kays and
London.)
I [ |
0.070 3 Tube OD = 1.638 cm 4
0.060 Fin pitch = 3.425/cem _|
. [~~] Fin thickness) = = 0.0254 cm
0.050 ++ Fin area/total area = 0.862 ~|
0.040
fm
a || I
| A. | [——
0.030 . 4
1.121ah
in "
-m ““ 0.645 ya {
a TT nv +4 f
at e ae pS
S B
pS > Eo,
0.1149in 6 =0.010in
0.010 To scale for “A”
pb oR Spacing 5
0.008
JEN ~~ A 1.232in
: : hm B 1.848 in
0.006 fh
0.005 : -——
0.004 -
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Re X 1073 A B
Hydraulic diameter D, = 0.5477 1.1674 cm
Minimum free-flow area/frontal area, a = 0.443 0.628
Heat transfer area/total volume = 323.8 215.6 m?/m3
398 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
a) 2 \2)]
se 2[ave(% i
Flow
min
Core
Pn
A
aan
acceleration friction
Example 12-11. Hot air at P=2atm pressure and 500K with a mass flow rate
m =12kg/s flows across a circular finned-tube matrix configuration like those
shown in Figs. 12-14¢ and 12-15. The dimensions of the heat exchanger matrix are
given in the accompanying figure. Calculate (a) the heat transfer coefficient, (b)
the friction factor, and (c) the ratio of the pressure drop due to core friction to
0.8 m
the inlet pressure.
Solution. The physical properties of hot air at 500 K and 2 atm are-
0.5m
_ 12 _ ae
= (aaayo.8 x05) ~ 0772 kel)
Re ~
G,D a*“h
.
La
= (67.72)(0.5477
Sth x 10~*) = 13.9
x 10 3
(2.671 x 107°) °
From Fig. 12-15 for Re = 13,900, we have
. h P 273
“2 = 0.0052
Then a
GCpa
h, = 0.0052 pes
7.72)(1.0295 x 10°
= 0.0052 ae = 469 W/(m? - °C)
(b) From Fig. 12-15 for Re = 13,900, we have the friction factor: .
f=0.023 .
(c) The pressure drop across the heat exchanger due to core friction is deter-
mined from Eq. (12-27): ‘
A
A 4k _ _ 40.6)
nin 7 D, 0.5477 x 107 = 438.2
Pies.
Prn
Ap;Pi )
AP, = G* (
Pn
_
, 2p; f A win
PROBLEMS
12-19. Water at a mean temperature T, = 80°C and a mean velocity u = 0.15 m/s flows
inside a D =2.5cm ID, thin-walled horizontal copper tube. At the outer surface
of the tube, heat is dissipated by free convection into atmospheric air at a
temperature T= 15°C. Assuming that the tube wall resistance is negligible,
calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat loss per meter length
of the tube.
1 = 80°C —>
T, =50°C
12-26. A single-pass cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig.
12-8c is used to heat water flowing at a rate m,=0.5kg/s from T, = 25°C to
T,=80°C by using oil [c, =2100J/(kg-°C)]. The oil enters the tubes at
t, = 175°C at a rate m,=0.5kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
U,, = 300 W/(m* -°C). Calculate the required heat transfer surface.
12-27. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-8¢c is to ©
heat water with hot exhaust gas. The exhaust gas enters the exchanger at
Tin = 250°C and leaves at T,, ,,, = 110°C. The cold water enters at T,,, = 25°C
and leaves at T.,,4, = 100°C with a flow rate of m, =5kg/s. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is estimated to be U,, = 200 Wi(m?-°C). Calculate the re-.
quired heat transfer surface.
12-28. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-8c is to
heat air with hot water. The total heat transfer rate is 200 kW. The water enters
the tubes at t, = 85°C and leaves at t, = 30°C, while the air enters the shell side
at T, = 15°C and leaves at T, = 50°C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
U,, = 75 Wi(m* -°C). Calculate the required heat transfer surface area.
Answer: 149.0'm? :
e-NTU Method
12-29. Hot chemical products [c,,, = 2500 J/(kg- °C)] at T,,;, = 600°C and at a flow rate
m,, = 30kg/s are used to heat cold chemical products [¢,. = 4200 J/(kg-°C)] at .
T,in = 100°C and m, = 30kg/s in the parallel-flow arrangement shown in Fig.
12-9. The total heat transfer surface is A = 50 m’, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient can be taken as U,, = 1500 W/(m’ -°C). Calculate the outlet tempera-
tures of the hot and cold chemical products for m, =~m,.
Answers: 350°C, 249°C
12-30. Hot chemical products [c,,, = 2500 J/(kg-°C)] at T, in = 600°C and at a flow rate
m, = 30kg/s are used to heat cold chemical products [c,, = 4200 J /(kg-°C)] at
Tin = 100°C and m, = 30kg/s in the counter-flow arrangement shown in Fig.
12-10. The total heat transfer surface is A = 50 cm’, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient can be taken as U,, = 1500 W/(m* -°C). Calculate the outlet tempera-
tures of the cold and hot chemical products for m, = m,.
404 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
12-31. A counter-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement of Fig. 12-10 is to heat
air to T..,,= 500°C with the exhaust gas from a turbine. Air enters the
exchanger at T.;, = 300°C and m,=4kg/s, while the exhaust gas enters at
T,,. in = 650°C and m, =4kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U,,
80 W/(m?- °C). The specific heat for both air and the exhaust gas can be taker asas
Con= Cpe = 1100 J/(kg-°C). Calculate the heat transfer surface A required and
the outlet temperature of the exhaust gas.
Answers: 77 m?, 450°C
12-32. A counter-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-10 is
to heat cold fluid entering at T, ;,, = 30°C and m, Coe = 15,000 W/°C with hot fluid
entering at 7), ,, = 120°C and m,c,,, = 10,000 WiC. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is U,, = 400 W/(m*-°C), and the total heat transfer surface is A= .
20 m’. Calculate the total heat transfer rate Q and the outlet temperatures of the
hot and cold fluids.
Answers: 77°C, 58.7°C
12-33. A counter-flow exchanger is to heat air entering at T, ,,, = 400°C and m, = 6kg/s
with exhaust gas entering at T, ,,, = 800°C and m,=4kg/s. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is U,, = 100 W/(m? -°C), and the outlet temperature of the air
is 551.5°C. the specific heat for both air and the exhaust gas may be taken as
Cyn= Cy, = 1100 J/(kg-°C). Calculate the heat transfér surface A required and
the outlet temperature of the hot exhaust gas. ;
12-34. A counter-flow shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown
m Fig. 12-10 is used to heat water with hot exhaust gases. The water enters at
Tin = 25°C and leaves at T,,.,=80°C at a rate m,=2kg/s. Exhaust gases
'[e, = 1030 J/(kg-°C)] enter at T, ,,= 175°C and leave at Ty ou, = 90°C. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is U,, = 200 W/ (m?-°C). Calculate the heat
transfer surface area required.
Answer: 32.4 m?
12-35. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in ne 12-11 is to
heat water with hot exhaust gas. The water enters the tubes at Tig = 25°C and
'm,=1kg/s, while the exhaust gas enters the exchanger at T, hin = 200°C and
m, =2kg/s. The total heat transfer surface is A = 30m’, and the overall heat
transfer coefficient is U,,= 120 W/(m? -°C). The specific heat for the exhaust gas
may be taken as c,,= 1100J/(kg-°C). Calculate the total heat transfer rate Q
and the outlet temperatures T..,, and T,, ,,, of the water and the exhaust gas.
12-36. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-11 has a a
heat transfer surface A = 12 m7. It will be used to heat air entering at T.,
10°C and m, = 3kg/s with hot water entering at T , in = 80°C and m, =0.4 kg/s.
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be taken as U,, = 300 W/(m*-°C).
Calculate the total heat transfer rate Q and the outlet temperatures of the air
and water.
12-37. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-11 is
used to heat water with an engine oil. Water enters at T,, = 30°C and leaves at
Tow = 85°C at a rate m, = 1.5kg/s, while the engine oil [c,,, = 2300 J/(kg-°C)]
caters at Dn. in = 120°C at a flow rate m, =3.5kg/s. The heat transfer surface is
= 30m*. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U,, using the e-NTU
method
12-38. A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-11 is
used to heat pressurized water to T,,,, ¢,out = 90°C with a hot exhaust gas. The hot
HEAT EXCHANGERS 405
gas [c,, = 1050 J/(kg-°C)] enters the exchanger at T,,,, = 300°C and a flow rate
m, =1kg/s, while the pressurized water enters at T,,,, = 30°C and a flow rate
m, = 0.25 kg/s. The heat transfer surface area is A = 3 m’. Calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient U_,, using the e-NTU method.
12-39, A cross-flow heat exchanger with the flow arrangement shown in Fig. 12-11 is to
heat water with hot exhaust gas. The exhaust gas [c, = 1100 J/(kg-°C)] enters at
T,, in = 300°C and m, =3kg/s, while the water enters at T,;,, = 20°C and m,
2kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U,, = 100 W/(m*-°C), and the
heat transfer surface is A = 20 m’. Calculate (a) the total heat transfer rate and
(5) the outlet temperatures of water and exhaust gas.
12-40. A single-shell-pass, two-tube-pass condenser with the flow arrangement shown in
Fig. 12-12 is to condense steam at T= 80°C with cooling water entering at
Tin = 20°C and m, =500kg/s. The total heat transfer rate is given by Q=
14,000 kW. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U,, = 4000 W/ (m? -°C).. Caleu-
late the total heat transfer surface A and the outlet temperature T, ,,, of the
cooling water. ,
12-41. A one-shell-pass, two-tube-pass heat exchanger with the flow arrangement
shown in Fig. 12-12 is to heat water entering at T.. 3, = 40°C and leaving at
T. our= 140°C, with m, =2kg/s, with pressurized hot water entering at T, ,, =
300°C and m, =2 kg/ s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U,,=
1250 Wi(m? -°C). Calculate the heat transfer surface A required and the outlet
temperature of the hot water. ,
12-42. A single-shell-pass and two-tube-pass heat exchanger with the flow arrangement
shown in Fig. 12-12 is used to heat water entering at t, ,, = 15°C and m, =2kg/s
with ethylene glycol [c, = 2600J/(kg-°C)] entering at T,,,, = 85°C and m, =
1kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U,, = 500 W/(m* -°C), and the
heat transfer surface A= 10m. Calculate the rate of heat transfer Q and the
outlet temperatures of the water and ethylene glycol. :
12-43. A two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass heat exchanger with the flow arrangement
sown in Fig. 12-13 is to cool m, =3kg/s of oil [c,, = 2100 J/(kg-°C)] from
Thin = 85°C to Ty oy, = 35°C with water [c,, =4180J/(kg-°C)] entering the
exchanger at T.,, = 14°C and m, = 2 kg/s. The overall heat transfer-coefficient is
U,, = 400 W/(m? - °C). _Calculate the total heat transfer surface required.
Answer: 31.5 m?
12-44, A. two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass heat exchanger with the flow ‘arrangement.
shown in Fig. 12-13 is to be used to heat m,= 1.2 kg/s water from T, c,in
,, = 20°C to.
Tou = 80°C by using m,, = 2.2 kg/s oil entering at T, ,, = 160°C. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is U,, = 300 W/(m*-°C), and the specific heat of oil is
, = 2100 J/(kg-°C). Determine the heat transfer surface required.
- Answer: 13.9 m? ;
12-45, Air at 2 atm pressure and 500K and with a velocity u,, = 20 m/s flows across a
compact heat exchanger matrix that has the configuration shown in Figs. 12-14a
and 12-15 (case A). Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the friction factor.
Answer: 441 W/(m? -°C)
12-46. Air at atmospheric pressure and 600 K and at a mass flow rate m = 10 kg/s flows
across the circular finned-tube matrix configuration shown in Figs. 12-14a and
12-15 (case B). Calculate (a) the heat transfer coefficient; (b) the friction factor,
and (c) the ratio of the pressure drop due to core friction to the inlet pressure.
406 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
REFERENCES
and Theory, McGraw-Hill, New
. Afgan, N. H., and E. U. Schlunder: Heat Exchangers: Design
’ York, 1974. ‘
M. Nagle: “Mean Temperature Difference in
. Bowman, R. A., A. C. Mueller, and W.
Design,” Trans. ASME 62:283-294 (1940).
for High Temperature Gas-Cooled
. Fraas, A. P., and M. N. Ozisik: “Steam Generators
8, Oak Ridge National Laborator y, Oak Ridge, Tenn., April 1963.
Reactors,” ORNL-320
Wiley, New York, 1964.
. Fraas, A. P., and.M. N: Ozisik: Heat Exchanger Design,
ASME 67:621-631 (1945).
. Gardner, K. A.: “Efficiency of Extended Surfaces,” Trans.
ConA
CONVERSION
FACTORS
TABLE A-1
Conversion factors
407
Wisc
TABLE A-1 (continued)
408
TABLE A-1 (continued)
Constants
i
1 kg-m/(N-s?)
1 lb-ft/(pdl-s?)
1 slug-ft/(ibf-s?)
i
J = mechanical equivalent of heat = 778.16 ft-lbf/Btu
@ = gas constant
ti 1544 ft-Ibf/(Ib-mol-°R)
= 0.730 ft?-atm/(Ib-mol-°R)
= 0.08205 m?-atm/(kg-mol-K)
= $.314 J(g-mol-K)
8.314 N-m/(g-mol-K)
8314 N-m/(kg-mol-K)
neal
1.987 cal/(g-mol-)
409
APPENDIX
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
x
TABLE B-1
Physical properties of gases at atmospheric pressure .
0 Cy B, vy, ue k, f a, :
T,K ke/m*— kJ/(kg-°C) — kg/(m-s) m/sx10° Wi(m-K) m/sx10* Pr
Air ,
100 3.6010 1.0266 0.6924 x 1075 1.923 0.009246 0.02501 0.770
150 2.3675 1.0099 1.0283 — 4,343 0.013735 0.05745 - 0.753
200 «1.7684 1.0061 1.3289 7.490. 0.01809 0.10165 ~~ 0.739
250 1.4128 1.0053 - 1.488 10.530 "0.02227 - G.13161 0.722
300. «1.1774 1.0057 1.983 16.84. 0.02624 0.22160 . 0.708
350 0.9980 1.0090 2.075 20.76 0.03003 0.2983 0.697
400 .--0,8826 1.0140 2.286 25.90 0.03365 0.3760 0.689
450 = 0.7833. “1.0207 2.484 31.71 0.03707 0.4222 © 0.683
500 —-0.7048 1.0295 2.671 37.90 0.04038 0.5564 0.680
550 =: 0.6423 1.0392 2.848 44.34 0.04360 0.6532 0.680
600 0.5879 1.0551 37018 51.34, 0.04659 0.7512 © 0.680
650 0.5430 1.0635 3.177 58.51 0.04953 - 0.8578 0.682
700 ~=—-0.5030~—:1.0752 3.332 66.25 0.05230 0.9672 0.684
750 =-0.4709 ‘1.0856 3.481 73.91 "0.05509 1.0774 0.686
800 = 0.4405 1.0978 3.625 82.29 0.05779 1.1951 0.689
850 = 0.4149 1.1095 3.765 90.75 0.06028 1.3097 0.692
900 03925 1.1212 3.899 99.3 0.06279 1.4271 0.696
950 0.3716 = 1.1321 4.023 108.2 0.06525 1.5510 0.699
1000 0.3524 = 1.1417 4.152 117.8 0.06752 1.6779 0.702
1100 0.3204 = 1.160 4.44 138.6 0.0732 1.969 0.704
410
TABLE B-1 (continued)
Helium
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
41]
TABLE B-1 (continued)
ps Cys Bs ¥, k, a
T.K kg/m’ kJ/(kg-°C) kg/(m-s) m7/sxi0° W/(m-K) m/sx10° Pr
Carbon monoxide ,
550 0.62024 1.0756 27.89 44.97 0.04162 0.6240 0.721
600 0.56850 1.0877 29.60 52.06 0.04446 0.7190 0.724
Ammonia, NH;
Hydrogen
412
TABLE B-1 (continued)
p; Cys B, v, k, a,
T,K kg/m? kI/(kg-°C) —kg/(m-s) m7/sx10° W/(m-K) m’/sx10° Pr
Oxygen
100 3.9918 0.9479 7.768 x 107° 1.946 0.00903 0.023876 0.815
150 2.6190 0.9178 11.490 4.387 0.01367 0.05688 0.773
200 =—-1.9559 0.9131 14.850 7.593 ” 9,01824 0.10214 0.745
250 «1.5618 0.9157 17.87 11.45 0.02259 0.15794 0.725
300 =: 1.3007 0.9203 20.63 15.86 0.02676 0.22353 0.709
350 «1.1133 0.9291 23.16 20.80 0.03070 0.2968 0.702
400 0.9755 0.9420 25.54 26.18 0.03461 0.3768 0.695
450 0.8682 0.9567 27.77 31.99 0.03828 - 0.4609 0.694
500 = 0.7801 0.9722 29.91 38.34 0.04173 0.5502 0.697
550 0.7096 0.9881 31.97 45.05 0.04517 _ 0.6441 0.700
600 06504 1.0044 33.92 52.15 0.04832 | 0.7399 - 0.704
Nitrogen
From E. R. G. Eckert and R. M. Drake, Analysis of Heat Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1972,
413
TABLE B-2
Physical properties of saturated liquids
p, Co v, k, a,
T,°C kgim® — kS/(kg-°C)_ m/s Wi(m-K) m’/sx10" Pr B, K*
Ammonia, NH;
—~50 1,546.75 0.8750 0.310 x 107° 0.067 0.501 6.2 2.63 x 1073
~40 1,518.71 0.8847 0.279 0.069 0.514 54 7.
~30 1,489.56 0.8956 0.253 0.069 -. 0.526 48
—20 = 1,460.57 0.9073 0.235 0.071 0.539 4.4
~10 1,429.49 0.9203 0.221 0.073 0.550 4.0
0 1,397.45 0.9345 0.214 0.073 ° 0.557 : 3.8
10 1,364.30 0.9496 0.203 0.073 0.560 3.6
20 = 1,330.18 0.9659 0.198 0.073 0.560 3.5
301,295.10 0.9835 0.194 0.071 0.560 3.5
40 = 1,257.13 1.0019 0.191 0.069 0.555 3.5
501,215.96 1.0216 0.190 0.067 0.545 3.5
P, c p? Y, ak , a@, , _
T,°C kgim? kJ /(kg-°C) m/s Wi(m-K) m/s 10’ Pr B, K"!
Engine oil (unused)
Glycerin, C,;H,(OH),
Mercury, Hg
415
TABLE B-2 (continued)
p, Cas y, k, a,
T,°C kgim? — kJ /(kg-°C) m/s Wi(m-K) m/s* 10’ Pr B, K”
Air
Water, H,0
p, Cys », k, a,
T,°C kg/m? k3/(kg-°C) m’/s Wi(m-K) m/s x 10’ Pr B, Kk"
Water, H,O
From E. R. G. Eckert and R. M. Drake, Analysis of Heat Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1972. ;
£900°0 98'PE BOLT OvzZ'0 569' ISOl S'6SL 6'8h9
9.000 LEE 89 LZ 18S7'0 OT LeOl —- P'88L SLES
1800'0 zS'ze B9'LZ 7920 Osrz Isol - 7bI8 L‘9tp
S100 0S‘0£ LVLE SISEO St67 g901 —- E'BEB OSE OL % bb
S$10°0 £Z'8Z Ly9z bl v'0 £08°¢ 6801 = 9°S98 r'p0z "WN %9S)
9b70'0 OL'LZ 8L'SZ Lpey'0 zz9'S OTT 8688 £€6 SL Vi- MEN
££00°0 98°65 SVIE L861'0 if £8L0 L199 0'09L ;
££00°0 Org pL ee 91120 cOr'| 990 £069 6809
9€00'0 6EL9 1S9E 00bZ'0 HL Z9L0 PPL BLES
1700°0 rL'69 Sb'6E 6£87°0 801'7 990 Liv L9tp 09L 6°69 winissei0d
S8e00'0 ess 85°95 Sbz7'0 dL OLTI = S LOL O'09L
g0r00'0 Org 95°09 96b7'0 p96! 19vl = O'06L 6°89
Ssr00'0 60°29 LEp9 178Z'0 Siet pITL BEB SLES
p9P00'0 S09 6£°69 39670 TZS'Z LLTI = 8758 L9tY
£9500°0 Ly99 8LSL 99L£°0 p67'E pOsl — SBLB OSIE
$4000 08°99 18°08 010S'0 1cS'P 6Ee! $406 p'r0Z
91100 67°95 968 68910 TEL rset = PIES €'€6 £88 8'L6 wWNIpos
91100 806'9 peZI Z080'0 1S'0l OLSI0 6H I'EI 002
zZ910°0 OIL'S S01 8760'0 Otr' TI €LEVO SS PBE'ET 00!
9920°0 BE0'S 9L'6 ZEl‘O peesI SlplO = F'LOL'EL = SLI LSE 68 — Aano19,
9L~0'0 or's! Sp'Oe POEL'0 ELPE ILlp | -€9Lb SLES
ZEv0'O $981 p78E £508'0 LUE Hep 168 L9tb
€hvo'0 ZZ 80'eb 78680 Sor'p OLZ'b —-8'86P OSIE
1600 96°02 LEP 860I'l 91P'S s9e'r 7605 p07 LIE! 6L1 wniy
. E100 8b'6 6'rl r10°0 Le S10 OPr'ol OL
200 196 191 €z0'0 or'z 6S1'0 Ors‘0l ILE LELI Lze peo]
€300°0 86'6 9S 1 £80°0 6L S90 L9v'6 09L
01100 rel 91 CIO Ou Ss1'0 6£L'6 ges
Zr10'0 StL rol 0910 ra pro 10°01 SIE LLY 1L2 yinwisig
dd S$) (De JAA s,m (s-w)/3y (9,84) HB De Do Do R191]
“OLX? ‘y OLX 4 ‘“o1x 7 «45 ‘d ‘L “jurod ‘yu10d
supog — 3uBoW
sjejow pinby jo sondedoid jeaishug
418
€-@ WIV
419
Leh Lel rl ral 38 Zire - 4 sseO —- @7S°8 UZ %O0E
‘ND OL ‘sseig
iL 6S p08 "49 S8e0 —-PIL'8 UZ %9 ‘US %6
. ‘ND %S8 ‘ssBIQ Poy
6sg0 9% €ve0 —-999°8 Ug %SZ
‘ND %SL ‘ezuoig
oe z £8 OlpO =: 9998 IV %S ‘ND %56
‘ezuolg uMuUTWUnTy
ESE €9€ 69€ ple 6LE —-9BE LOP PEEL 98¢ 1€8€0 —-S6'8 $301 and
saddos
. pep 8°96 1€20 = 0898 Ice unripe
99°0 98°L 7210 = 086 ZLZ yinuisig
wes 007 S7vlOSs'T LL mniyArog
p0Z 681 SLi HCL LLI 7680 = LOL'Z UN KLIS HI
IW %E TV %L6 IS-8A-1V
8L1 Sit gol LSI pri TLUL 191 ps8'0 —LZ9'T- IS %l-0Z
‘Ty %08-8L ‘(ISNTY) IS-1V
191 zs pel LEI 6th ££6'S LEI L980 = 6$9'Z NDA IW AS 9B
‘“(dureaq-iaddos
‘ ‘urumpg) IS-TV
pol ZBI SI 921 9499 pol £880 L8LZ SW sR] ‘ND
Ze S-t WY % 96-46
‘(ujwneind) AD-1V
6bz 822 SIZ 90¢ —-c0z $1Z 3178 p07 9680 = LOL'2 099 and
wnulwinyy
0001 D008 2.009 DO00P D.00E D00Z D00! D0 DOOl- | .OLxSAM‘0 (Do W)/M‘y (Oo-SH)/C4 ,wy/dy De e121
sda ‘d ‘yu10d
sunpoyl
(Do YM ‘y AANONpuoD jeULDyL, 2.07 18 sansedoig
sjejour jo senscdoid pesisdyg
od AIAEVL
Lz7S0 61 . 90 S98'L IN %Ol 4D “ST
os :(jayotu-auro.1y9) IN-ID
6c ve ve wz ad wk se90 zz 970 689'L % 00
6 Ot 62 &€ 9€ 9€ "EOP On Op "OF EER %S
ef €€ 9€ tp ly zs ss zg 599I 19 90 SOBTL %I
se OE Op 8b ss z9 Lo EL Lg 9207 EL zSb'0 L68'L “0 =40
J9aqs aWOIYD
oo 9870 Ll oro LET'S IN %9€ FeAu]
, 7480 Se 90 819'8 % 08
6170 01 9P°0 6918 %Ov
9250 6l 90 EEG'L % 0% |
9207 EL zsh L68'L %0 IN }
1991S [949!N :
8z 87 1€ ef Se 9€ 9€ 9€ 0460 9€ 98P'0 ESL'L %SI
8z 62 ee 9€ Op zp fe fb ZL €P ELb'O —108'L %O1
6¢ 1€ se ag Sp 8b zs SS ply’ rs S9P0 EBL %S0®O "
jeays uogies
(%S'1 xeuw D)
a , [p21S
€€ €€ of SP 8b cs Ls 65 9e9'I 6S SFO 6PBL D%HS0 ‘WON WINOIM
SE 9€ Ov 8p ss c L9 €L L8 Peo? el esvO | L68'L LES aind
; uoly
9% Tt 1Z z19°0 Lt OPO 7768 IN %0p “ND %O9 “uBIURIsUOD
8b SP OF le col ££L'0 Gv FOE'O 8 19°8 UZ % CT IN “SIND
7 ‘IOAIS UBULIOH
3.0001 3.008 2.009 D00P D006 9.00% 3.001 3.0 D.00I- | OLxS/,4 (DO. U)/M (2.-39)/IN w/sy De Tei
2 “po ‘y ‘dy ‘d “quod
sunpayy
(D.°w)/M ‘y AuaNonpuos yeuoy 2,02 8 sonssdoig ‘
(panunuos) po WIAVL
420
tren ane onmretreree eer fey uaa nterenerebes elt eseave nen nconermame NETS
NITRO UERE SUNG SOURS Sun ae recianienrememierae arapes a uc eeerntene aa eerie
421
WH MEIN “afsundy, SSD IAT way fo sisfjouy ‘ayeig W o'Y pure yop (OD UA wol1t
‘CL6I *y10X, MON
00! 901 601 Zt vt 90h TT €p8EO prt. OtP aind ‘ouiz
€6
Stl Fle 9110 OL0'6T cell umnruesy
IS] 991 1L79 €91 prelo Ose'6l L8E‘E uajsun],
OL cI 91 €£l cri
Ls 65 6'S9 vL p8s'e 2) s9t7'0 POEL 7EZ aind ‘ur
6p | — £9G°9I LOb Orez70 =SzS‘Ol (46°66) 21nd
09€ 79E pLe Sip Olb
Zip * Sib LIP 6It pOO'LI 6lt OPEzO Pes‘! 796 yong
LIDATIS
St O's! Vi OSI a A €vE0 971 pry'0 Pie's ID %0z ‘IN %08
9'bZ 3% 607 68t VLI vrr'0 LI pro 9998 19 %Or IN %06
ID-IN
6S 79 €L €8 €6 701 9977 06 6Srr'0 §—-906'8 SsP'l (% 6°66) aNd
[249IN
66 zOl 901 601 Wi pul Tal SEI 06L'P €7I 1sZO0 —0@Z'01 129% unuapadjow|
€8 a) ws Soo'€ 99 OO! OI8'T UZ %C-l TW %8-9
(o1A[o1399]2) Py-3IA
8L1 B0L°6 ILI €lOl 9PZ'l 0s9 and
LS1 £91 gor TLE
' uinisausey,
86C Sle Pee SE 69E EvEZ Se OElO ELe'll 8ZE peo]
16€'1 8b 6Iv0 IE's “Ol
Szs'l vs SEv0 £L0°8 ZS
8ss't 99 SrrO «CIEL Zl
920% €L zsp0 L68‘L “0 =M
Jeaqs uajsdun L
19€0 al 970 S98L IN %0t ID % STZ
Siv'0 sl 9v0 EESL IN %SI ID %07
I€ LZ zz 61 6l Li | pero £91 90 LIB'L (WZA) IN %8 ID %8I
TABLE B-5
Physical properties of insulating materials
T, k, Ps fps a,
Material °C Wi(m-°C) kg/m? kJ/(kg-°C) = m/s x 10’
Asbestos
Loosely packed ~45 0.149
0 0.154 470-570 0.816 3.3-4
100 s«0..16! :
Asbestos-cement boards ~ 20 = 0.74
Sheets Si 0.166
Felt, 40 laminations/in 38 =: 0.057
150 0.069
260 0.083
20 laminations/in 38 = 0.078
° “150 0.095
260 3=0.112
Corrugated, 4 plies/in 38 = 0.087
930.100
150 0.119
Balsam wool 320.04 35
Board and slab
Cellular glass / 30 ~—- 0.058 145 1.000
Glass fiber, organic bonded 30 = 0.036 105 0.795
Polystyrene, expanded extruded (R-12). 30 0.027 55 1.210
Mineral fiberboard; roofing material 30. — 0.049 265
Wood, shredded/cemented 30. = 0.087 350 1.590
Cardboard, corrugated — 0.064
Celotex 32 0.048 .
Corkboard 30 = 0.043 160
422
TABLE B-5 (continued)
T, k, p, Cys @,
Material °C Wi(m-°C) kg/m? ki/(kg-°C) m/s x 10”
Formed/Foamed-in-Place ,
Mineral wool granules with asbestos/
inorganic binders, sprayed 30 =—-0.046 190
Polyvinyl acetate cork mastic; -
sprayed or troweled 30 ~—-0.100
Urethane, two-part mixture; rigid foam 30 0.026 70 1.045
Magnesia, 85% 38 0.067 270
93 0.071
150 = 0.074
204 0.080
Rock wool, 10 Ib/ft? . 32 0.040 160
Loosely packed 150 0.067 64
260 0.087
Sawdust 230.059
Silica aerogel 32 = 0.024 140
Wood shavings 230.059
From A.I. Brown and S.M. Macro, Introduction to Heat Transfer, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1958; International Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1926-1930.
423
TABLE B-6
Physical properties of nonmetals
T, k, Pp, Cos a,
Material °C Wim -°Cy kg/m? kJ/(kg-°C) m/s x 10’
Asphalt 20-55 0.74-0.76
Brick .
Building brick, common 20 0.69 1600 0.84 52
Face 1.32 2000
Carborundum brick 600 18.5
1400 Wl
Chrome brick 200 2.32 3000 0.84 9.2
$50 2.47 : 9.8
900 1.99 719
Diatomaceous earth, molded “oy
and fired ~ 200 0.24
870 0.31
Fireclay brick, burned 1330°C 500 1.04 2000 0.96 5.4
800 1.07
. 1100 1.09 ,
Burned 1450°C 500 1.28 2300 0.96 5.8
800 1.37
1100 1.40
Missouri : 200 1.00 2600 0.96 4.0 |
600 1.47
1400 1.77
Magnesite 200 3.81 1.13
. 650 2.77
1200 1.90
Clay 30 1.3 1460 0.88
Cement, portland 23 0.29 1500
Mortar 23 1.16
Coal. anthracite 30 0.26 1200-1500 = 1.26
Powdered 307 0.116 737 1.30
Concrete, cinder - 23 0.76 .
Stone 1-2-4 mix 20 1.37 1900-2300 0.88 8.2-6.8
Cotton 20 0.06 80 1.30
Glass, window 20 0.78 (avg) 2700 0.84 3.4
Corosilicate 30-75 1.09 2200 ~
Plate (soda lime) 30 1.4 2500 0.75
Pyrex 30 1.4 2225. 0.835
Paper 30 0.011 930 1.340
Paraffin 30 0.020 900 2.890
Plaster, gypsum 20 0.48 1440 0.84 4.0
Metal lath 20 0.47
Wood lath 20 0.28
Rubber, vulcanized
Soft 30 0.012 1100 2.010
Hard 30 0.013 1190 _
TABLE B-6 (continued)
T, k> Py, Cys Qa,
Material °C Wi(m-°C) kg/m? kJ/(kg-°C) m/s x 10’
425
6961 SUOA MAN ‘AdTIAA ‘Sap y Wunalg ‘ALOOA] 'D uvor pur THO dipiyg ‘sakay 'D youapaiy ‘uruaay “yy ydasor wow paidepy
$96'1 OS%6 Leb le e'19€ OFI
96°91E 96°91 0- 60°C vEPLe 96h] ovt6 eVLIT vole Oe
S00 6 ISP 9 lbh £01 OLE icv l Vere — 9°70CT eS 861 0c
66°EFl €°8cs S°OCL 1s9°8] 09€ 9780 9°0S6 fO0EtT Leerl oll
Lyell Lvls ¥'€68 CIS '91 Ose 865°0 6'LS6 O'LS7Z Seidl oor
79°76 S019 6'L701 98S "PI Ore | SPOs'0 $196 COLT SS'b8 $6
S6°9L 9069 J OPI Se8 TI oce | Stcro £°S96 CE8TT vol 06
Lobo VL99 9'8ETI ble Ooze | 9ESE°0 1896 0°967Z EBL $8
OS "PS 169 O'9CEI 968'6 Ole | Seco 8 1L6 8°80Ec 6c LP 08
Lvl 9b CCL 6 POP! [8S°8 ode | Icr70 LYL6 PIE 8S°8E SL
801'6E UZeL LLP 9EP'L 06% | £8610 S°L66 SEEeT 6V1E OL
SPL ee 8'0SL oes cir’9 087 | vI9lO b°086 "_ TOvET £0°SZ $9
BS0'8Z 1°89L z'S091 660'°S OLZ | pPOET'O ~~ EERE SBS EZ 0r6'61 09
169°€7 Le8L $7991 889" 09 | SPOlO cS86 LOLET BoL'SI gs
87661 +'66L COILI £L6E ose | [€80°0 1886 L°TBET 6re TI os
vel ol Leis S99LI PPE’ Ore | $$90°0 1066 8° P6EC £66°6 SP
0L6'E! UL78 Seis S6L'C orc | cISO'0 1766 L°90%7 v8Cl Or
coo lt €'0b8 C8581 BIE? occ | L6t0'0 0°P66 . 9'81b72 8c9'S SE
8L5°6 S'CS8 L'0061 c906'1 Ol | 7000 0°966 COEbT be P of
CSBL £98 L0r6I sess] 00c | [£70'0 0°L66 €'Cbbe 691° sc
88E°9 ¥°9L8 88261 beset 061 | €Z10°0 0°866 [pSbe 6£E°C 0
ess €°L88 O'S 10 1c00°1 O81 | 6z10°0 0°666 6S9bT IsOL'! SI
6lTP LL68° S607 LI6L°0 OLI | %600°0 0°0001 LLLv? OLE Ol
9ST E $'L06 9°C802 8419°0 091 | 8900°0 0°0001 9° 68h 1ZL3°0 s
6bS°T 9916 - CPZ 8SLb°0 ost | 6F00°0 0°0001 e10se £1190 10°0
em/ay ww /8y By/oy'%y PAI ‘ed Dok | -tu/By (wu/B4 airy ly Bd ‘d Do 'L
““d ‘id uonriodeaa jo dINSSIIg ainjyesoduia yp od ‘id uonjesodeaa Jo aInssaig ainjesaduiay
Ayisuap Aysuap Adjeyquq Ayisuap Ausuop Adyeqiuuq
iode, pinbr] Jodea pinbry]
afqe) Wess payeinjzes poywiasiqqy
£-% FTGVL
426
APPENDIX
RADIATION
PROPERTIES
TABLE C-1
Normal emissivity of surfaces
T, °C ey Surface T, °C é,
Surface
Metals Metals
427
TABLE C-1 (continued)
Surface T, °C En
Surface T, °C é,,
Nonmetals
Nonmetals
Ice (continued)
Alumina 0.985
Rough crystals 0
(85-99.5% Al,O;),
effect of mean Marble, light gray, polished” 99 0.93
grain size Mi
1000-1560 —0.30-0.18 tea 37 0.75
10 pm
50 pm 1000-1560 0.39-0.28 Paints
1000-1560 0.50-0.40 _ Aluminum 10%,
100 pm
near 7m 100 0.52
Asbestos
P 37 0.93 uminum 26%,
lacquer 27% 100 0.30
:
aper 37 0,96 a ° :
Board 100 0.27
Other aluminum paints
: 100 0.925
Lacquer, white
Brick 1000 0.38 Lacquer, black matte - 80 0.97
Magnesite, refractory
21 0.93 Oil paints, all colors 100 0.92-0.96
Red, rough Oil paints 20 0.89-0.97
Gray, glazed 1100 0.75
Silica 540 0.80
Paper
Carbon Ordinary 20-95 0.80-0.92
1050-1400 0.526 Tar 20 0.93
Filament
Candle soot 95-270 0.952 -
20 0.93-0.967 Porcelain, glazed 22 0.92
Lampblack
Ceramic Quartz
428
TABLE C-2
Solar absorptivity of surfaces (receiving surface at room temperature)
Surface a Surface
Metais Nonmetals
Aluminum Asphalt
Polished 0.10 Pavement -
Anodized 0.14 Pavement free from dust 0.85
Foil 0.15 Brick 0.93
429
APPENDIX
ERROR
FUNCTION
TABLE D
Absolute temperature, 11] Computer program: Convection, laminar flow inside ducts
Absorption of radiation, 12 for solving algebraic equations, 131 (Cont.):
Absorptivity: for solving transient conduction, 168 friction factor, 230
hemispherical, 338 Condensation: hydrodynamic entry region, 225
solar, 429 dropwise, 303, 313 logarithmic mean temperature, 229
spectral hemispherical, 338 filmwise, 303 of various cross sections, 236
of surfaces, 429 laminar, 304 laminar flow over a flat plate, 192
Air, properties of, 410 turbulent, 311 boundary-layer thickness, 193
Ammonia, properties of, 412, 414 on horizontal tube, 308 drag coefficient, 195
on horizontal tube banks, 308 heat transfer coefficient,. 199
Bernard cells, 288 on inclined surfaces, 306 for large Prandtl number, 201
Biot number, 22, 29, 148 noncondensable gas, 315 for moderate Prandtl number, 200
Blackbody, definition of, 11 Reynolds number, 309 for smal] Prandtl number, 201
Blackbody emissive power, 11, 329 on vertical surfaces, 304 temperature distribution; 196
Blackbody radiation, 329 Condensers, 392 turbulent flow inside ducts, 251
Blackbody radiation functions, 331, 333 Conduction: friction factor, 251
Boiling: boundary conditions, 44, 45 heat transfer coefficient, 253
film boiling regime, 321 equation: one-dimensional steady, 43 liquid metals, 258
free-convection regime, 316 one-dimensional unsteady, 40 noncircular ducts, 255
nucleate boiling regime, 317 Fourier law of, 2, 38 property variation, 256
pool, 315 multilayers, 71 surface roughness effects, 255
Boundary conditions, 19, 4446 in semi-infinite solid, 142 turbulent flow along a flat plate, 205
convection, 46 shape factors, 82 drag coefficient, 205
Boundary layer: thermal resistance concept, 58 heat transfer coefficient, 206
drag coefficient, 187 hollow cylinder, 63 Conversion factors, 12, 407
drag force, 188 hollow sphere, 68 Correction for the LMTD, 383
heat transfer coefficient, 190 plane wall, 58 Critical Rayleigh number, 287
thermal, 188 Contact conductance, 80 Crossed-string method, 350
velocity, 185 Contact resistance, 80
Buffer layer, 187 Configuration factor, 341 Developing laminar flow, 241
Bulk mean fluid temperature, 227 Convection: Dimensionless parameters, 184, 231
dimensionless parameters of, 184 Drag coefficient:
Carbon dioxide, properties of, 411, 414 forced (see Forced convection) for cylinder, 210
Carbon monoxide, properties of, 411 free (see Free convection) definition of, 187, 195
Characteristic length, 22, 30 laminar flow inside ducts, 224 for flat plate, 195, 205
Compact heat exchangers, 396 bulk mean fluid temperature, 227 for sphere, 216
431
432. inpex
Drag force. 187. 188. 195 Free convection (Cont.): Laminar flow, definition of, 186
Dropwise condensation, 303, 313 over horizontal plate, 275 Liquid metals, properties of, 418
over inclined plate, 278 LMTD (logarithmic mean temperature
Effectiveness, 387 over sphere, 283 difference):
Emissivity, 11 over vertical plate, 271 correction for, 383
hemispherical, 335 Freon-12, properties of, 414 definition of, 229, 379, 380
spectral hemispherical, 335 Friction factor, 230, 241 Lumped system, 17, 19, 29
of surfaces, 427
Energy integral equation, 196 Glycerin, properties of, 415 Mass velocity, 396
Engine oil, properties of, 414 Graetz number, 242 Mercury, properties of, 415
-English engineering system, 12 Grashof number, 269 Metals, properties of, 419 . i
{
Error function, 141, 430 Methyl chloride, properties of, 416 !t
Heat conduction:
Ethylene glycol, properties of, 415 Momentum integral equation, 193
boundary conditions, 44
Moody chart, 255
differential equation of, 40, 42
Film boiling, 321 *
transient-temperature charts, 145
Film temperature, 207 Network method, 351
for cylinder, 150
Finite differences: Newton’s law of cooling, 7 |
for slab, 145 .
convection boundary condition, 118, ~ Nitrogen, properties of, 413
for sphere, 153
124 Noncircular ducts, 253
Heat exchangers:
heat flux boundary condition, 117, 123 Nonmetals,. properties of, 424
compact, 396
hollow cylinder, 125 Normal! emissivity, 427
counter-flow, 372, 374
internal nodes, 115 NTU (number of transfer units) method, 387
cross-flow, 372
"plane wall, 114 definition of, 388
effectiveness, 387
sphere, 128 Nucleate boiling, 317
fouling resistance, 377
stability criteria, 168, 173 Numerical analysis, 157
heat capacity, 388
steady state, 114 Nusselt number, 185, 248
multipass flow, 372
transient, 172
parallel-flow, 370, 374
Fins: Ohm's law, 58
pressure drop, 398
circular disc, 91 Opaque, 11
rating, 392
efficiency, 90 Overall heat transfer coefficient, 78, 375
Heat flux, definition of, 3,7
equation, 89 Oxygen, properties of, 413
Heat transfer coefficients, 190
of uniform cross section, 88
for boiling, 318, 322
Flow: Particular solution, 25
for condensation: on horizontal tube,
over a cylinder, 209 Peak heat flux, 320
308
drag coefficient, 210 Physical properties:
on horizontal tube bank, 308
heat transfer coefficient, 210. for gases, 410
on inclined plate, 306
inside ducts, 236 for insulating materials, 422
on vertical plate, 305
across noncircular cylinder, 214 for liquid metals, 418 .
for forced convection: laminar flow
across single sphere, 216 for liquids, 414
inside ducts, 228, 235, 256
drag coefficient, 216 for metals, 419
turbulent flow inside ducts, 253,
heat transfer coefficient, 217 for nonmetals, 424
254
Forced convection: for radiation properties, 427
for free convection: enclosed spaces,
over bodies: basic concepts, 6, 183 for steam, 412, 426
289-291
flat plate, laminar flow, 192 Planck law, 329 |
horizontal cylinder, 281
drag coefficient, 195 Pool boiling, 315
inclined plate, 278
heat transfer coefficient, 199 Potential-flow region, 186
sphere, 283
temperature distribution, 196 . Prandtl number, 185, 189, 231
vertical ‘plate, 271
velocity distribution, 193 Pumping power, 231
for liquid metals: uniform wall heat
flat plate, turbulent flow, 205
flux, 258
drag coefficient, 205 Radiation:
uniform wall temperature, 258
heat transfer coefficient. 206 absorptivity, 338
Helium, properties of, 411
inside ducts, 224 Kirchhoff’s law, 339
Hydraulic diameter, 230
Fouling resistance, 376. 377 network method, 355
Hydrodynamic entry region, 225
Fourier law, 2, 38 properties of surfaces, 334, 427
Hydrogen, properties of, 412
Fourier number, 148 resistance for, 353
Free convection, 268 Initial condition, 19 thermal, 10, 328
over cylinder, 280, 281 Insulating materials, properties of, 422 Radiation shields, 360
in enclosed spaces, 287 Integral equation, 196 Radiator, ideal, 11
horizontal cylindrical annulus, 293 Integral method, 193 Radiosity, 352
inclined layer, 290 Rayleigh number, 270
spherical annulus, 294 Kirchhoff’s law, 339 critical, 287