Accepted: 2 January 2018

DOI: 10.1111/jocd.12504

REVIEW ARTICLE

Role of solid lipid nanoparticles as photoprotective agents in

cosmetics

Jobin Jose MBA, MPharm, PhD | Gladyston Netto MPharm

Department of Pharmaceutics, N.G.S.M.

Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nitte
University, Mangalore, India
Correspondence
Jobin Jose, Department of Pharmaceutics,
N.G.S.M. Institute of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Mangalore, India.
Email: jjmattam07@gmail.com
Summary
Background: Novel drug delivery systems have gained popularity since last two
decades because of its advantages over conventional dosage forms. Effect of UV
radiation on skin can cause either acute or chronic damage to our skin. Solid lipid
nanoparticles (SLNs) were developed as novel carrier over the conventional carrier
systems like liposomes and emulsions. The SLNs were selected as a carrier for the
formulation because of its ability to protect the labile drug particles, the ability to
make the drug release in a controlled manner, and occlusive property of the SLNs.
Objective: The current review is an attempt to focus on the characteristics of solid
lipid nanoparticles, methods for the preparations, and their cosmetic applications
along with some future perspectives of the nanodrug delivery systems.
Methods: A review of the current literature of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) as
novel carrier showed better photoprotection in sunscreens.
Results and conclusions: The disadvantages of conventional sunscreens can be
overcome by incorporation of solid lipid nanoparticles. On comparing the lipid nano-
based systems with traditional cosmetic products, the occlusion can be achieved
without the use of paraffin and other greasy oils. The film formed by lipid nanopar-
ticles will be smooth as compared to the inflexible films formed by the paraffin.
Newer approaches may lead to even better results. They also possess excellent UV-
blocking activity and showed better photoprotection.

KEYWORDS
photoprotection, solid lipid nanoparticles, sunscreens, UV radiation

1 | INTRODUCTION causes wrinkles, skin burns, and an increased risk of developing

Sunshine is good for our skin which provides necessary vitamins
for our body; increase in release of hormones such as serotonin
makes the person feels more focused and calm.1 Getting exposed
to sunlight is also a better treatment for nonseasonal depression.
Besides these advantages, there are several disadvantages for the
exposure to sunlight. Excessive exposure to the UV light can
cause many health problems such as aging of skin and photoder-
2
matoses. The exposure to sunlight may alter our DNA, and it
damages connective tissues and collagen. This leads to hyperpig-
mentation and loss of skin elasticity. Overexposure to UV rays
skin cancers.2
UV light reaching to earth is classified into UV A, UV B, and UV
C radiations based on the difference in wavelengths3 (shown in
Table 1). UV A rays can lead to the aging of skin and even cause
harmful effects to the elastic and collagen fibers of the skin. Expo-
sure to UV B rays is having more risk than UV A because this can
cause sunburn or erythema, and it also intensifies the photoaging
effect.4 UV C rays are mostly filtered by the atmospheric layer
before it reaches the earth. Ozone layer does not have the ability
for the complete absorption of UV B light.5 UV A rays penetrate
through the skin layers like epidermis and dermis and aggravate the

J Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;1–7. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jocd © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1

2 |
T A B L E 1 Types of UV radiation
Types of UV radiation Wavelength range (nm)
UV A 320-400
UV B 290-320
UV C 200-290
early aging of skin. One of the major causes of skin cancer is UV
radiation because of these facts the sunscreen products are gaining
more importance. Sunscreen formulations are available in various
forms like shampoo, cream, and lotions.6
The current market is flooded with more sunscreen formula-
tions because of the increase in demand of the photoprotective
agents for customers. Currently available sunscreen formulations
mainly contain chemicals or synthetic UV filters.7 A modern UV fil-
8
ter is the active ingredient in sunscreens, and it should be nontox-
ic, water resistant, photostable, and easy to formulate. The lowest
possible percutaneous permeation of UV filter should occur to
9
ensure the safety and efficacy. The percutaneous permeation of
UV filter depends on various physicochemical properties, and all
the formulated sunscreens must undergo strict efficacy and safety
studies.10,11 Recently, the UV protective effects of herbal deriva-
tives have been investigated, and now, the scientists are focussing
mainly on herbal formulations.12 Herbs such as carrot seed, almond
oil, soya oil, and green tea were having a good photoprotective
activity. Based on the studies carried out, the researchers stated
that the herbs possess more action than synthetic products. The
herbal formulation absorbs into deeper layers of skin and provides
better action at lesser concentration. Natural polyphenols have the
ability to absorb the UV radiation.13 The topical application of the
formulation will prevent the penetration of UV light into the dee-
per layer of the skin. Polyphenols mainly absorb UV B rays and a
part of UV A rays. The use of polyphenols is beneficial in avoiding
the sunburn, prevents DNA damage, and it also acts as antioxi-
dant.14
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are colloidal carriers which are
developed as an alternative for the traditional carriers. SLNs gain
more importance because of its uniform size, lesser surface area, and
the high drug-loading capacity. The application of SLN in the field of
topical formulations improves the therapeutic efficacy by maintaining
a controlled drug release pattern and protects the drug having less
stability. SLNs can be used in both organic and inorganic sunscreen
formulations.15
2 | RADIATION AND NEED FOR
PROTECTION
Light is an essential parameter for the life on earth. The UV light
varies in the range of 100-400 nm. On the basis of the wavelength
of light, we can divide it into three: UV A, UV B, and UV C.6
The sunrays that cause sunburn usually come from the shorter
wavelength end of the sunlight spectrum. Exposure to the UV rays
JOSE AND NETTO
for a longtime can cause sunburn that even can lead to non-
melanoma skin cancer.12
3 | PENETRATION OF UV RADIATION
The harmful rays UV C rays will be absorbed by the ozone layer as
well as the other layers of gases in the atmosphere. Due to the
increase in the pollutants, the percentage of depletion of the ozone
layer is increasing day by day; as a result, the exposure to the UV
rays will be more.12 When 1% of the ozone layer depletes, about
30 000 death where reported in North America in a year.13 If the
ozone layer depletion continues, then the death rate will be
increased by 1%-10%.
The percentage of the UV B rays reaching the earth surface is
less in percentage but when it comes in contact with skin, the
chance of causing skin cancer as well as sunburn is very high. Sun-
burn is causing after 12-24 hours of exposure.14 Many studies
reported that UV B rays are harmful than UV A rays, but recent
studies showed that UV A rays also cause harmful effects because it
penetrates to the deeper layers of the skin and this cause damage to
the elastin fibers and blood vessels.
4 | BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF UV
RADIATION
When skin is exposed to UV rays, the synthesis of vitamin D occurs
which is essential for the healthy bones. Oversynthesis of vitamin D
is also harmful for the skin, but this is barred by the pigmentation
and keratinization mechanism.11 When skin is exposed to the UV,
tanning reaction occurs. The tanning reaction can be classified into
two, that is, immediate tanning and delayed tanning. The immediate
tanning caused within one hour of exposure to the sunlight and will
be cured after 3 hours and the delayed tanning caused after 2-
3 days of exposure to sunlight. Delayed tanning will be cured after
9-12 months. In this, the production of new melanin cells will occur,
and subsequent migrations of these cells to the surface of skin will
occur.12 The synthesized melanin cells will protect the skin from UV
damage, and this melanin will also act as a free radical scavenger.
The keratinization is a natural defensive mechanism to prevent pene-
tration of the ultraviolet rays to deeper skin layers. Skin cancer, ery-
thema, or sunburn are caused due to the exposure to the sunlight
for a particular period of time, and as per the reports of the studies
conducted, skin cancer is the second most common cancer in United
States.14 UV radiations are intended to exert many of their adverse
biological effects due to the liberation of reactive oxygen species as
a result of photosensitization and photochemical reactions.15 The
human skin has a natural defense mechanism to act against the
harmful effects from UV radiations. Antioxidants are capable to inhi-
bit lipid peroxidation induced by UV radiations. They are found to
be scavenging the reactive oxygen species and reduce chronic cuta-
neous damage.16 Moreover, the human sweat protects the skin from
JOSE AND NETTO
erythema, induced by UV radiations due to its partial opacity to UV
17
radiations. The film of sweat is capable of absorbing UV light.
5 | SUNSCREEN FORMULATIONS
The productions of sunscreens were developed due to the increase in
injurious consequences of UV radiation on human skin. Sunscreens
can be classified into two: physical sunscreens (inorganic filters) and
chemical sunscreens (organic filters). They are composed of inert
molecules which have the ability to reflect the UV rays. The most com-
mon ingredients used in physical sunscreens are the fine particles of
titanium dioxide of particle size ranging from 20 to 30 mm.18 Due to
the presence of inert particles, there is a less chance of breakdown of
particles; irritation to the skin can be avoided. Due to the small size of
the particles, percentage of absorption of particles through the skin is
less, as well as it will provide protection against the UV B and UV A
rays.19 The mechanism of physical sunscreens is that they reflect and
scatter the UV light and thereby prevent the absorption of UV light
into the skin. The examples of physical sunscreens are zinc oxide and
titanium dioxide. The efficiency of the physical sunscreens mainly
depends on the film thickness, refractive index, and particle size of the
sunscreen formulation.20 The chemical sunscreen absorbs the UV light,
and they disperse the energy into different ways. Once the organic fil-
ters absorb incident radiation, they are excited to higher energy levels
by absorbing a photon of energy. As the excited state is not stable, it
emits the excess energy and returns back to the ground state (stable
state). To achieve this transition, there are two possibilities, that is, the
release of energy occurs at a longer wavelength than the incident radi-
ation (as fluorescence) or by release of heat. These transitions can be
repeated numerous times process called resonance.21 The photopro-
tection activity of a sunscreen is governed by the Sun Protection Fac-
tor (SPF)22. The important parameters such as chemo blocking activity
and photoprotective action determine the ability of the sunscreen.23
The chemical sunscreens are composed of synthetic components such
as octocrylene. They absorb the UV radiation in an effective manner
and possess protection factor in range of 4-30. The vehicles can also
affect skin penetration/permeation of sunscreens. Chatelain et al
compared the skin penetration of UV filters from two vehicles, that is,
petrolatum jelly and gel. They concluded that the usage of right vehicle
significantly reduces the risk associated with the skin penetration of
UV filters.24 The composition of vehicle also affects the in vitro skin
permeation and in vitro release of most commonly used UV filter
octylmethoxycinnamte.25,26 The added viscosity enhancing agents also
play major role in penetration of a sunscreen.27,28
6 | SUN PROTECTION FACTOR (SPF)
Sun Protection Factor (SPF) is determined by comparing the duration of
time needed to produce the sunburn on sunscreen-protected skin to
the duration of time needed to cause sunburn on exposed skin. It
describes the protection provided by sunscreen when applied on skin at
| 3
a thickness of 2 mg/cm2. Sunscreen having a SPF of 15 means it gives
93% protection from UV rays.29 The percentage of protection can be
improved by increasing the SPF value, that is, a formulation having SPF
value 30 + will give a protection of 98%. The higher number of Sun
Protection Factor blocks more of the sun’s UV rays. But in reality no
sunscreen can block 100% of the UV rays. The peoples who have fair
skin are more prone to sunburn; they should use the sunscreen having
a SPF of 30 + . If chance of causing tanning is high, then it is better to
choose a broad spectrum sunscreen which has a SPF value ranging from
8 to 15. Those who have dark pigmented skin are less prone to sun-
burn.30 Sunscreen creams and ointments are more preferred for the one
who has dry skin. Those who have oily skin are better to choose sun-
screen having a lighter base such as lotion or gel.31
The ideal properties of sunscreens include:
• Sunscreens should absorb the UV rays in the range of 2900 to
3300

A, because getting exposed to these types of rays increases
the chance of causing sunburn.32
• It should be compatible with the environmental conditions.33
• Even though the product undergoes deterioration, the decom-
posed products should be nontoxic and nonirritating.34
• The formulation should possess neutral pH; thus, it will not cause
any effects on skin.35
• The water solubility of the formulation should be less, to avoid
the loss of formulation during perspiration.36
• It should be nonvolatile in nature.
• Rapid absorption of sunscreen through the skin is not preferred.
7 | GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR THE
PREPARATION OF SUNSCREEN
The method will also vary based on the type of formulation. If the
formulation is solution type or aqueous, then it is prepared by dissolv-
ing the active ingredients along with the excipients in the vehicle.37
Sunscreen creams and emulsions are prepared by heating the
lipid phase and aqueous phase separately and mix together by stir-
ring. During stirring, add the active ingredients to the cream and mix
uniformly in one direction.38
Gel type and high viscous aqueous preparations are prepared by
dissolving the thickening agent and the other ingredients including
active molecule in two separate beakers, and then, the dispersion of
thickening agent is mixed with the ingredients in second beaker and
stir well to form gel.39
8 | THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID
LIPID NANOPARTICLES
The formulation of a cosmetic preparation is not only concerned
about the elegance of the product, but also on the appearance of
the product.40 The SLNs play a vital role in the field of cosmetics
because of their size range and morphology.41
4 |
9 | OCCLUSION, ADHESIVENESS, AND
SKIN HYDRATION
The occlusive nature of solid lipid nanoparticles is due to the formation
of monolayer film over the surface of skin; theoretically, the monolayer
is formed when 4 mg of formulation of size about 200 nm, when
applied on an area of 1 cm2.42 The in vitro testing for the occlusive
property of the SLN was determined by de Vinger. The evaporation of
water molecules depends on the particle size. When particle size
decreases, the rate of evaporation of water molecules also reduces
because the surface area of the particles increases correspondingly.
The application of formulation containing SLN on dry horny layer of
the skin is good because when lipid nanoparticles applied to the skin, a
fusion occurs and leads to the formation of a dense film.43
10 | UV-BLOCKING EFFECT
Nowadays solid lipid nanoparticles are used as novel carriers in sun-
screens due to its UV-blocking ability. The solid lipid nanoparticles have
the ability of scattering and reflecting the UV radiations. A synergistic
photoprotective power will be obtained after incorporation of sun-
44
screens into SLN, and they can act as physical sunscreens. Better pho-
toprotection can be achieved by combination of solid lipid nanoparticles
45
with molecular sunscreens. Sunscreens were incorporated into solid
lipid nanoparticles that showed better UV protection by enhancement of
SPF.46,47 Modern sunscreens contain nanoparticles, which scatter or
reflect UV radiations more efficiently than conventional sunscreens.48
11 | SMOOTHNESS, LUBRICATION, AND
EMOLLIENCY
Cosmetics need appreciable lubricant property especially if they are
intended to be applied on skin. The lipid nanoparticles possess
spherical shape, and they exhibit excellent lubrication action. The
lubricant property can be evaluated by rheological studies. The solid
lipid nanoparticles containing formulations are particularly useful in
skin irritation and allergic reactions due to its excellent lubricant
action. The emolliency of the formulation depends on the type of
lipids and surfactants used in the preparation.49 The lipids such as
tripalmitin and tristearin will produce highly crystalline particles, and
they also possess high occlusive property.
12 | OSMOTIC EFFECTS AND CONTROL
OF PH
Care should be taken while formulating cosmetics because if the for-
mulation becomes strongly acidic or alkaline, then it may lead to
deleterious effects. The advantage of solid lipid nanoparticles is that
they can be formulated in the optimal pH range. During the prepara-
tion of topical formulation, the osmotic effects to be taken into
JOSE AND NETTO
consideration because change in isotonicity can cause irritation to
skin.50
13 | METHODS FOR THE PREPARATION
OF SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES
The different methods used for the preparation of solid lipid
nanoparticles are as follows:
• Hot homogenization method
This method is usually applied for the lipophilic drugs as well
as for the insoluble drugs. In this method, the drug is dissolved in
the melted lipid, and the melted lipid containing drug is stirred
along with the hot surfactant solution of temperature and will be
5 or 10°C more than the temperature of the lipid. The obtained
pre-emulsion will be passed through high-pressure homogenizer,
and the cycles applied for this processes are 500 bar or two
cycles at 800 bars. This method is not applicable for the water-
soluble drugs because the drug entrapment efficiency will be
reduced.51
• Cold homogenization method
This method is particularly preferred for the hydrophilic drugs. In
this method, the pre-emulsion obtained by crushing and dissolving
the lipid containing drug mixture and added to the cold surfactant
solution and homogenized for 5-10 cycles at 1500 bar pressure.52,53
• Microemulsification solidification method
In this method, the lipid phase is usually oil, loaded with drug
kept at 65-75°C, and this mixture will be dispersed in aqueous phase
at cold temperature about 2-3°C under mechanical stirring, and
washing of the obtained dispersion will be carried out. After freeze-
drying of the washed dispersion, the particle size of the resultant
mixture is about 100 nm.54
• Supercritical fluid method
In this method, the supercritical fluid such as carbon dioxide was
used for the development of solid lipid nanoparticles.55 The advan-
tage of this method is that the amount of solvent used in the pro-
cess can be reduced. For this, carbon dioxide (99.99%) is the better
choice for this process.56,57
• Spray drying method
This method is used as an alternative method for the lyophiliza-
tion method. When compared to lyophilization method, this method
is quite economical. The drawback of this method is that due to the
excessive temperature and high shear force, it leads to partial
JOSE AND NETTO
melting of the sample and aggregation of the particles may occur.
For spray drying method, the lipid having melting point greater than
70°C is preferred.58
• Solvent injection method
In this method, SLNs are obtained by the rapid injection of lipid
solution (the solvent used here is hydrophilic agents such as ethanol,
methanol, or ethyl acetate) into aqueous phase containing surfac-
59
tant.
14 | APPLICATION OF SOLID LIPID
NANOPARTICLES IN SUNSCREENS
Solid lipid nanoparticles-based sunscreens may act as permeation
enhancers; thereby, it improves the penetration as well as the toler-
ance of the active moiety.60 By the use of SLNs, the concentration of
the molecular sunscreen can be reduced and thereby minimize the
side effects associated with it. By the use SLNs as a carrier, there are
better options for formulating sunscreens having excellent photopro-
tective actions. The drug entrapment efficiency of the formulation
depends on the selection of the lipids, percentage of the loading
capacity, and also it depends on the compatibility of the active ingre-
61
dients with the lipids used for the preparation of nanoparticles.
SLNs are good carrier systems for the drugs like oxybenzone; thereby,
the harmful effects such as skin irritation or contact dermatitis can be
minimized.62 The carrier-based sunscreen containing organic sun-
screen provides better physical and chemical UV protection action.
Recently, lipid nanoparticles are used as carriers for the herbals for
developing sunscreen formulations which are having less noxious
effect as compared to the synthetic agents such as oxybenzone.
Novel herbal sunscreen preparations reduce the toxic effect as well as
increase the photoprotection effect. The study related to compounds
like polyphenols has gained more importance in this field.63 The prod-
ucts such as aloe vera, jojoba, olive, almond, green tea, and safranal
are being used for the development of herbal sunscreen formulations.
The molecules used in the sunscreens should possess the properties
that it should not go through the viable epidermis and dermis of the
skin and on the top layers of the skin (ie, the stratum corneum or the
horny layer). By the use of novel carriers such as solid lipid nanoparti-
cles, researchers can improve the nature of the drug molecules used
in the formulations.64 The solid lipid nanoparticles of green tea devel-
oped by high shear homogenization method showed better photopro-
tective action.65 The release profiles of the UV blockers were
prolonged by incorporating the technology of the solid lipid nanoparti-
cles. In vitro release study was carried out by Potard et al using mem-
brane-free release model.63 The stability of the UV molecular blockers
is increased using solid lipid nanoparticles as carrier system, and the
studies carried out by the Geun-Soo et al showed an increase in the
photostability of the sunscreen formulation containing Bis-ethylhexyl-
phenolmethoxy-phenyltriazine (BEMT)-loaded solid lipid nanoparti-
cles.64 Solid lipid nanoparticles-based formulation of quercetin was
| 5
developed by Bose et al it showed better anti-radical activity, better
photoprotection, and good physical stability.65 The in vitro release
study showed initial burst release of quercetin followed by a pro-
longed release, and thereby, it delays the ultraviolet radiation-
mediated cell damage. Gokce et al used the solid lipid nanoparticles
as the carrier for the drug resveratrol for developing the sunscreen
formulation by high shear homogenization method and various param-
eters like the particle size, zeta potential, and drug entrapment effi-
ciency, and the obtained results were in appreciable range.66 The
encapsulation effect of UV molecular absorbers into solid lipid
nanoparticles was carried out by Lacatusu et al and the in vitro evalu-
ation of UV protection had led to high sun protection factor values.
Lacatusu et al carried out the studies of solid lipid nanoparticles bear-
ing UV sunscreens, and they evaluated the photostability and sun pro-
tection factor of the prepared formulation.54
15 | CONCLUSION
There are several products which come under the lipid nanoparticles
and which showed the control release pattern of drug through the
skin. The percentage of toxicity shown by solid lipid nanoparticles is
less, and hence, it can be safely used in the dermatological and cos-
metic products to achieve the discrete properties. On the other
The hand, during the preparation of the cosmetic and dermatologic for-
mulation, the nature of the epidermal tissue should keep in mind,
that is, the formulation needs to be biocompatible with the natural
protective barrier which can be achieved by the use of solid lipid
nanoparticles. On comparing the lipid nanobased systems with tradi-
tional cosmetic products, the occlusion can be achieved without the
use of paraffin and other greasy oils. The film formed by lipid
nanoparticles will be smooth as compared to the inflexible films
formed by the paraffin. To improve the bioavailability, various strate-
gies are currently being developed to formulate drug-loaded solid
lipid nanoparticles in sunscreen formulations. The studies indicated
that the use of solid lipid nanoparticles as a carrier enhanced the
bioavailability. These results showed that the solid lipid nanoparticles
could be a promising carrier for sunscreens.
ORCID
Jobin Jose http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2815-5384
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How to cite this article: Jose J, Netto G. Role of solid lipid
nanoparticles as photoprotective agents in cosmetics. J
Cosmet Dermatol. 2018;00:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/
jocd.12504