CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EVOLUTION OF SPORT DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

It is a matter of historical fact that Nigeria did not take into serious consideration the
issue of formulating, adopting and implementing a well defined sports development policy
(Aibueku, 2002). This was in spite of the fact that successive governments recognized the
relevance of sports in nation building (Ajisafe, 1977; Ojeme, 1984). Colonial physical
education and sports activities have been characterized by their adhoc nature because
physical education, and by necessary extension sports, were not regarded as a subject in the
school curriculum.

They were mainly used for leisure time pursuits. Furthermore, colonial physical
education and sports were very closely linked with military formations in the country wherein
soldiers engaged in various sporting activities mainly for the purpose of keeping fit and for
leisure. (Ajisafe, 1977; Uti, 1978; Ojeme, 1986; Aibueku, 2002). It must be noted that the
physical education and sports programmes operated by institutions were conceived basically
as sports and games practiced in the late afternoon in the secondary schools with boarding
facilities and during break and other free periods in the primary schools with the attainment
of independence in 1960, sports was brought more into focus and under government direct
control at the ministerial level. The post civil war Nigeria values of sports led to the up-
grading of the National Sports Council in the early 1970s to the national Sports Commission
with a measure of executive responsibilities for sports development, management and
organization throughout the country. Omo-Osagie (1987) reports that the creation of the 12
state structure by the Gowon administration facilitated the growth of sports in the country.

Furthermore, the presence of the American Peace Corps Volunteers in more of the
nations educational institutions witnessed the introduction of basket ball and volleyball. It is
of note that the recognition which physical education gained in the early 1970s as an
academic discipline with a distinct body of knowledge led to the emergence of physical and
health education departments in several institutions of higher learning in the country. This
development had the consequence of the growth of a corp of professional physical educators
and the subsequent consolidation of the Nigerian Association of Physical, Health Education,
Recreation, Sports and Dance (NAPHER, SD). It is important to stress that all physical
educators subscribe to and respect NAPHER-SDs’ findings and opinions on issues that affect
the discipline (Fatile, 1987). With the recognition of the role of sports in bringing about
national reconciliation after the bitter Nigerian civil war experience, governments at all levels
started investing huge sums in the organization of sports festivals, schools sports, increased
funding of international sporting events as well as engagement in capital intensive
construction of sports facilities like stadium, gymnasium, swimming pools, courts for the
various ball and racket games (Aibueku, 2002). This was the setting when it became clear
that the lack of a policy guideline was doing damage to our sports.

For instance Ojeme, (1992) in his analysis of Nigeria’s sports delivery system came to
the conclusion that the system could best be described as haphazard. This assertion is
fortified by the observation that measures and accomplishments identified earlier have all
been undertaken and accomplished without a well thought-out guideline cut out to maximize
the gains of sports development on a sustainable basis. This paper asserts that in the absence
of the comprehensive national policy guidelines and implementation strategies, conceptual
confusion, discordant management strategies and unco-ordinated practices have been noticed
in the Nigerian sports sector. It was in response to these lapses and the consequences
occasioned thereof, that the Federal Government developed a sports development policy. The
1989 sports development policy highlighted the following: Peculiar qualities: It was the first
official reaction by Government to the rising influence and importance which sports had
gained over time (Aibueku, 2002). Shehu, (1995) opined that the sociological and political
influences on the enactment of this policy may have been conceived as arising from the
general sports ethos of the 1980s when there was a crisis of confidence in the sports sub
sector of our economy. Sho-Silva, (1984) reported that the various memoranda on sports
development received by the National Sports Commission as well as the significant degree of
media coverage on the subject of sports policy were instrumental to its formulation.
Furthermore the philosophy of the 1989 policy stated in teleological terms is “Nigerians are
by nature a dynamic and very energetic peoples; such virtues find expression in the active
engagement of our people in various traditional sporting events for entertainment and for the
development of body, mind and spirit”. The peculiar quality here is that the 1989 policy
stems from this tradition which in essence emphasizes maintaining our rich culture as well as
extending the spirit of compentiveness in sports and recreation beyond the family. The thrust
of the 1989 sports policy is consequently predicated on this factor. Furthermore, the policy is
aimed at arousing sports consciousness in all and sundry and encouraging mass participation
in sports as a means of ensuring physically fit and mentally alert citizenry. It also aims at
encouraging competitive sports and integrating traditional sports at nationals and
international levels as a means of fostering patriotism, mutual respect, unity, friendship,
peace and excellence in sports.

2.2 NATIONAL SPORTS POLICY OF NIGERIA

The 2009 National Sports Policy of Nigeria represents the nations’ second reaction to
issues in the sports sub sector after several botched attempts to have the 1989 sports
development policy reviewed. Specifically there was a draft reviewed policy in 2005 which
could not see the light of the day and the 2008 attempt which brought with it the issue of
fitness into closer focus. Generally, the 2009 policy is a 5 – chapter document arranged under
the following headings:-

1. General introduction

2. Philosophy, vision, mission, values and objectives of the sports policy.

3. Obligations of the three tiers of government in sports.

4. Major elements of the policy.

5. Policy review process.

An attempt to analysis both documents will highlight the following peculiar qualities of the
2009 policy as follows:

(a) The first chapter deals with Nigeria’s antecedence in sport exploits in all its ramifications
from the country’s participation in major local national and international competitions to
efforts at the administration, management and organization of governments in the country. It
identified football as a major sporting event as well as the establishment of Nigeria’s tertiary
institution for the training of coaches.

(b) The 2009 policy in line with other policy documents has a philosophy, vision, mission,
values of sports, and objectives embedded in it. The obligation of the 3-tiers of Government
namely; the Federal, State and Local Governments, are very clearly laid out in the 2009
document.

2.3 THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE 2009 POLICY

(i) Administration and management

(ii) Finance/sponsorship

(iii) Training and development of technical personnel

(iv) Facilities and equipment

(v) Athlete identification and development

(vi) Sport science and sport medicine

(vii) Incentives and awards in sports

(viii) Sport in education

(ix) Sport, culture and tourism

(x) Sport and the physically challenged

(xi) Sport and information and national orientation

(xii) Sport and international image

(xiii) Sport and environment

(xiv) Sport and security

The policy document has a section for a periodic review process which stipulates that
the policy shall always be reviewed after every Olympics to make room for changes which
the Olympic may have brought about to render it up to date and relevant. It is the
responsibility of the National Sports Commission to initiate any such periodic reviews.

By way of comparism both the 1989 and 2009 policies have their philosophies and
objectives as similar while differences exist in the method of achieving set targets. This can
be very well understood as the focus is now on specific goal objectives and set targets.
Whereas in the past it was sufficient to make general statements as to what is intended to be
achieved, it makes better sense now to be specific as to what is to be achieved at a given time.
Furthermore, the 1989 policy was broken into three parts namely:- Part I: General orientation
Part II: Specific programme areas and Part III: Co-ordination of policy development
implementation and impact. Part one of the document deals with issues of general
introduction, definition and scope of sports development, philosophy, broad goals, and
instrumental objectives, structure and management of the sports development sector and the
role of sports in National Planning. This section of the 1989 policy tends to highlight the
basic importance which the nation attaches to the sports development sub-sector and further
articulates the roles which each tier of government is expected to play as well as institutions
and the Organized Private Sector (OPS).

2.4 PROGRAMME AREAS OF THE POLICY ADDRESSES

Part two of the 1989 document specific programme areas. Here the point is made that
the policy on sports is a declaration by the Federal Government to awaken sports
consciousness in the citizenry and to ensure mass participation in sports for the physical,
mental, and moral growth and development of the people. It emphasized that the entire
purpose of sports development does not necessarily have to begin and end with big time
competitions but includes mass participation or what can now be referred to as “sports for
all” with clear emphasis on the intrinsic benefits derivable there from. This section of 1989
policy stresses the importance of research and planning. This is so in view of the fact that it is
important for the nation to reap fully, the positive fall-out of mass participation in sports to
generally improve the nation’s standing and the comity of nations and also to improve the
standard of existing facilities and equipment.

Part three of the 1989 document has to do with the co-ordination of policy
development, implementation and impact. In this section the leadership of the Federal
Government in the area of broad formulation of sports policy and its co-ordination and
implementation was highly emphasized spelling out in great detail the various initiatives of
the various arms of government in setting up the Federal Research and monitoring function as
well as the National Co-ordination system. By way of analysis, policy implementation is the
key to any policy document.

The 1989 document had with it published guidelines for the implementation of the
sports development policy. The 2009 document is not accompanied by any implementation
guidelines. Both policy documents have stressed the importance of periodic reviews of the
policy so as to sustain its relevance. A critique of both policy documents will highlight the
fact that both the 1989 and 2009 sports policies represent the thinking of just a handful of
highly placed sports theorists as both policies have not had the luxury of being inaugurated.
There is no evidence that efforts have seen made in brining stakeholders in the field together
with a view to brainstorming on producing a synthesis of all the ideas generated and using
same as the core basis for the formulation of a sports policy. Aibueku, (2002) reported that
there was virtually no publicity at all at the publication of both documents coupled with the
fact there were no conferences, seminars, workshops put together to critically examine issues
connected thereto.

Using the benefit of hindsight Fafunwa, (1974) reported that the National Policy on
Education was preceded by the all-embracing 1969 curriculum conference attended by people
from all walks of life.

It was the synthesis of all the analysis, reviews and thoughts that brought about the
National Policy on Education. Its launching was with a bang in the country’s educational
landscape. Till date very many stakeholders in the sports industry are not aware of the
existence of both the 1989 and 2009 sports policies. Consequently, it will not be a surprise if
sports administrators and physical education teachers report that they are ignorant of the
existence of either the 1989 or 2009 sports policies. It must be noted that one of the major
fallout of the enactment of the sports policy is the institutionalization of the National Sports
Commission as the body charged with the administration, management and organization of
sports in Nigeria.

2.5 SPORTS UNDER THE PRESIDENCY

This arrangement technically brings sports directly under the presidency. It is thought
that with this set-up, decisions will be taken faster and implementation more to the target and
funding challenges will be largely reduced. What remains however is for states to key into
this arrangement as very many states are still operating the outdated ministerial pattern which
is achieving only very little in terms of returns. One point which must be noted is the major
break with the past which is the involvement of local government councils in the investment
and promotion of sports in their respective areas of jurisdiction. Ojeme, (1987), (1992),
stressed that local government councils must be given clear responsibilities in the
development of sports as the absence of their involvement created an unnecessary vacuum
which these policies are attempting to resolve.

2.6 SPORTS AND SPORTS DEVELOPMENT

Although the term sports is clear as regards what it entails, a precise definition can be
quite elusive. It is in this regard that Olajide describes sports as “a highly organized physical
activity, regulated by accepted rules, which sometimes requires maximum physical and
mental exertion” (2007: 13). In the same vein, Aminu and Tanglang refer to sports as “an
activity or experience that gives enjoyment of recreation, past time diversion which requires
rigorous bodily exertion and is carried on according to some traditional forms or set of rules,
whether outdoor or indoor” (Cited in Olajide, 2007:13). Also Wikipedia defines sport as: “all
forms of physical activity, which through casual or organized participation aim to use,
maintain or improve physical fitness and provide entertainment to participants. Sport may be
competitive, where a winner or winners can be identified by objective means and may require
a degree of skill, especially at higher levels… Some non-physical activities, such as board
games and card games are sometimes referred to as sports” (accessed on 2nd February,
2012).

From the explanation by wikipedia, it is clear that some of our traditional sports
which do not involve physical exertion, but provide entertainment, such as Ayo and Draughts
are de-facto sports and there is the need to develop and promote them to international
standards and recognition. It is obvious, from the foregoing that sports is a social activity
involving interaction. This is why it is used to showcase the disposition of a particular
country or group of people. Agbonlahor et al. (2009:88) realizethis point and posit that,
“sport is a reflection of society”. According to them, sports though encompasses and reflects
negative aspects of society, such as violence, corruption, cheating, discrimination and drug
abuse, the positive benefits outweigh them.

The essence of sports development can therefore never be overemphasized. By

development, is meant not just the improvement of facilities of one sport or the winning of
more laurels in particular sporting activities. Development involves improvement of facilities,
adoption of better policies that would enhance participants’ improvement in their chosen
activities, creation of awareness and generation of interest in sports as well as diversification
of focus to include other sports that have been neglected in order to improve them in all
ramifications.

It is pertinent to state here that evaluating sports development in Nigeria, using the
above stated indices would reveal a lamentable indolence on the part of those saddled with
the task of overseeing sports. Thus the task of sports development to international standards
remains a pipe dream with only lip service being paid to it.

Uyah (2009:2) traces the history of organized sports development in Nigeria to

secondary school sports with the emergence of the Grier Cup and Hussey shield in 1933.
According to him, nine sports associations existed by 1960. These were Cricket, Athletics,
Football, Boxing, Tennis, Table Tennis, Swimming, Hockey and Netball (2-3). By 1962, the
National Sports Commission was established to cater for all sports. Between then and now,
the commission has undergone several changes including being merged with the ministry of
sports and separate& with personnel being fired and reappointed at the convenience of
government. This goes to show the importance government attaches to sports — depending
on what government wants to use sports to achieve, Individuals and corporate bodies have
also been involved through their sponsorship of many events. Even national teams usually get
sponsored to international competitions. The annual African Football Awards that produce
such stars as footballer of the year is sponsored by Globacom, a telecommunications
company. Thus no event in sports that craves recognition goes without sponsorship. This
testifies to the fact that sports occupy a significant place in the life of an individual,
community and country. There is therefore the need for constant development, to add value in
all spheres, ranging from finance to even the entertainment it provides.

To realize an appropriate level of development, the relevant organs must be involved.

These are individuals, corporate bodies, government as well as the mass media (and
television in particular). What role can television play in this configuration and what has
television done in this regard so far? A critical analysis of these questions and an attempt to
answer them would reveal whether Nigerian television has performed creditably or abysmally
in the area of sports development.
2.8 CONCEPT AND INDICES OF SPORTS DEVELOPMENT

Sports development can be regarded as a process of continuous improvement of the

sports structures performances and programmes in order to create a condition which is
conducive to physical fitness for all and the effective functioning of self-actualization
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1989). It is a common knowledge today that the attainment of
world class status in sports is a strong reflection of development objective of a country.
Amuchie, (1992) Defined development as stage in growth that leads to advancement, increase
in size, to evolve and to unfold. It denotes a state of coming into being and evolving into
maturity. According to Amuchie, (1992) Sport growth and development can be measured in
two ways: -

Vertically and horizontally: Vertically by identifying increase in the number of new sports a
country have participated in over the years: horizontally by determining the levels of
frequency of competition in sports within a given period, furthermore sports could also be
measured from the number of successes achieved in national and international sports
competitions. These successes have direct bearing with the indices of sports development,
these are:

2.8.1 Sports Policy

Which is the guidelines and blueprint or action plan for the development and
management of sports (National sports development policy 1989). The main objectives of
sports development policy of any nation include the following:

To provide the nation with the opportunity of measuring its sports might against those
of other nations of the world with a view to establishing a respectable position for in the
sporting community of the world.

2.8.2 Sport Personnel

Includes; coaches, sports managers, stadium managers and organizing secretaries.

These are some of the personnel required for the management of sports development
programmes. Coaches are responsible for the improvement of the level of skills of the
athletes. There is no way the quality of participation of any nation in competitive sports can
improve without having well trained and experienced coaches in various sports.

2.9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

i. Uses and Gratifications Theory

Practitioners of the uses and gratifications theory study the ways the public consumes
media. This theory states that consumers use the media to satisfy specific needs or desires.
For example, you may enjoy watching a show like Dancing with the Stars while
simultaneously tweeting about it on Twitter with your friends. Many people use the Internet
to seek out entertainment, to find information, to communicate with like-minded individuals,
or to pursue self-expression. Each of these uses gratifies a particular need, and the needs
determine the way in which media are used. By examining factors of different groups’ media
choices, researchers can determine the motivations behind media use.

A typical uses and gratifications study explores the motives for media consumption
and the consequences associated with use of that media. By studying how and why people
watch Dancing with the Stars while using Twitter, scholars suggest people are using the
Internet as way to be entertained and to connect with friends. Researchers have identified a
number of common motives for media consumption. These include relaxation, social
interaction, entertainment, arousal, escape, and a host of interpersonal and social needs. By
examining the motives behind the consumption of a particular form of media, researchers can
better understand both the reasons for that medium’s popularity and the roles that the medium
fills in society. A study of the motives behind a given user’s interaction with Facebook, for
example, could explain the role Facebook takes in society and the reasons for its appeal.

Uses and gratifications theories of media are often applied to contemporary media
issues. The analysis of the relationship between media and violence that you read about in
preceding sections exemplifies this. Researchers employed the uses and gratifications theory
in this case to reveal a nuanced set of circumstances surrounding violent media consumption,
as individuals with aggressive tendencies were drawn to violent media.

ii. Media Logic Theory

The media logic theory states that common media formats and styles serve as a means
of perceiving the world. Today, the deep rooting of media in the cultural conciousness means
that media consumers need engage for only a few moments with a particular television
program to understand that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show. The pervasiveness
of these formats means that our culture uses the style and content of these shows as ways to
interpret reality. For example, think about a TV news program that frequently shows heated
debates between opposing sides on public policy issues. This style of debate has become a
template for handling disagreement to those who consistently watch this type of program.

Media logic affects institutions as well as individuals. The modern televangelist has
evolved from the adoption of television-style promotion by religious figures, while the
utilization of television in political campaigns has led candidates to consider their physical
image as an important part of a campaign.