MODULE – IV RESEARCH REPORTING AND MODERN PRACTICES IN

RESEARCH

 Research Report Writing: Importance, Essentials, Structure/ layout, Types

 References and Citation Methods:
APA (American Psychological Association)
CMS (Chicago Manual Style)
MLA (Modern Language Association)
 Footnotes and Bibliography
 Modern Practices: Ethical Norms in Research, Plagiarism, Role of Computers in Research

Research Report

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing
information gathered by conducting organized research. A research report is a reliable source to
recount details about a conducted research and is most often considered to be a true testimony of
all the work done to gather details of research.

The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for concerned
authority to take further decision. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered
information with a clear objective and conclusion. There should be a clean and structured format
for these reports to be effective in relaying information.

Importance of Research Report

1) Decision-Making Tool: Today’s complex business organizations require lots f information.

Reports provide the required information. A large number of important decisions in business
or any other area are taken on the basis of the information presented in the reports.

2) Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or study group investigates the
problem. They find out the reason behind the problem and present the findings with or
without the recommendation in the form of a report.
3) Neutral presentation of facts: Any organization requires research facts to be presented in a
neutral way without any biasness. Research report presents facts as it investigates, explains,
and evaluates any facts independently.

4) Discloses unknown information: Research reports provide information, which may not be
known previously. The researcher / committee members collect data, draw conclusions and
provide information which will be new to all concerned parties. Even new business
opportunities are visible through unknown information available in the research reports.

5) Organzing Resources: Reports facilitates organizing of physical, financial and human

resources. Eg. A project report may indicate the amount of additional funds for
implementation of project. This will enable the company to obtain funds from the right
sources. It may provide information about machinery and manpower required.

6) Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or not is expressed
through a report. So, controlling activities are implemented based on the information of a
report.

7) A managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the managers. For planning,
organizing, coordinating, motivating, and controlling, the manager needs help from a report
which acts as a source of information.

8) Encountering Advance and Complex Situation: In a large business organization, there is

always some sort of labor problems that may bring complex situations. To tackle that
situation, managers take the help of a report.

Essentials of Research Report

1) Accuracy of Facts: Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact. Since decisions
are taken on the basis of report information. Any inaccurate information or statistics will lead to
wrong decision. And the organization will not be able to achieve the its goals.

2) Relevancy: The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant. Irrelevant
facts make a report confusing and likely to be misleading to make proper decision.
3) Reader-Orientation: While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about the person who
is going to read it. That's why a good report should be always reader oriented. Reader’s knowledge
and level of understanding should be considered by the writer of report.

4) Simple Language: A good report should be written in a simple language. There should not be vague
and unclear words and sentences. The language of the report should not be influenced by the writer's
emotion or goal. The message of a good report should be self-explanatory.

5) Conciseness: A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never be long.
Rather it means that a good report or a business report is one that transmits maximum information
with minimum words. It should avoid unnecessary detail. But it should includes everything which are
significant and necessary to present proper information.

6) Grammatical Accuracy: A good report should be free from grammatical errors. Any faulty
construction of a sentence may make its meaning different to the reader's mind. And sometimes it
may become confusing or ambiguous.

7) Unbiased Recommendation: Recommendation on report usually makes effect on the reader mind.
So if recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They
should come as logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.

8) Clarity: Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely clear. Reporter
should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and finally make necessary
recommendation. To be an effective communication through report, a report must be clear to
understand for making communication success.

9) Attractive Presentation: Presentation of a report is also a factor which should be considered for a
good report. A good report provides a catchy and smart look and creates attention of the reader.
Structure, content, language, typing and presentation style of a good report should be attractive to
make a clear impression in the mind of its reader.

10) Logical Arrangement: The research report must be written in a systematic manner. The different
parts of the report must be arranged in logical sequence, as follows :
 Title of the report
 Table or Content or Index
 Introduction of Research Problem
 Methodology Used in research
  Findings of the research
 Limitations of research
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendix
 Bibliography
 Signature of the reporter and Date

Structure/ layout of Research Report

1) Title of the Research: The research report must clearly state the title of research project. Eg. A
commercial organization may undertake research to study causes of declining customer satisfaction in
Mumbai region, then the title of research report will be “Research Report on factors affecting
customer service satisfaction in Mumbai region”

2) Table of Contents (Index): Research report must contain table of contents for the benefit of the
reader. The table of contain includes Chapters heading with page numbers. Also Statistical tables and
charts with the page numbers
3) Introduction: This is the beginning of actual research report. It is the first page of report which
includes:
 Statement of research problem
 Objectives of study
 Hypothesis statement
 Scope, significance and limitations of study
 Review of Literature

4) Research Methodology: The report should describe the methodology used in conducting research. It
includes:
 Type and Source of Data
 Universe of study / Target respondents / Population of study
 Sampling design and sample size
5) Findings of the study: This section of research report includes data analysis and relation between
data which is presented in the form of findings. This is one of the important parts of research report.
The findings are presented in the form of table, charts or pictures.
6) Limitations of the study: Limitations of study refers to constraints of the research which may affect
to the result of a research. The limitation can be of resources, area, sample, respondent biasness etc.
The researcher should mention the limitations with which the research activity is conducted.

7) Conclusion: The conclusion is a summary of findings. It is the overall result of the research.

8) Recommendations: The researcher may recommend some ways to overcome the problem found out
in a study. These recommendations may or may not be acceptable to the concerned authority.

9) Appendix: Appendix refers to the supplement to the research report. It is attached at the end of
research report. The appendix includes copies of :
 Questionnaire used to collect data
 Statistical table
 Glossary / key terms
10) Bibliography: In case of academic and social research, bibliography is a must. It indicates :
 Title of books / articles / magazines / reports referred for the research work
 Name of the author / publisher
 Year of publication
 Page number of the matter used in the research work

11) Signature and Date: The research report must be signed by the researcher or committee of
research along with the date.

Types of Research Report

1) Technical Report: The technical report is prepared for specialists who have interest in understanding
the technical procedure and terminology used in the research project such as such as scientists,
engineers, doctors, research scholars etc. The report will be in technical language. In the technical
report, the main emphasis is on:
 the methods employed;
 assumptions made in the course of study and;
 the detailed presentation of the findings, including their limitations and supporting data.
2) Research Abstract: This is a short summary of the technical report. It is usually prepared by a
doctoral students on the eve of submitting, his thesis. Its copies are sent by the university along with
the letters of request to the examiners invited to evaluate the thesis. It contains a brief presentation of
 the statements of the problem, the objectives of the study methods and techniques used and an
overview of the report. A brief summary of the results of the study may also be added. This abstract
is primarily meant for enabling the examiner invites to decide whether the study belongs to the area of
their specialization and interest.

3) Popular Report: Popular report is intended for persons who have limited interest in the technical
aspects of the research methodology and research findings. The audience will include laymen and
even top executives who want summary reports. The popular report is one which gives emphasis on
simplicity and attractiveness in terms of clear writing, minimizing of technical, particularly
mathematical details, and use of charts and diagrams. An attractive layout along with many
subheadings is another feature of a popular report. In such a report, emphasis is given on practical
aspects and policy implications.

4) Interim Report: When there is a long time lag between data collection and the presentation
of the results in the case of a sponsored project, the study may lose its significance and
usefulness and the sponsor may also lose interest in it. One of the most effective ways to
avoid such eventualities is to present an interim report. This short report may contain either
the first results of the analysis or the final outcome of the analysis of some aspects
completely analysed. Whatever may be the coverage of the interim report it fulfils certain
functions. It facilitates the sponsoring agency to take action without waiting for the full
report. It helps to keep alive the agency’s interest in the study and prevent
misunderstandings about the delay

5) Research Article: This is designed for publication in a professional journal. If a study has two or
more aspects that can be discussed independently, it may be advisable to write separate articles rather
than to crowd too many things into single article.

A research article must be clearly written in concise and unambiguous language. It must be logically
organised, progressing from a statement of the problem and the purpose of study, through the analysis
of evidence to the conclusions and implications.

A professional journal may have its own special format for reporting research. It is important to find
out in advance whether the publication does have specific format requirements. For example,the
research articles submitted for publication in the journal of applied psychology should be prepared
 according to the publication manual of the American psychological association. The preferred format
is:
 Introduction: A statement of the nature of the problem and a brief review of previous studies
pertinent to the development of the specific questions or hypotheses to be tested.
 Method: A brief statement of what was done where and how it was done, and a statement of the
specific techniques and tools used.
 Results: A presentation of the salient findings with tables or charts.
 Discussions: A discussion of the salient findings with tables or charts.
 Conclusion: A presentation of the contribution of the study to theory and /for practice and the
brand implications of the findings.

The article must be accompanied by an abstract of 100-150 words typed on a separate sheet of paper.

References and Citation Methods:

By using citations and references, researcher acknowledges the work of others and shows how
their ideas have contributed to his/her own work. It is also a way of demonstrating that researcher
has read and understood key texts relating to the area he/she is writing about.

The terms reference and citation are also often used to refer to the same thing. But a citation
tends to mean the part of the text within assignment where researcher acknowledges the source;
On the other hand a reference usually refers to the full bibliographic information at the end.

References and Citation methods are formalized standards for writing documents. It is generally
are set by specific fields, organizations, or publications. It creates consistency in adhering to
writing and design rules. It provides formatting styles for citations and bibliographies. The
various references and citation methods are discussed as below:
1) APA (American Psychological Association):

APA is generally used by the social and behavioural sciences such as sociology, political
science, law, geography, education, criminal justice, communication studies, economics, and
business. It is created by the United States National Research Council.

It uses two basic citation characteristics:

 In text citation (Author, Year, pp. ##-##) - Page number for direct quotes or specific
references
 “References” of all cited documents in alphabetical order at end of manuscript

Examples of APA

 In-text citations are required for other scholar’s ideas and research, as well as quotes.

As Hochstetler (2006) identifies the importance of street protests in presidential failure, I

attempt to examine this relationship…………….

 References
Hochstetler, K. (2006). Rethinking presidentialism: Challenges and presidential falls in
South America. Comparative Politics , 38 (4), 401- 418.
 Book:
Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W.
Norton & Co, 1998. Print.
 Book Article:
Labajo, J. (2003). Body and voice: The construction of gender in flamenco. In T. Magrini
(Ed.), Music and gender: perspectives from the Mediterranean (pp. 67-86). Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
 Journal Article:
Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing disparities consultation and outreach
strategies for university settings. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 59(4),
286-295. doi:10.1037/1065- 9293.59.4.286
 Newspaper or Magazine Article:
Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.
 Encyclopedia Article:
Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt Disney Company.
In Encyclopedia of Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345-349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
 Website:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Biofuels. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from
https://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biofuels.html

2) CMS (Chicago Manual Style)

CMS is primarily used by writers and students in humanities; particularly in the field of history.

 Basic Characteristics:
 Footnote/Endnote system for notation.
 Reverse indention for long bibliography entries.
 The use of “Ibid.” for repeated referencing of sources.

Examples of CMS

 In-text citations are denoted with a superscript at the end of sentences that reference either a
footnote or an endnote.
 Notation (Footnote):

William Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom! (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 271.

 Bibliography:

Lash, Scott and John Urry. Economies of Signs & Space. London: SAGE Publications, 1994.

 Use of Ibidem:

 1Faulkner, Absalom, 270.

 2Ibid.
 3Ibid., 305.

Book:
Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W.
Norton & Co, 1998. Print.

Book Article or Chapter:

Serviss, Garrett Putman. “A Trip of Terror.” In A Columbus of Space, 17-32. Westport, CT:
Hyperion Press, 1974.

Journal Article:
Breen, T. H. “Will American Consumers Buy a Second American Revolution?” Journal of
American History 93, no. 2 (2006): 404-8.

Newspaper or Magazine Article:

Bissell, Tom. “Improvised, Explosive, and Divisive.” Harper’s, January 2006, 41-54.
Archibold, Randal C. “These Neighbors Are Good Ones without a New Fence.” New York
Times, October 22, 2008, sec. A.

Encyclopedia Article:
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v. “Monroe Doctrine.”

Website:
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park. National Park Service. Last modified April
9, 2010. https://www.nps.gov/choh/index.htm.

3) MLA (Modern Language Association)

MLA is largely used for documentation in the humanities, specifically languages and literature,
including English, modern languages, and comparative literature.

Basic citation characteristics:

 Minimized in-text citation (Author, #)

 “Works cited” of all cited documents in alphabetical order at end of manuscript

Examples of MLA
 In-text citations are required again, but only require information needed to identify the
reference.

 According to Levitsky, the Peronist Party possessed a structure that provided stability
while guaranteeing unique flexibility (31).

 Works Cited

 Levitsky, Steven. “An 'Organised Disorganisation': Informal Organisation and the

Persistence of Local Party Structures in Argentine Peronism.” Journal of Latin American
Studies 33.1, (Feb. 2001): 29-66. Print.

Book:
Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W.
Norton & Co, 1998. Print.

Book Article:
Ahmedi, Fauzia Erfan. “Welcoming Courtyards: Hospitality, Spirituality, and
Gender.” Feminism and Hospitality: Gender in the Host/Guest Relationship. Ed. Maurice
Hamington. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2010. 109-24. Print.

Journal Article:
Laing, Jennifer, and Warwick Frost. “How Green Was My Festival: Exploring Challenges and
Opportunities Associated With Staging Green Events.” International Journal of Hospitality
Management 29.2 (2010): 261-7. Print.

Newspaper or Magazine Article:

Kaplan, David A. “Corporate America’s No. 1 Gun For Hire.” Fortune 1 Nov. 2010: 81-95.
Print.

Encyclopedia Article:
Mercuri, Becky. “Cookies.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. Ed.
Andrew F. Smith. Vol. 1. 2004. Print.

Website:
Cornell University Library. “Introduction to Research.” Cornell University Library. Cornell
University, 2009. Web. 19 June 2009 .
Footnotes and Bibliography

Footnotes

Footnotes are the important points present in the form of notes at the end of a page or bottom of a
page. It elaborates as well as simplifies a particular point mentioned in the body of text and also
shows its accountability by acknowledging the source of information taken out. Its presence
shows the credibility of the piece of work present in the research paper / report and also gives
convenience to the reader for looking into the details of the sources, illustrations without going
towards the end of the paper for references.

Bibliography

Bibliography refers to list all the sources (books, articles, etc.) that have been used by a particular
researcher / scholar in his research paper / report. These are placed at the end of the research
paper / report, as reference. Ideally the bibliography lists all the relevant sources used in the
research, arranged in alphabetical order and placed on a separate page at the end of the research
paper / report.

The term reference and bibliography may be used interchangeably by researchers. Bu there is
difference between these two terms. They both are the enlisting of the sources one read at times
of writing a paper or a study. However, reference means the listing of all the sources one has
cited in the form of quotations or paraphrases while bibliography includes the entire sources one
read other than the citations. All the information cited as well as brief idea taken from any source
becomes part of the enlisting process of bibliography. Bibliography includes:
 Author’s name
 Title of paper
 Publication information
 Date

Importance of Footnotes and Bibliography:

1) It indicate the authenticity of the research paper / report. It will show how much original
research paper / report is and how relevant it is to the researched data. It can be considered as
an alternate way of citing.

2) It gives evaluator a deep insight into the research undertaken by the scholars / researcher
to collect relevant data for the research paper / report. It also helps them refer to such sources
to gain more information about the topic.

3) It is essential as well as helpful to support the claim done in the text of the research paper
/ report. It can be used in highlighting the subject matter of research paper / report.

4) Basically, these are used to add more explanation of the sources that researcher has used.

5) It helps evaluator get an idea about the researching as well as referencing skills of
scholar / researcher. They can understand extensiveness and the extent of the research
carried out by the scholars / researchers.
Modern Practices

Ethical Norms in Research

Ethics are the moral principles that a person must follow, irrespective of the place or time.
Behaving ethically involves doing the right thing at the right time. Research ethics focus on the
moral principles that researchers must follow in their respective fields of research. The
researcher should not undertake research misconduct such as:

 Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

 Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or results such

that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.

 Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without
giving appropriate credit.

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it
educates and monitors researcher / scholars conducting research to ensure a high ethical
standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:

1) Honesty: The researcher should honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. He/she should not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.

2) Objectivity: The researcher should strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.

3) Carefulness: The researcher should avoid careless errors and negligence. He/she should
carefully and critically examine the work. He/she should keep good records of research
activities.

4) Openness: The researcher should share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. He/she should
be open to criticism and new ideas.

5) Respect for Intellectual Property: The researcher should honor patents, copyrights, and
other forms of intellectual property. He/she should not use unpublished data, methods, or
results without permission. Researcher should give credit to the other author if his content is
used and should not plagiarize.
6) Confidentiality: The researcher should maintain the confidentiality about the identity of
respondent who respond to the research by filling up questionnaire or giving interview. As
well as other records which is to be kept secret should not be disclosed to any other person.

7) Responsible Publication: The researcher should publish in order to advance research and
scholarship, not to advance just your own career. He/she should avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.

8) Respect for Colleagues: The researcher should respect his/her colleagues and treat them
fairly. It is necessary to maintain their motivation in carrying on research activity.

9) Social Responsibility: The research should strive to promote social good and prevent or
mitigate social harms through research. The research should contribute to the welfare of the
society.

Plagiarism

According to Oxford Dictionary of English, plagiarism is "the practice of taking someone else's
work or ideas and passing them off as one's own." Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work
or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work without
full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed
or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or
unintentional.

Following are considered plagiarism:

 Turning in someone else's work as your own

 Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit

 Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks

 Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation

 Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit

 Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work,
whether you give credit or not
To avoid plagiarism, researcher must give credit whenever he/she:

 Directly quote another person's written or spoken words. Be sure to enclose these words
and/or sentences in quotations marks!

 Paraphrase another person's spoken or written words. Paraphrase means to re-write in your
own words; merely reordering or substituting words is still considered plagiarism!

 Use theories, ideas, opinions, research, etc. that are not your own.

 Use historical, statistical, or scientific facts or data that are not your own.

Role of Computers in Research

The computers are essential throughout the research process. The role of computer becomes
more important when the research is on a large sample. Data can be stored in computers for
immediate use or can be stored in supporting memories like flopping discs, compact discs, pen
drives or memory cards, so that the same can be retrieved later. The computer assists the
researcher throughout different phases of research process.

Phases of Research Process

1) Conceptual phases
2) Design and planning phase
3) Empirical phase
4) Analytical phase
5) Dissemination phase

1) Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase: The conceptual phase consists of research

problem, review of literature, theoretical frame work and formulation of hypothesis.
Role of Computers in Literature Review: Computers help for searching the literature
review and bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the World Wide
Webs. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to be retrieved whenever
needed. This has the advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals,
and other newsletters at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
2) Role of Computers in Design and Planning Phase: Design and planning phase consists of
research design, population, research variables, sampling plan, reviewing research plan and
pilot study.
Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software are available to
calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software.
The standard deviation of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size
calculation.

3) Role of Computers in Empirical Phase: Empirical phase consist of collecting and

preparing the data for analysis.
Data Storage: The data obtained from the respondents are stored in computers as word file
or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the
whole layout of the tables if needed, which is impossible or time consuming in case of
writing in papers. Thus, computers help in data entry, data editing, data management
including follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for greater flexibility in recording the
data while they are collected as well as greater ease during the analysis of these data.

The researcher can take help of Google Form or other sources for collection of data. It
facilitates to create in-built excel spread sheet. This spread sheet can be directly used for data
analysis. It is compatible with data analysis software.

4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis: This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data
and interpretation of results.
Data Analysis: Many software are now available to perform ‘statistical part’ of the research
process i.e. the calculations using various statistical methods. Software like SPSS, NCSS-
PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the widely used. Even MS-Excel spread sheet can be
used for data analysis purpose. Familiarity with any one of the software will suffice to carry
out the most complex statistical analyses.
Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses, but also to monitor the accuracy and
completeness of the data as they are collected.

5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination: This phase is the publication of research

study.
Research Publishing: The research article is typed in world format and converted into
portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in the world wide web.

https://www.managers.org.uk/~/media/Files/PDF/Study%20Support/References-and-
Citations.pdf

https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/teacher-resources/style-guide-resources-mla-apa-
cse-chicago/
https://unmgrc.unm.edu/resource-hub/documents/style-manuals-final.pdf
https://medium.com/@officialinstantassignmenthelp/why-are-endnotes-and-footnotes-
important-for-an-effective-assignment-4e2c57982f3e
http://content.inflibnet.ac.in/data-server/eacharya-
documents/5717528c8ae36ce69422587d_INFIEP_304/183/SA/304-183-SA-V1-
S1__file5.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/marimar27/footnote-and-bibliography
https://www.enago.com/academy/principles-of-ethical-research/
https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics
https://researchguides.case.edu/avoid-plagiarism
https://salve.libguides.com/researchguide/plagiarism
https://www.slideshare.net/saravananmsw/role-of-computers-in-research