Ararao, Bryan Clark B.

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY – DON SEVERINO | BSMT 1-4

DELAS ALAS CAMPUS Dr. Annie Ramos

Activity #4
Chapter III: Cells and Tissues
Human Anatomy with Pathophysiology (BMED 66)
© 2020 | 5th of October, 2020

Lesson 3: Activity Notes

Table of Contents

1. Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media (page 2)

2. Cell Division and the Cell Cycle (page 4)
3. Cell Division of Meiosis and Mitosis (page 5)
4. Intro to Histology: The Four Tissue Types (page 8)
5. Phases of Wound Healing Explained - How a Cut Becomes a Scar (page 11)
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 CONTENT

TOPIC | Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media

Reference: Nucleus Medical Media. (2015). Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical
Media [YouTube Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=URUJD5NEXC8&feature=youtu.be

A. Overview of a Cell Structure: Cells are the smallest living units in an organism.

They have three things in common (no matter what kind of cell they are).

(1) All cells have a cell membrane that separates the interior of the cell from its
environment. (2) Cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like substance, (3) DNA, the genetic
material of the cell.

B. There are two (2) broad Categories of Cells: (1) Eukaryotic cells, which have
organelles that include the nucleus and other special parts. Eukaryotic cells are more
advanced, complex cells, such as those present in plants and animals. (2) and the
Prokaryotic Cells. They don't have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles. They
do have genetic material, but it's not contained within the nucleus. They are always one-
celled or unicellular organisms, such as bacteria.

C. What are the organelles? Organelle means "a little organ." They are the specialized
parts of a cell that have specific tasks to perform.

 The nucleus, the control center of a cell. The nucleus contains the DNA or
genetic material. It determines what the cell is going to do, and how it's going to
do it.
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  Chromatin and chromosomes: Chromatin, the tangled and spread type of DNA
found within the nuclear membrane. When DNA is about to divide, it condenses
into structures known as chromosomes.

 The nucleus also comprises a nucleolus. It's the structure where the ribosomes
are produced.

 After ribosomes leave their nucleus, they will have an important job of
"synthesizing" or producing proteins. Outside the nucleus, the ribosomes and the
rest of the organelles are floating around in the cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like
substance. Ribosomes may wander freely within the cytoplasm or be attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum, often abbreviated as ER.

 There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough endoplasmic

reticulum (RER) has ribosomes attached to it and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER) does not have ribosomes attached to it. The endoplasmic
reticulum is a membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials such
as proteins that are synthesized by ribosomes

 Proteins and other materials emerge from the endoplasmic reticulum in small
vesicles where they are received by the Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi
body. When proteins move through the Golgi body, they are adapted to the
forms that the cells can use. The Golgi body does this by shaping the proteins
into functional forms or by adding other materials (such as lipids or
carbohydrates) onto them.

 Vacuoles are sac-like structures that store a variety of materials. In the plant cell,
the central vacuole stores water.

 Going back to an animal cell, there’s an organelle called a lysosome. It is the

garbage collectors that take in damaged or worn-out cell parts. They are filled
with enzymes that break down this cellular debris.

 The mitochondrion, an organelle that is a powerhouse for both animal and plant
cells. During a process called cellular respiration, mitochondria create ATP
molecules that provide energy for all cellular activity. Cells that require more
energy have more mitochondria.

 Meanwhile, the cell maintains its shape through a cytoskeleton. The

cytoskeleton comprises thread-like microfilaments consisting of protein and
microtubules, which are thin hollow tubes.
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  Chloroplast and chlorophyll: (1) Some organisms, such as plants that are
photoautotrophic, meaning they absorb sunlight for energy, have cells with an
organelle called a chloroplast. (2) The chloroplast is where photosynthesis
occurs. It is green because it has a green pigment called “chlorophyll.”

 Plant cells often have a cell wall outside their cell membranes that shapes,
supports and protects the plant cell. Animal cells don't have a cell wall.

 Other unique structures: (1) In humans, the respiratory tract is lined with cells
that have cilia. These are microscopic hair-like projections that can travel on
waves. This feature helps trap inhaled particles in the air and release them when
you cough. (2) Flagella is another unique feature of some cells. Some of the
bacteria have flagella. A flagellum is like a little tail that can help a cell travel or
propel (push) itself. The only human cell with a flagellum is a sperm cell.

Summary:

(1) Eukaryotic cells – plants and animal cells with a nucleus and membrane-enclosed
organelles.

(2) Prokaryotic cells – unicellular organisms with no nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles.

(3) All cells have a cell membrane, a cytoplasm, and a genetic material.

(4) And even though only plant cells have chloroplast, both plant and animal cells have
mitochondria.

TOPIC: Cell Division and the Cell Cycle

Reference: Gregorio, F. (2010). Cell Division and the Cell Cycle [YouTube Video]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6ucKWIIFmg&feature=youtu.be

A. The Earth is teeming with countless living cells. You've got 100 trillion cells in your
body alone. They're you! The cells come in all shapes and sizes. They perform
thousands of different functions in Earth's life forms. They come together to create the
tissues of all living organisms but the cells don't live forever! Eventually, they can die 

 Fortunately, they have the ability to reproduce:

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(1) First through a process called the Cell Division.

i. The preparation for reproduction starts with a chemical signal.
 ii. By then, the cell will expand larger. It's called the "G1 Phase" of cell life.
iii. After growth, the cell will duplicate its DNA. It's called the "S Phase" of
the cell cycle.
iv. The DNA would then be checked for mistakes by the enzymes and then
repaired if there is any. This is the "G2 Phase" of the cell cycle. When
ready, the division of cells begins. It's called the "mitosis."
v. And the cells divide.
vi. Mitosis begins with the breakdown of the nuclear membrane and the
thickening of the DNA (called the Prophase). Special fibers called spindle
fibers develop at each end of the cell and expand towards the DNA
chromosomes.
vii. The fibers then attach to the centromeres on the chromosomes, and then
pull into a line in the middle of the cell (called the Metaphase).
viii. The chromosomes are pulled apart by the spindle fibers to the opposite
side of the cell (called the Anaphase).
ix. Last is the Telophase, where two new nucleus forms.
x. The cell then divides into two cells called cytokinesis.

We all began life as a single cell, divided again and again. But the first cell had a special
experience— sex. The cells involved in sex are produced by a process called “meiosis.”

Cell division and cell cycle is a continuation of life!

TOPIC | Cell Division of Meiosis and Mitosis

Reference: Banking classes. (2017). cell division of meiosis and mitosis [YouTube Video].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-
mFPZLLbHI&feature=youtu.be

 Meiosis in sexual reproduction: Reason why some children don’t look exactly like
their parents or why some siblings look different from each other.

(1) Meiosis generates gametes for reproduction.

(2) It is the process by which haploid cells are produced from a diploid cell, in
order for this to occur, the chromosomes must be correctly sorted and
distributed in such a way as to create genetically unique cells with half the
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number of chromosomes as the original cell.

 (3) Meiosis occurs in special cells called germ cells in male and female
gonads. Two rounds of divisions are needed to successfully reduce the
number of chromosomes in the new haploid daughter cells. These divisions
are referred to as meiosis I and meiosis II.
(4) While mitosis and meiosis processes look identical, there are a few major
differences. One obvious difference is that mitosis results in two diploid
daughter cells and that meiosis results in four haploid cells.

THE PROCESS

Just like mitosis, meiosis starts after the interphase G1, S, and G2 stages have been
successfully completed.

 During the S Phase of interphase, the DNA is replicated, creating two copies of each
chromosome called the sister chromatids. Paired centrioles in the cytoplasm duplicate
and start spreading the microtubules that form the meiotic spindle.

 Sister chromatids remain attached to the centromere and condense as the cell enters
Prophase I of meiosis.

 Up to this point, the cell looks similar to mitosis, but there are two events in meiosis that
do not occur in mitosis and lead to genetic diversity.

 The first event occurs during the Prophase I, when homologous pairs of sister
chromatids lie side by side in a process called “synapses” forming a tetrad or
bivalent. The homologous chromosomes share similar but not necessarily
identical genes.

 When this structure was already formed, a second event called "crossing over"
will occur. Physical interchange between chromosomes segments of non-sister
chromatids is associated with increasing genetic diversity. Prophase I
concludes with the fragmentation of the nuclear envelope as duplicate centriole
pairs move to opposite cell poles. As they move, the centrioles extend the
spindle fibers that form the meiotic spindle.

 In Prometaphase I with the paired centrioles in place, the meiotic spindle is fully
formed. Sister chromatids are attached to the spindle fibers by their kinetic force.
Here, another key difference between mitosis and meiosis occurs, due to synapses
and crossing over in meiosis, homologous chromosomes remain aligned so that a
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pair of sister chromatids are attached to only one pole by the kinetochore
 microtubules. In mitosis, each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber, the fiber
originates from opposite poles.

 During Metaphase I, the valence was randomly aligned along the metaphase plate.
This alignment is random due to an independent assortment and contributes to
genetic diversity.

 In Anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate and move towards opposite

poles.

 Meiosis I, comes to an end with Telophase I. When chromosomes D are condensed

and nuclear envelopes are reformed. Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasmic material
and the two daughter cells are separated by a cleavage (split) furrow. As the final
result of Meiosis I is two haploid cells.

MEIOSIS II

 Meiosis II begins without chromosomes going through another cycle of DNA

replication. Centrioles replicate again and continue to move to opposite poles of each
cell.

 In Prophase II, the sister chromatids condense as the spindle begins to form as the
nuclear envelope disappears.

 In Prometaphase II, the sister chromatids are attached to the spindle by the
kinetochore microtubules with the sister chromatids attached to opposite poles.

 The spindle aligns the sister chromatids along the metaphase plate during
Metaphase II.

 During Anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and the individual chromosomes
move towards the poles.

 The whole process ends with Telophase II, with chromosomes decondensed and
nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis occurs and the cleavage furrow separates the
two daughter cells into four haploid daughter cells.

 Haploid daughter cells specialize in either sperm or egg gametes. These fuse in
fertilization to form a zygote that will develop into a child, the child receives half of his
or her chromosomes from his or her mother and half from his or her father.
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  And since men and women produce millions of gametes and the selection of
gametes in fertilization is random, this leads to genetic diversity, which also
explains why a child is not the same or identical as his or her parent.

Why aren’t siblings identical?

Diversity comes from a variety of sources:

 In Prophase I, non-sister chromatids will exchange DNA through “crossing over”,

increasing the genetic diversity of individual chromatids.

 In addition to crossing over, in Metaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes

independently align along the metaphase plate and sort independently into the daughter
cells. This process, known as an independent assortment, produces four genetically
distinct haploid gametes.

 As the total number of chromosomes in the organism increases, the number of

genetically distinct gametes increases by two to the nth power. This means that an
organism with N equal to 3 can produce 8 unique gametes. For humans, where N is
equal to 23. There are 2 to 23rd power unique gametes formed or more than a million
different possible combinations.

The combination of independent assortment, crossing over and random pairing of

gametes during sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity and explains why a child would
not look exactly like his or her parents nor siblings.

TOPIC | Intro to Histology: The Four Tissue Types

Reference: ‌Corporis. (2020). Intro to Histology: The Four Tissue Types | Corporis
[YouTube Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=S59JwFCjNhc&feature=youtu.be

Histology – Anatomy at the Microscopic Level: With this, you can find a beautiful,
colorfully stained perspective of human anatomy that looks nothing like the macroscopic
version. You can also gain clinical insight into pathology and disease that you can better
appreciate through a microscope.
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  Four Tissue Types: Body has all these organs that do different tasks, and each organ
has different types of specialized tissue that do function inside of it. And of these tissues
is made up of specialized cells that work together to do their collective work.

a) Muscle Tissue: Found in skeletal muscles, heart, and around blood vessels.

(1) They are more distinct in the number of nuclei: only skeletal muscle will
have multiple nuclei that leaves cardiac and smooth. Intercalated discs
only found in cardiac muscle.
(2) Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. They differ in shape and layout.

 The skeletal muscle is the long, spindly stuff that you picture when you
hear muscle. It is a stripey, a parallel fiber, or a striation, much as when
you look at a slice of steak or chicken breast —that is skeletal. It also
has multiple nucleus per muscle fiber, these dark dots that make it easy
to identify. Separate bundles of muscle fibers are seen in the cross
section. Skeletal muscle has quite a bit of variety from sample to sample
because muscles have different shapes and arrangements, but there's
only one of the next muscles.

 Cardiac Muscle, another type of striated muscle located exclusively in

the heart. This is built to contract and send signals extremely quick, so
their structure reflects that. The cardiac muscle is more rectangular in
shape and has a single nucleus. Intercalated discs are its dead giveaway
(something that shows clearly). Intercalated discs are little passages that
open between cardiac cells and allow messages to pass quickly from cell
to cell.

 Smooth muscle surrounds organs that need to expand and constrict

like blood vessels, the uterus, and bladder. They are the smallest type of
muscle and are arranged into jumbled sheets, which allow them to
contract simultaneously. They are great squeezers, but they’d be
terrible biceps.

b) Nervous Tissue: Found in the brain, the spinal cord and nerves.

(1) Always spattered along epithelial tissue.

(2) It makes up some of nervous system organs like the brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves.
(3) It has the job of sensing stimuli from the outside environment and then
transmitting messages from your brain to elsewhere.
(4) Senses, brain, and reflexes use this type of tissue.
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(5) Two cell types: neurons and glial cells.

  Neurons are the superstars of the nervous system. They’ve got this
branching shape. These are the cells that transmit nervous impulses
around the body, whether in the brain or along nerves.

 Glia, any supporting cells in the nervous system that includes cells like
astrocytes, which, as the name implies, are star-shaped, and satellite cells
that, as the name implies, look like they orbit the cell body, or Schwann
cells that don't give us any fun mnemonics, but look like prosciutto-
wrapped cheese sticks.

c) Epithelial Tissue: Found in skin and organs.

(1) It makes up most of the skin and the borders between different organs.
(2) There is transitional epithelium, a jumble of epithelial cells around
organs like the bladder or urethra that lets them stretch.
(3) Epithelial tissue is often spattered (cover with spots or drops) with
nervous tissue.
(4) Pay attention to the shape and how many layers the cells do have.
(5) We name epithelial cells: layer style first then its shape (e.g. Simple
squamous or stratified cuboidal).

 In shapes, (1) cuboidal or cube shaped with a round little nucleus.

(2) Squamous, or a flat, squashed cell with a flat looking nucleus.
(3) Columnar, or column shaped. They won’t always be super
clean cut shapes, but for the most part, they’ll be one of these three
shapes and arranged in a few ways. Arranged, as in, arrangement
on their basement (basal membrane – a layer that sticks the
epithelial tissue to the tissues around them).

 Types of layers: Layers of simple epithelial cells sit right next to

each other in a nice, orderly line. (1) Stratified epithelial cells,
which are cells stacked on top of each other. (2) Stratified
squamous cells would look like layers of squished cells, like a
large stack of pancakes. (3) Pseudo-stratified cells (kinda
stacked, kinda not) which is an arrangement unique to columnar
cells. Their base is all in one layer, but their tops are uneven (it
looks like they’re in different layers, but they are not) like a bunch of
kids lined up after recess.

d) Connective Tissue: Almost anywhere else that involves stuff like cartilage and
tendons, but also in your bones and fat cells.
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 (1) The tendons and ligaments are some of the clear cut ones, but things like fat,
bone, and blood count as connective tissue as well.
(2) This includes extracellular matrix (ECM). This is the non-living material —
non-specialized fibers such collagen and elastin fibers that give connective
tissue some tensile strength, as well as the ground substance, which is this
liquid, intermediary substance in which the particles can be dissolved in.
(3) Three categories: loose, dense, or specialized. Their names suggest the
components where they are built from:

 Loose connective tissue is going to be very heavy on the ground

substance and a little lighter on the fibers.

 Dense connective tissue appears more like thick bundles of fibers with
less ground substance. Regardless of its density, it also has living cells.
For example, fibroblasts, cells that can support the extracellular matrix, but
you’ll also have immune cells dispersed around the ground substance too.

 Specialized connective tissue, e.g. Chondrocytes (collagen cells), which

maintain cartilage. Bone has specialized cells called osteoblasts that help
create bone and osteoclasts that resorb bone in a constant modeling
process. And fat, which counts as connective tissue, contains living cells in
it called adipocytes that store energy.

TOPIC | Phases of Wound Healing Explained - How a Cut Becomes a Scar

Reference: Corporis. (2018). Phases of Wound Healing Explained - How a Cut Becomes a
Scar | Corporis [YouTube Video]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgc11n-Bw00&feature=youtu.be

Wound healing: Bear in mind two things — (1) timeframe (when these things happen)
and if you've got a cut that just doesn't seem to want to shut down, these times are
relative; the second is the (2) actual purpose behind all the chemicals and names.
Always think about the bigger picture rather than just memorizing things— take a mangled
piece of skin (of portal of disease and infection) and returning it back to something useful.
(1) Injury doesn’t always mean to be a cut, it could be a stab wound, or a paper cut but it
could also be something from the inside out like a cold sore (labial herpes) or a lesion. (2)
Once your body detected a break in the skin, the party begins. (3) If there is a lot of blood
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gushing out of a laceration then the first thing that you want to do is you know make sure
 you stop losing all that blood. Getting an infection will kill you but losing all your blood at
once, it will kill you way faster.

i. PHASE 1 - Hemostasis: (1) Your body’s main priority is stopping that blood from
leaking which is exactly what phase 1 or hemostasis (hemo=blood; stasis=stoppage
or blood stoppage). If you had a bunch of liquid gushing out of a hose you’d
probably think to cover it up immediately. Just like your body does with a blood clot
like a scab. As soon as those superficial blood vessels are broken, some chemicals
hidden in the endothelium (the lining of the blood vessels), start clumping together
with platelets in the blood to make the first part of the blood clot that’s your first line
of defense. (2) However, your body beefs up that plug with a protein called fibrin
which twists and locks together to form a way more stable plug. Once that plug is
firmly in place, your body can start to relax a little bit. It realizes that it’s probably not
gonna die today from blood loss. But it does still need to deal with the fact that the
insides were just open to the outsides. Body tried to plug up the cut but for anything
that got through in the seconds to hours before the clot formed, body calls immune
system.
ii. PHASE 2 – Inflammatory: Happens hours to days after the event. In this phase,
it’s all about finding and destroying the bad guys. (1) Get vasodilation which is
expansion of the blood vessels and increased vascular permeability. There’s a little
bit more porousness in blood vessels in order to let good stuff in. At this point,
platelet plug comes in handy again, it releases chemical directly from the injury site
to trigger the immune system to get to work. First on the scene are neutrophils
(white blood cells that destroy bacteria and do a little bit of picking up after
themselves that’s usually 24 hours to 3 days after injury. If it’s an easy job and
they’re not needed anymore they kill themselves off. They are replaced by some big
boys called macrophages which get in there and keep cleaning up all while this is
happening these immune cells are excreting cytokines (chemical messengers that
tell the rest of the body if the immune system needs some backup. If that infection is
a little bit worse than usual because of more pathogens or because off more dead
necrotic tissue laying around. Those macrophages will stay around a little bit longer
just devouring debris. Once the inflammation process is done, that means that
those macrophages and a couple other spots in the immune system can start
backing off which hopefully means that we’re starting to finally return to normal
function again.
iii. PHASE 3 – PROLIFERATION: This is the repair phase. During hemostasis and
inflammation, we were concerned with not dying (they didn’t bleed out and they
survived infection). Because of our priorities we weren’t super worried about the
strength and appearance of injured skin. (1) Fill the wound, literall just laying down
strands of ugly red connective tissue. It doesn’t need to be pretty, it just need to be
stronger than a scab. With filling in place, start tucking the edges of the wound close
togetherand once the edges start coming in together in the middle, replace that red
gunk with epithelial cells (normal surface level skin). If the injury is minor, then the
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body can skip the first couple steps and jump right to laying down new epithelial
 cells. This phase takes from four to 24 days to complete, which seems like an
annoying amount of time to deal with a scab but as far as your body is
concernedthat’s completely fine. The point of proliferation phase is to lay the basis
for phase four.
iv. PHASE 4 – THE MATURATION: It is by far the longest part of the process and it’s
hard to say when it actually ends. It usually begins about three weeks after the cut
but it can end anywhere from like two years later. It’s so hard to define, the scar
that’s left afterwards will be weaker that the original skins.. so it’s hard to say when
the process is quote finished. During the repair phase, body lays down all those
strands of collagen and just a hot mess of a pile but during maturation phase, the
body untangled them to make the skin stronger. When you move that specific skin,
you realign the collagen fibers in the direction you pull which makes for a cleaner
stronger scar. If you’ve ever had a surgery and been told to massage the scar
afterwards that’s why because yu’re literally realigning the fibers within the scar to
make them stronger and again while the scar won’t ever be as strong as the original
skin at least now in this phase it’s getting towards where it’s going to be. Now, there
are a bunch of factors that determine how long this process takes, from how clean
you keep the cut to how much iron you have in your diet.

‌
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