energies
Article
Conceptual Study of Vernier Generator and Rectifier
Association for Low Power Wind Energy Systems
Philippe Enrici 1, * , Ivan Meny 2 and Daniel Matt 1






Citation: Enrici, P.; Meny, I.; Matt, D.
Conceptual Study of Vernier
Generator and Rectifier Association
for Low Power Wind Energy Systems.
Energies 2021, 14, 666. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14030666
Academic Editor: Adolfo Dannier
Received: 14 December 2020
Accepted: 25 January 2021
Published: 28 January 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 666. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030666
1 Institut d’Electroniques et des Systèmes (IES)-CNRS UMR 5214, Université de Montpellier,
34095 Montpellier, France; daniel.matt@umontpellier.fr
2 Département Génie Electrique Informatique Industrielle, Université de Rouen-Normandie,
76130 Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; ivan.meny@univ-rouen.fr
* Correspondence: Philippe.enrici@umontpellier.fr
Abstract: In this paper, we study a wind energy conversion system designed for domestic use in
urban or agricultural areas. We first present the turbine, which was specifically designed to be
installed on the buildings that it supplies. Based on turbine characteristics, we perform analytical
sizing of a Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine (PMVM), which will be used as a generator in our
energy conversion system. We show the influence of this generator on system operation by studying
its association with a PWM rectifier and with a diode bridge rectifier. We then seek to improve
generator design so that the turbine operates closely to maximum power points, while using a simple
and robust energy conversion system. We use simulation to show the improvements achieved by
taking into account the entire energy conversion system during machine design.
Keywords: converter–machine association; direct drive machine; Permanent Magnet Vernier Ma-
chine; synchronous generator; wind energy system for domestic applications; renewable energy
1. Introduction
Concurrently with the increasing existence of wind farms offering power of several
megawatts [1], the expansion of small wind turbines can also be observed, with power
ranges from 1 to 50 kW [2–4]. When associated with other energy sources, these turbines
can provide a self-sufficient supply of power for a home or remote location. As such, they
avoid costly, or even impractical, connections to the grid, which can actually be a significant
source of energy loss with regard to the power transmitted over the line.
In electrical installations already connected to the grid, small turbines help reduce the
relatively low efficiency of centralized production, while increasing the share of renewable
energies in electric power production. In addition, their smaller footprints, and the fact
that they are not grouped in wind farms, reduce visual impact, which is one of the greatest
reasons for opposing the development of this energy source. However, if the risk of
nuisance is rather low in rural areas, turbines must be designed specifically for use in urban
areas, so as to be both acoustically and visually discreet.
In this article, we study the entire energy conversion system associated with a wind
turbine designed specifically for use in urban areas. This system includes a Vernier machine,
which is considered as a suitable alternative for direct-drive applications. The performance
of this machine has already been the subject of several studies, but its integration in an
electromechanical conversion system has not been investigated thoroughly. Our objective
in this paper is to design a Vernier machine to extract a maximum amount of energy from
the turbine by implementing a simple and robust energy conversion system. To reach this
goal, we are particularly interested in the association of the Vernier machine with a diode
bridge rectifier.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 2. The Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
In order to meet market requirements for small wind turbines designed to be used i
urban
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW areas, the Gual Industrie Company has developed a vertical axis turbine [5], 2 of th
21
Energies 2021, 14, 666 StatoEolian, shown in Figure 1. This wind turbine is located in Occitanie 2region of 20 in th
south of France. This turbine is comprised of an external stator surrounding a paddle ro
tor. The stator channels the wind at its optimal force onto the rotor. Performance improve
2. The Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
2.ment
The In
requiresAxis
Vertical
order to
a thorough
Wind
meet
study of the interactions between the different geometric pa
Turbine
market requirements for small
rameters of the turbine. An important quality of thiswind turbines
device is thatdesigned to be used
it even remains operain
urban In areas,
order to
themeet market
Gual requirements
Industrie Company for small
has wind turbines
developed a designed
vertical to be
axis used [5], the
turbine
tional
in urbaninareas,
severe
thestorms.
Gual
StatoEolian, shown in Industrie
Figure 1.Company
This wind has turbine
developed is alocated
verticalinaxis turbine [5],
Occitanie the in the
region
StatoEolian, shown in Figure 1. This wind turbine is located in Occitanie region in the
south of France. This turbine is comprised of an external stator surrounding a paddle ro
south of France. This turbine is comprised of an external stator surrounding a paddle rotor.
tor. The stator
The stator channels
channels the windtheatwind at its optimal
its optimal force
force onto onto Performance
the rotor. the rotor. Performance
improvement improve
ment requires a thorough study of the interactions between the different
requires a thorough study of the interactions between the different geometric parameters geometric pa
rameters of the
of the turbine. Anturbine.
important Anquality
important quality
of this deviceof
is this
that device is that itoperational
it even remains even remains in opera
tional
severe in severe storms.
storms.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) The vertical axis turbine installed on a house; (b) the wind turbine.

2.1. Characterization of the Turbine

A measurement campaign over several weeks made by the laboratory enabled us t
model the aerodynamic
(a) torque TT (in Nm) developed by(b)
the turbine as a function of win
speed Sw (in m/s), and of rotation speed NT (in rpm):
Figure
Figure 1.1.(a)
(a)The
Thevertical
vertical axis
axis turbine
turbine installed
installed on a on a house;
house; (b) the(b) theturbine.
wind wind turbine.

2.1. Characterization of the Turbine TT  1.5  SW2  0.275  NT  SW (1

2.1. Characterization of the Turbine
AThis
measurement
model was campaign
used toover several
deduce weeks made(Figure
torque/speed by the laboratory enabled us to(Figure 3
model
Athe
measurement
aerodynamic
campaign
torque T
over
(in Nm)
several weeks
developed by
made
the
by2)the
turbine
and
as a
power/speed
laboratory
function
enabled us to
of wind
characteristics
model for wind speedsT ranging from 6 m/s to 22 m/s.
speed Sthe aerodynamic torque TT (in Nm) developed by the turbine as a function of wind
w (in m/s), and of rotation speed NT (in rpm):
speedUnlike horizontal
Sw (in m/s), and ofaxis turbines,
rotation speed the
NTtorque value is particularly high when the tur
(in rpm):
bine starts, and it decreases when the
2 rotation speed rises. A more classical bell-shape
TT = 1.5 · SW − 0.275 · NT · SW (1)
TT  1.5  SW2 One
curve is observed for power characteristic.  0.275 NT main
of the SW purposes of the energy con (1
This model was used to deduce torque/speed (Figure 2) and power/speed (Figure
version system, associated with the turbine, will therefore be to keep its working point a 3)
closeThis model
characteristics was
for wind
as possible used
speeds
to the toranging
maximumdeduce torque/speed
from
power 6points 22(Figure
m/s to(dotted 2) and
m/s. curve power/speed
in Figure 3). (Figure 3
characteristics for wind speeds ranging from 6 m/s to 22 m/s.
Unlike horizontal axis turbines, the torque value is particularly high when the tur
bine starts, and it decreases when the rotation speed rises. A more classical bell-shaped
curve is observed for power characteristic. One of the main purposes of the energy con
version system, associated with the turbine, will therefore be to keep its working point as
close as possible to the maximum power points (dotted curve in Figure 3).

Figure2.2.Turbine
Figure Turbine torque
torque for wind
for wind speeds
speeds ranging
ranging from 6from 6 m/s
m/s to to 22 m/s.
22 m/s.

Figure 2. Turbine torque for wind speeds ranging from 6 m/s to 22 m/s.
 Energies
Energies 2021,
2021, 14,x 666
14, FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20 3 of 2

Figure3.3.Turbine
Figure Turbinepower forfor
power wind speeds
wind ranging
speeds from 6from
ranging m/s6tom/s
25 m/s.
to 25 m/s.

Unlike horizontal axis turbines, the torque value is particularly high when the turbine
2.2. Generator for the Middle Wind Turbine Characterization of the Turbine
starts, and it decreases when the rotation speed rises. A more classical bell-shaped curve
The gearbox
is observed is acharacteristic.
for power significant cause
One ofofthe
breakdown in a wind
main purposes of the turbine, and therefore re
energy conversion
quires maintenance operations to prevent or correct these failures. This last
system, associated with the turbine, will therefore be to keep its working point as point
close as is par
possible
ticularlytoproblematic
the maximuminpower points
the case of (dotted curve
domestic in Figure 3). where users are not likely to
installations,
possess the skills needed for repairs. The installation could thus be out-of-order for a rel
2.2. Generator for the Middle Wind Turbine Characterization of the Turbine
atively long time, particularly in a remote area.
The gearbox is a significant cause of breakdown in a wind turbine, and therefore
The entire energy conversion system must be sturdy. It can face extreme conditions
requires maintenance operations to prevent or correct these failures. This last point is
such as violent
particularly winds, possibly
problematic in the casewithout any people
of domestic being where
installations, present to perform
users a safety shut
are not likely
down.
to possessTothemeet these
skills constraints,
needed and
for repairs. Thetoinstallation
ensure operation
could thus of be
theout-of-order
turbine without
for a failure
for as long as possible, the gearbox is
relatively long time, particularly in a remote area. generally oversized in domestic wind turbines. As
a result, the gearbox
The entire price rises system
energy conversion and itsmustintegration
be sturdy.into theface
It can wind energy
extreme system becomes
conditions,
such
moreasdifficult.
violent winds,
Anotherpossibly without
solution is toany people being
eliminate present to
the gearbox byperform
using aa direct-drive
safety shut- gener
down.
ator. To meet these constraints, and to ensure operation of the turbine without failure
for asTo
long as possible,
make the gearbox
a generator with aishigh
generally oversized in domestic
torque-to-weight wind turbines.
ratio, essential As a
for implementing
result, the gearbox price rises and its integration into the wind energy system becomes more
a direct-drive, we propose to use a Surface Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine
difficult. Another solution is to eliminate the gearbox by using a direct-drive generator.
(SPMVM).
To makeInathis machine,
generator withthe high
a high torque featureratio,
torque-to-weight is brought about
essential by the so-called
for implementing a “mag
netic gearing
direct-drive, weeffect”:
proposeatosmall
use amovement
Surface Permanentof the rotor
Magnet induces
VernieraMachine
large change
(SPMVM).in flux,
In which
results in high torque.
this machine, the high torque feature is brought about by the so-called “magnetic gearing
Byataking
effect”: into account
small movement therotor
of the highinduces
value of meanchange
a large wind speeds recorded
in flux, which at the
results in turbine
high torque.
installation site, as well as the dimensioning variables of the generator, we calculated its
ratedByvalues
takingforintoa account the high
wind speed of 19 value
m/s.of mean wind speeds recorded at the turbine
installation site, as well as the dimensioning
The choice of this wind speed was made variables
basedofonthethe
generator,
wind speedwe calculated
readingsits at the site
rated values for a wind speed of 19 m/s.
where the vertical axis wind turbine is installed. This location is one of the windiest French
The choice of this wind speed was made based on the wind speed readings at the
regions
site where with
the 300 to 350
vertical axisdays
windofturbine
wind is per year. The
installed. Thiswind is gusty,
location is onewith
of thelarge wind varia
windiest
tions and up to maximum wind speeds of 24 m/s. The energetic
French regions with 300 to 350 days of wind per year. The wind is gusty, with large wind study allowed the deter
mination of
variations andthe
upmost interesting
to maximum windpeak wind
speeds of speed
24 m/s.forThetheenergetic
dimensioning. The choice
study allowed the of this
wind speed could
determination of the have been lower
most interesting butwind
peak the aim
speedwas
foralso in the case of The
the dimensioning. thischoice
turbineof to show
this wind speed could have been lower but the aim was also in the case
its ability to operate under high wind speeds. For other sites the choice of this peak speedof this turbine to
show
must its
beability to operate under high wind speeds. For other sites the choice of this peak
predetermined.
speedWe must be predetermined.
thus obtained:
We thus obtained:
 rated torque TTn = 270 Nm;
• rated torque TTn = 270 Nm;
• ratedspeed
rated speedNN Tn = 54 rpm;
Tn = 54 rpm;
• ratedpower
rated power PTn= =1.51.5
PTn kW.
kW.
ies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Energies 2021, 14, 666 4 of 20

3. The Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine

3.1. Principle of Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine
3. The Permanent
The Permanent Magnet Vernier Magnet Vernier(PMVM)
Machine Machineis an interesting alternative to a
conventional3.1.Permanent
PrincipleMagnet Synchronous
of Permanent Machine
Magnet Vernier (PMSM). It is less well known de-
Machine
spite being the subject of many studies [6–10].
The Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine (PMVM) is an interesting alternative to a
PMVMsconventional
allow attainment of high Magnet
Permanent mass torques of interest
Synchronous to obtain
Machine direct drive
(PMSM). It is gen-
less well known
erators suitable for low-speed vertical axis turbines
despite being the subject of many studies [6–10]. used in proximity to wind turbines.
They are also efficient
PMVMs for horizontal axis wind
allow attainment turbines
of high masscompared
torques of to interest
synchronous ma- direct drive
to obtain
chines with agenerators
large number of poles.
suitable The PMVMs
for low-speed verticalhave
axis sinusoidal
turbines used electromotive
in proximityforce to wind turbines.
(e.m.f.) and the torque
They ripple
are also is almost
efficient zero.
for horizontal axis wind turbines compared to synchronous machines
The manufacturing
with a large cost
numberandofreliability
poles. The ofPMVMs
a PMVM is identical
have sinusoidal to electromotive
that of a conven- force (e.m.f.) and
tional synchronous machine. The objective
the torque ripple is almost zero. of the rest of the article is to show the interest
of associating a PMVM with a diode rectifier
The manufacturing cost andwhose association
reliability of a PMVM has been optimized.
is identical to thatThus,
of a conventional
the economicsynchronous
cost and reliability
machine.of the
Theunit are interesting
objective of the rest for of
an the
urban or rural
article is toenviron-
show the interest of
ment for small powers. a PMVM with a diode rectifier whose association has been optimized. Thus, the
associating
The Permanent
economic Magnet
cost andVernier Machine
reliability weunit
of the present in this article
are interesting for(PMVM)
an urbanisor anrural
evo-environment
for smallReluctance
lution of the Vernier powers. Machine (VRM).
The Permanent
The polar coupling Magnet
in a permanent Vernier
magnet Machine
machine we present
is defined when the in this article (PMVM) is an
fundamental
interaction ofevolution
currents andof the Verniertakes
magnets Reluctance
place atMachine
the pole (VRM).
pitch level, which is the repeat-
ing pattern of the The
statorpolar coupling
winding. Theintoothed
a permanent
coupling magnet machine
is defined when is defined when the fundamental
the fundamental
interaction ofinteraction
currents and of currents
magnetsand magnets
takes place attakes place pitch
the tooth at the scale,
pole pitch
which level,
is thewhich
lengthis the repeating
between twopattern of thethe
slots. When stator winding.
winding The toothed
is distributed, the coupling
actuator has is defined
two forms when the fundamental
of cou-
interaction
pling: a toothed type andofa currents andThis
polar type. magnets
machinetakes placecalled
is also at theatooth
Vernierpitch scale,
effect which is the length
machine
[11]. between two slots. When the winding is distributed, the actuator has two forms of coupling:
As shown in Figure 4, the rotor teeth row of the VRM has been replaced by an alter-machine [11].
a toothed type and a polar type. This machine is also called a Vernier effect
nate magnets rowAs to shown
obtain thein Figure
VRMM. 4, the rotor teeth row of the VRM has been replaced by an alternate
magnets row to obtain the VRMM.

Figure
Figure 4. Principle Principle ofMagnet
4. Permanent
of the the Permanent
Vernier Magnet Vernier Machine.
Machine.

In a motor, the torque is produced by the interaction of stator and rotor magnetic
In a motor, the torque is produced by the interaction of stator and rotor magnetic
fields. For its two machines the winding is identical, we have a polyphase winding with
fields. For its two machines the winding is identical, we have a polyphase winding with
pairs of p poles distributed with NS number of slots.
pairs of p poles distributed with NS number of slots.
In the PMVM, the tooth pitch is nearly equal to mechanical pitch, defined as the angle
In the PMVM, the tooth pitch is nearly equal to mechanical pitch, defined as the angle
covered during an electric period. The number of rotor magnet pairs NR is different from
covered during an electric period. The number of rotor magnet pairs NR is different from
the number of stator teeth NS . The condition to be met is:
the number of stator teeth NS. The condition to be met is:

p S − NR | = p
N S  N R | N (2)
(2)
Energies 2021, 14, 666 5 of 20

Moreover, the electrical frequency f of the PMVM is uniquely linked to the number of
pairs of magnets NR , as seen in the following formula:

1 N · ΩR
f = = R (3)
T 2π
with ΩR is the rotor speed in rd/s.
The PMVM is a tooth coupling machine. However, the study of this type of machine
is identical to that of a conventional synchronous machine. From the Maxwell tensor we
can write for the expression of the torque:
Z
2
Tem = KV · Re · L · b1an · λ1 · dθ (4)
2π

The dimensions Re and L of expression (4) represent the air gap radius and iron length.
The coefficient Kv , the speed ratio, is called the Vernier Ratio. This coefficient is difference
between the stator field speed and the rotor speed. The stator field speed ΩS is:
ω
ΩS = (5)
p

The rotor speed ΩR is:

ω
ΩR = (6)
NR
We obtain:
ΩS N
= KV = R (7)
ΩR P
We use for our study the linear density of current, λ1 , equivalent to stator winding.
The periodicity for λ1 is equal to 2π/p, which we express as:

λ1 = A1 · cos( p · θ) (8)

The amplitude A1 of the linear density depends on the current in the slot, the winding
coefficient and the shape of the slot. The stator air gap permeance has equal to 2π/NS .
The air gap magnetomotive force created by the magnet has a periodicity equal to
2π/|NS − NR |. The fundamental field component b1an can be expressed as follows:

b1an = k1 · M · cos(( NS − NR ) · θ) (9)

with M as the Remanent flux density of magnet. The coefficient k1 , which defines the field
amplitude b1an (θ), is deduced using the finite element [10]. Its value, which depends on
the ratios of the dimensional proportion parameters, is generally between 0.1 and 0.2.
In the PMVM, the increase in operating frequency allows a gain on the mass–power
ratio at very low speed compared to a PMSM.

3.2. Example of Permanent Magnet Vernier Machine Prototype

The Figure 5 shows an example of a prototype designed to simulate a Vernier effect
generator for an energy conversion system.
This prototype has the following characteristics:
• p = 2;
• Ns = 24 stator teeth;
• Nr = 22 pairs of magnets;
• Xs synchronous inductance: 61.2 mH;
• The electromotrice force (e.m.f.) amplitude varies linearly with the rotating speed
(emf coefficient: 0.825 V/rad/s).
 Energies 2021, 14, 666 6 of 20
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

(a)
(b)
Figure 5. (a) Stator of the Vernier machine; (b) rotor of the Vernier machine.

This prototype has the following characteristics:

 p = 2;
 Ns = 24 stator teeth;
 Nr = 22 pairs of magnets;
 (a)
Xs synchronous inductance: 61.2 mH; (b)
 The electromotrice force (e.m.f.) amplitude varies linearly with the rotating spee
Figure
Figure 5.5.(a)
(a)Stator
Statorofof
thethe Vernier
Vernier machine;
machine; (b) rotor
(b) rotor of theof the Vernier
Vernier machine.
machine.
(emf coefficient: 0.825 V/rad/s).
AA
particularity of the
particularity ofVernier machine
the following
Vernier is that its
machine is fem
thatisits
sinusoidal. There is an There
fem is sinusoidal. e.m.f. of
is an e.m
This prototype has the characteristics:
the prototype on Figure 6.
of the prototype on Figure 6.
 p = 2;
 Ns = 24 stator teeth;
 Nr = 22 pairs of magnets;
 Xs synchronous inductance: 61.2 mH;
 The electromotrice force (e.m.f.) amplitude varies linearly with the rotating speed
(emf coefficient: 0.825 V/rad/s).
A particularity of the Vernier machine is that its fem is sinusoidal. There is an e.m.f
of the prototype on Figure 6.

Figure
Figure Electromotive
6. 6. forceforce
Electromotive (e.m.f.) induction
(e.m.f.) of Vernier
induction machinemachine
of Vernier at 1000 rpm and frpm
at 1000 = 367 Hz.f = 367 Hz.
and
4. Sizing of Generator
4. Sizing of Generator
4.1. Introduction
4.1.Precise
Introduction
calculation of the working of the generator can only be achieved with the
Precise method.
finite elements calculation of thehere
However, working
we useofanalytic
the generator
relations can
withonly be of
the aim achieved
making with th
many
finitecalculations and making
elements method. some comparisons
However, here we use between analytic the Vernierwith
relations structure
the aimandof makin
synchronous machines with many poles. Most of these analytic relations
many calculations and making some comparisons between the Vernier structure and sy can be found
inchronous
[10]. In particular,
machines forwith
the calculation of the torque, we use the relation:
Figure 6. Electromotive force many
(e.m.f.)poles. Most
induction ofof these
Vernier analytic
machine relations
at 1000 rpmcanandbef =found in [10
367 Hz.
In particular, for the calculation Tem =of 4the
· π torque,
· R3e · K f we
· FS use the relation: (10)
4. Sizing of Generator 3
Tem  4 as
Re : bore radius (m) and Kf , form-factor, defined Re ratio:
  the  K f  L/(2R
FS (1
e ), L being the lamina-
4.1. Introduction
tions’ length.
Re: For
bore radius
Precise
the (m) and
calculation
synchronous ofKthe
f, form-factor,
machine, working ofdefined
if the machine as the
theisgenerator
driven so ratio: L/(2Rbe
e), achieved
canelectromagnetic
that only L being the
force lamin
with the
tions’
finite length.
FS is inelements
phase withmethod.
current:However, here we use analytic relations with the aim of making
√
many For the synchronous
calculations and making machine, if the
2 machine
some comparisons is driven
between thesoVernier
that electromagnetic for
structure and syn
FS = · M · λ0 (11)
F is in phase with current:
chronous machines with many poles. Most
S 2 of these analytic relations can be found in [10]
M:
In particular, for the calculation of0 the torque, we of
remanence of rotor magnets (T); λ : length density current
use (A/m), connected to the
the relation:
armature magnetic field.
For the Vernier structure: Tem  4    Re3  K f  FS (10
a
FS = M · defined
Re: bore radius (m) and Kf, form-factor, · H · Kas
S the ratio: L/(2Re), L being (12)
the lamina
a+e
tions’ length.
For the synchronous machine, if the machine is driven so that electromagnetic force
FS is in phase with current:
 For the Vernier structure:
M: remanence of rotor magnets (T); λ0: length density of current (A/m), connected to th
armature magnetic field. a
FS  M   H  KS (12
For the Vernier structure: ae
Energies 2021, 14, 666 7 of 20
a: thickness of magnets (m); e: air gap (m); H: magnetic a field density of armature reaction
FS  M   H  KS (12
(A/m); KS: coupling coefficient, function of the a waveform
e of feed currents and of the geo
metric proportions of the machine structure.
a: thickness of magnets (m); e: air gap (m); H: magnetic field density of armature reaction
a: thickness
We can of define
magnetsan(m); e: air gap (m);
elementary H: magnetic
domain, field density
as in Figure 7. Thisoflast
armature
one isreaction
a repetitive cel
(A/m); K
(A/m); KS:: coupling
coupling coefficient,function
coefficient, functionofofthe
the waveform
waveform of of feed
feed currents
currents and and of the geo
of the
of the structure. It contains a stator slot and one alternate magnet couple [11].
S
metric proportions of the machine structure.
geometric proportions of the machine structure.
Wecan
We can define
define an elementary
an elementary domain,
domain, as in Figure
as in Figure 7. This
7. This last one islast one is a cell
a repetitive repetitive
of cel
of the structure. It contains a stator slot and one alternate magnet couple [11].
the structure. It contains a stator slot and one alternate magnet couple [11].

Figure 7. Magnet–slot interaction in the elementary domain.

FigureThis elementary
7. Magnet–slot domain
interaction is elementary
in the defined by five dimensional
domain. parameters which have L
Figure 7. Magnet–slot interaction in the elementary domain.
domain length (from slot to slot), a = magnet thickness, lf = slot width, e = air gap thickness
This elementary domain is defined by five dimensional parameters which have
and h = domain height. We have the normalized domain with α, ε, ʌ and s. It has been
This elementary
L = domain length (fromdomain is defined
slot to slot), by five
a = magnet dimensional
thickness, parameters
lf = slot width, e = which
air gaphave L
demonstrated that the average tangential force for an elementary domain can be written
domain length
thickness, and h (from slotheight.
= domain to slot),We
a =have
magnet thickness, lf
the normalized = slot width,
domain with α, eε,=2air
andgap thickness
s. It
as:
has been demonstrated that the average tangential force for an elementary domain can be
and h = domain height. We have the normalized domain with α, ε, ʌ and s. It has been
written as:
demonstrated that the average tangential α force for an elementary domain can be written
FS = MF·S  M · H · KS H  K S (13) (13
as: α+ε 
We
Wehave
havethethe
characteristics on Figure
characteristics 8.
on Figure 8. 
FS  M   H  KS (13

We have the characteristics on Figure 8.

Figure8.8.Coupling
Figure Coupling coefficient
coefficient KS . KS.

4.2.
4.2.Estimate
Estimateofof
Losses andand
Losses Temperature
TemperatureRise Product
Rise Product
Figure 8. Coupling coefficient K S.
To design the generator driven by the vertical axis wind turbine, we performed
To design the generator driven by the vertical axis wind turbine, we performed ana
analytical sizing for a rapid overview of the different feasible PMVM with the rated values
lytical
T4.2.
sizingoffor
Estimate a rapid
Losses and overview
Temperature of Rise
the different
Product feasible PMVM with the rated value
Tn , NTn and PTn . The calculations are made by taking into account thrusts deduced from
TTn, NTn and
geometric, PTn. The calculations
electromagnetic, and thermal areconstraints.
made by taking into account thrusts deduced from
To design the generator driven by the vertical axis wind turbine, we performed ana
geometric,
Copper electromagnetic,
losses are calculatedand thermal
with the constraints.
relation (14) feasible PMVM with the rated value
lytical sizing for a rapid overview of the different
Copper losses are calculated with the relation (14)
TTn, NTn and PTn. The calculations are made by taking
mcopper into account thrusts deduced from
Pcopper = ρ · · J2 (14)
geometric, electromagnetic, and thermal constraints.
ρcopper
Copper losses are calculated with the relation (14)
ρ: copper resistivity (2 × 10−8 Ω·m); mcopper : copper mass in the machine (kg); ρcopper :
copper density (8.9 × 103 kg/m3 ); J: surface density of current in stator winding (A/m2 ).
Energies 2021, 14, 666 8 of 20

Core losses are calculated on the basis of data given for laminations designed to work
at 400 Hz, by using the relation given in [12], valid with sinusoidal waveforms:
  m
2
Piron = 4 · k · Bmax · f + 2 · π 2 · α · Bmax
2
· f 2 · iron (15)
ρiron

miron : laminations mass; ρiron : alloy density (7.6 × 103 kg/m3 ); f : rated frequency (Hz);
Bmax : maximum flux density in the laminations (1.5 T).
As the rated frequency is often next to 200 Hz, we will use 0.2 mm thick laminations.
With this thickness: α = 6.7 × 10−3 and k = 58.

4.3. Results of Analitical Sizing

In terms of the permanent magnet, Neodynium–Iron–Boron Magnets were chosen
because of their costs, lower specific weight and a mechanical strength much higher than
samarium cobalt.
The PMVM has straight teeth while the PMSM has slot isthmus, so to compare the
two machines we estimated the equivalent air gap for a PMSM without slot isthmus at a
value of 0.6 mm.
From the rated values of the generator, we calculate the possible solutions, by varying:
1. the form factor Kf ;
2. the number of slots per pole and per phase;
3. the number of stator poles;
4. λ0 (for the classical synchronous machine) or H (for the Vernier structure);
5. the thickness of magnets and by taking into account mechanic and electromagnetic
limiting factors;
6. demagnetization constraint of magnets;
7. slot pitch > 5 mm;
8. maximum frequency: e.g., 400 Hz;
9. thickness of the yoke;
10. current density in armature winding J < 5 A/mm2 .
The evolution of the torque/weight ratio as a function of the rated torque for a rated
power of 1.5 kW confirms that the performances of the Vernier machine stands out of those
of the synchronous machine all the more because the rated speed of the turbine is
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW low
9 of 21
(Figure 9). The same dimensioning can be done for a horizontal axis wind turbine or a
different power output.

Figure 9.
Figure Torque/weight ratio
9. Torque/weight ratio versus
versus rated
rated torque
torque for
for aa 1.5
1.5 kW-rated
kW-rated power.
power.

To analyze the results thus obtained, we plot the efficiency of the feasible solutions
as a function of their torque-to-weight ratio (Figure 10) for the PMVM, these two param-
eters being of prime importance for a direct drive.
Energies 2021, 14, 666 9 of 20

Figure 9. Torque/weight ratio versus rated torque for a 1.5 kW-rated power.

To analyze the results thus obtained, we plot the efficiency of the feasible solutions
To analyze the results thus obtained, we plot the efficiency of the feasible solutions as
as a function of their
a function of their torque-to-weight
torque-to-weight ratio
ratio (Figure
(Figure 10) 10) for the
for the PMVM,
PMVM, these
these twotwo param-
parameters
eters being of prime importance for a direct
being of prime importance for a direct drive. drive.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Feasible
Feasible solutions
solutions with
with T
TTn = 270 Nm and NTn = 54 rpm (analytical sizing).
Tn = 270 Nm and NTn = 54 rpm (analytical sizing).

With the chosen two objectives, the Pareto front links the solution with the highest
efficiency andand the
thesolution
solutionwith
withthe
thehighest
highesttorque/weight
torque/weightratio.
ratio.AsAsseen
seenininFigure
Figure
7, 7, there
there is
is a slight
a slight difference
difference of efficiency
of efficiency between
between the the
solution solutionthe
presenting presenting the highest
highest torque/weight
ratio and the solution
torque/weight ratio andwiththe
thesolution
highest efficiency. On the other
with the highest hand,On
efficiency. a small improvement
the other hand, a
in efficiency leads to a significant decrease in the torque/weight ratio. As a
small improvement in efficiency leads to a significant decrease in the torque/weight ratio. consequence, if
the asame
As weightingifisthe
consequence, given
sameto both objectives,
weighting the to
is given solution with the highest
both objectives, torque/weight
the solution with the
ratio is torque/weight
highest the more interesting
ratio is one to implement
the more interestingin one
our to
wind energy in
implement system.
our windTheenergy
main
characteristics
system. The main of the resulting machine
characteristics are listedmachine
of the resulting in Table 1.are listed in Table 1.
For comparison, we performed sizing on a conventional synchronous machine with
Table
the same1. Characteristics
rated values,ofalso
the solutions
maximizingwith the
the highest torque-to-weight
torque/weight ratio
ratio. The (analytical sizing).
torque/weight ratio
is twice as high with the SPMVM. However, we can note the low power factor of the Ver-
Designation Vernier Machine Synchronous Machine
nier machine, when it is close to one for the conventional machine.
RatedAsefficiency (%) the calculations are made
a reminder, 84 for a torque TTN = 270 N.m86and a rotation
Torque/weight ratio (Nm·kg) 22.7 11.8
speed NTN = 5 rpm.
Outer diameter (mm) 441 528
Inner diameter (mm) 410 484
Total length (mm) 109 107
Air gap (mm) 0.5 0.6
Total mass (kg) 11.9 22.8
Number of phases 3 3
Number of stator poles 26 102
Power factor 0.52 1
Rated frequency (Hz) 199 46
Force density (N/cm2 ) 1.17 0.71

For comparison, we performed sizing on a conventional synchronous machine with

the same rated values, also maximizing the torque/weight ratio. The torque/weight ratio is
twice as high with the SPMVM. However, we can note the low power factor of the Vernier
machine, when it is close to one for the conventional machine.
As a reminder, the calculations are made for a torque TTN = 270 N.m and a rotation
speed NTN = 5 rpm.
A characteristic of Vernier machines is that they have a lower power factor than
conventional synchronous machines. During motor operation it allows us to dimension
 Number of stator poles 26 102
Power factor 0.52 1
Rated frequency (Hz) 199 46
Force density (N/cm2) 1.17 0.71
Energies 2021, 14, 666 10 of 20
A characteristic of Vernier machines is that they have a lower power factor than con-
ventional synchronous machines. During motor operation it allows us to dimension the
power system. The over-sizing of the power system is largely compensated by the high
the power system. The over-sizing of the power system is largely compensated by the high
torqueofof
torque the
the actuator.
actuator.
With the SPMVM
With the SPMVM behaving
behaving externally
externally likelike a synchronous
a synchronous machine
machine without
without saliency.
saliency.
Theelectrical
The electrical model
model forfor
thisthis machine
machine is the
is the same same as that
as that of a of a classical
classical synchronous
synchronous magnet
magnet
machine.We
machine. Wehave
haveEEelectromotive
electromotiveforce
force(e.m.f.),
(e.m.f.),RsRsstator
statorresistance,
resistance,XsXs synchronous re-
synchronous
actance and
reactance and V single
single voltage
voltageatatthe
thestator
statorterminals.
terminals.
The
The Fresnel
Fresnel diagrams
diagrams obtained
obtained withwith a diode
a diode rectifier
rectifier and awith
and with Powera Power Wave Modu-
Wave Modula-
tion (PWM)
lation (PWM) rectifier are presented
rectifier in Figure
are presented 11. The
in Figure 11. phasors
The phasorsshown in theindiagrams
shown are are
the diagrams
fundamental
fundamental quantities.
quantities.

Figure 11. Fresnel diagram of the generator when associated with a rectifier.
Figure 11. Fresnel diagram of the generator when associated with a rectifier.
These diagrams show that a low power factor will require oversizing of the PWM
These
rectifier diagrams
to achieve the show
same that a low power
transmitted power.factor will require
Concerning oversizing
the diode of the
rectifier, thePWM
torque/weight ratios presented above were obtained by assuming that the e.m.f. was the
rectifier to achieve the same transmitted power. Concerning the diode rectifier,
intorque/weight
phase with theratios
statorpresented
current, soabove were obtained
the expected performance by assuming
will not bethat the e.m.f.
reached at thewas in
phase
rated with the stator current, so the expected performance will not be reached at the rated
current.
current.
As the low power factor of the generator is a drawback with the two usual types
of rectifiers,
As thewe lowwant to increase
power factor ofitsthe
value. With the
generator is aefficiency
drawback and torque/weight
with the two usual ratio,
types of
werectifiers, we want to increase its value. With the efficiency and torque/weightnow
then have three optimization objectives. To potentially identify others, we will ratio, we
consider
then havethe three
energy conversion system
optimization as a whole.
objectives. To potentially identify others, we will now con-
sider the energy conversion system as a whole.
5. Study of the Vernier Generator and Rectifier Association
5.1. Introduction
5. Study of the Vernier Generator and Rectifier Association
To investigate the association of the Vernier machine with the two types of rectifiers, we
5.1. Introduction
model the complete energy conversion system with Simulink. The turbine is simulated with
(1). TheToPMVM
investigate the association
is modeled of the Vernier
using the classical machine
relations with the twomachine,
of the synchronous types ofwith
rectifiers,
we model
some the complete
adaptations energy
to take its conversion
particularities system
into withThe
account. Simulink. Theare
converters turbine is simulated
represented
with (1). The PMVM is modeled using the classical relations of the synchronous
by average models. With experiments on a test bed [13], we have shown that the overall machine,
model offers a good estimate of the energy produced by the turbine, but that it is less
precise for converter and machine losses.
As a model of wind, we used a profile with a mean speed of 8 m/s and including
sharp variations, so as to study the dynamic behavior of the conversion system when
submitted to uneven wind gusts that commonly arise in urban areas (Figure 12).
We used the parameters given in Table 1 for the SPMVM. With an additional condition
imposing a 120-V phase voltage under rated speed, we calculated the parameters of the
machine’s electrical model:
• Back-emf coefficient: Ke = 11.3 V/rad/s
• Stator inductance: Ls = 10.4 mH
• Stator resistance: Rs = 1.12 Ω.
The rectifier associated with the generator can feed a DC link with a fixed or variable
voltage (see Figure 12). The load can be an accumulator, possibly fed by a chopper, or an
inverter connected to a local grid [14–17].
 with some adaptations to take its particularities into account. The converters are repre-
sented by average models. With experiments on a test bed [13], we have shown that the
overall model offers a good estimate of the energy produced by the turbine, but that it is
less precise for converter and machine losses.
Energies 2021, 14, 666 As a model of wind, we used a profile with a mean speed of 8 m/s and11including
of 20
sharp variations, so as to study the dynamic behavior of the conversion system when sub-
mitted to uneven wind gusts that commonly arise in urban areas (Figure 12).

Figure12.
Figure 12.Wind
Windprofile
profileused
usedforfor simulation
simulation and
and thethe wind
wind energy
energy conversion
conversion system.
system.

We used thethe
Considering parameters given inreactance
high synchronous Table 1 for thePMVM,
of the SPMVM.it isWith
betteran
toadditional condi-
use a voltage
tion imposing
source a 120-V
at the output phase
of the voltage
diode bridgeunder rated
rectifier. Wespeed, we calculated
thus obtain the parameters
phase currents that are of
naturally sinusoidal
the machine’s in themodel:
electrical machine and the total harmonic distortion of the stator voltage
is lower than with a smoothing inductor.
 Back-emf coefficient: Ke = 11.3 V/rad/s
StatorMachine
 Vernier
5.2. inductance:
PWMLsRectifier
= 10.4 Association
mH
 Statora resistance:
With Rs =we
PWM rectifier, 1.12can
Ω.drive the generator to maintain the operating point
of theThe
turbine closeassociated
rectifier to the maximum power
with the pointcan
generator locus (Figure
feed a DC3) [18–22].
link with aThe torque
fixed vs.
or variable
021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21
speed
voltagecharacteristic
(see Figureof theThe
12). turbine
loadbeing known,
can be we can use the
an accumulator, driving
possibly method
fed shown inor an
by a chopper,
Figure
inverter13.connected to a local grid [14–17].
Considering the high synchronous reactance of the PMVM, it is better to use a voltage
source at the output of the diode bridge rectifier. We thus obtain phase currents that are
naturally sinusoidal in the machine and the total harmonic distortion of the stator voltage
is lower than with a smoothing inductor.

5.2. Vernier Machine PWM Rectifier Association

With a PWM rectifier, we can drive the generator to maintain the operating point of
the turbine close to the maximum power point locus (Figure 3) [18–22]. The torque vs.
speed characteristic of the turbine being known, we can use the driving method shown in
Figure 13.

Figure
Figure 13. Driving method with13. Driving
a PWM method with a PWM rectifier.
rectifier.
From a speed measurement, the torque set point necessary to keep the working
From a speed measurement, the torque set point necessary to keep the working point
point of the turbine on the maximum power point locus is deduced. This value is used to
of the turbine on the maximum
calculate the statorpower
current point locusinisadeduced.
set point This value
rotating frame, is used
and the to calcu-
resulting control action is
late the stator transformed
current set back
pointtointhea stationary
rotating frame, and the resulting control action is
frame for execution. The working point trajectory of the
transformed back to the
turbine stationary
resulting fromframe for execution.
this control method isTheshownworking point
in Figure 14. trajectory of
the turbine resulting from this control method is shown in Figure 14.

Energies 2021, 14, 666
From a speed measurement, the torque set point necessary to keep the working poin
of the turbine on the maximum power point locus is deduced. This value is used to calcu
late the stator current set point in a rotating frame, and the resulting control action i
transformed back to the stationary frame for execution. The working point trajectory
12 of 20 o
the turbine resulting from this control method is shown in Figure 14.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Working
Working point
point trajectory
trajectory of theofturbine.
the turbine.

5.3. Vernier Machine Diode Rectifier Association

5.3. Vernier Machine Diode Rectifier Association
The diode bridge rectifier is an easy-to-use, low-cost, and sturdy converter, which is
The diode
what makes bridge
it a very rectifier
interesting is anforeasy-to-use,
choice low-cost, and
a domestic installation. sturdy
On the otherconverter,
hand, as it which i
iswhat
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
not amakes
driven it a very interesting
converter, it obviously choice
does notfor a domestic
make installation.
it possible On the other
to impose a working point hand,
13 of
a
onit is
thenot a driven
turbine. converter,theit energy
Consequently, obviously does not
conversion make
system mustit possible to as
be designed impose
a wholea workin
topoint
obtainona the turbine.
working Consequently,
point the energy
trajectory naturally, which conversion system
will come close to themust be designed
one shown in as
Figure
whole14. to obtain a working point trajectory naturally, which will come close to the on
5.3.1. Constant
shown in FigureDC-Link
14. Voltage
5.3.1. Constant DC-Link Voltage
In the case of constant DC-link voltage, the voltage value must be chosen to reach
In the case of constant DC-link voltage, the voltage value must be chosen to reach a
compromise.
compromise. ForFor a high
a high voltage
voltage value,
value, the diode
the diode bridgebridge will conduct
will conduct only for only for high-spee
high-speed,
low-power working points of the turbine. With a low voltage value, the working point of point
low-power working points of the turbine. With a low voltage value, the working
the
the turbine
turbine willwill settle
settle at low
at low speeds,
speeds, whichwhich also correspond
also correspond to low power.
to low power.
Therefore,
Therefore, there
there is anisoptimal
an optimal voltage
voltage value value with the
with which which the working
working point willpoint
settlewill sett
close to to
close thethe
maximum
maximum power pointpoint
power locuslocus
(Figure 15), thus
(Figure leading
15), to maximum
thus leading energy energ
to maximum
recuperation
recuperation (Figure 16). 16).
(Figure

Figure
Figure 15.15. Working
Working points
points for generator
for generator powerpower with several
with several constantconstant DC-link voltages.
DC-link voltages.
 Energies 2021, 14, 666 13 of 20

Figure 15. Working points for generator power with several constant DC-link voltages.

Figure
Figure 16.16. Working
Working points
points forfor generator
generator energy
energy withwith several
several constant
constant DC-link
DC-link voltages.
voltages.

IfIfwe
wepay
payattention
attentionto to
thethe
energy produced
energy produced by this conversion
by this system,
conversion depending
system, on on
depending
whether a diode bridge or a PWM rectifier is used, the difference is much
whether a diode bridge or a PWM rectifier is used, the difference is much more distinct more distinct for
high windwind
for high speeds: with the
speeds: with diode rectifier,
the diode when the
rectifier, when windthespeed
windrises,
speed the derivative
rises, of
the derivative
the generator torque with respect to the speed of rotation δTg/δΩ tends towards negative
of the generator torque with respect to the speed of rotation δTg/δΩ tends towards nega-
values. In that case, the working point becomes unstable and the turbine speed increases
tive values. In that case, the working point becomes unstable and the turbine speed in-
rapidly. The working point moves away from maximum power points and, if we refer
creases rapidly. The working point moves away from maximum power points and, if we
to what is produced with a PWM rectifier, the turbine is clearly under-exploited. As a 14 of 2
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
refer to whatwe
consequence, is cannot
produced
takewith a PWM
advantage of rectifier, the ability
the turbine’s turbinetoiswork
clearly
withunder-exploited.
strong winds. As
a consequence,
To illustrate whatwe cannot
happenstake underadvantage
high wind ofspeed
the turbine’s
conditions, ability
we usetoawork
wind with
profilestrong
winds
with the same shape as that in Figure 8, but with a mean value of 19 m/s, that is, the wind
is thewith
speed Tooptimal
whichvalue
illustrate wewhatfor an average
happens
determined under
the ratedwind
high speed
wind
values. With ofa DC-link
speed8 m/s, the
conditions,working
voltage we point
useV,
of 48 awhich
wind trajectory
isprofile o
the
with
the resulting
the same
optimal valueturbine
shape isthat
shown
for anasaverage inwindin speed
Figure Figure
8, butof17,
with and
8 m/s, theworking
a mean
the energy
value of collected
19 m/s,
point on is,
that
trajectory the DC-link
of the
the wind i
speed with
divided
resulting which
by more
turbine we determined
than
is shown four compared
in Figure theand
17, ratedthevalues.
tothe energy
energy With a DC-link
produced
collected with
on the voltage
a PWM
DC-link isofdivided
48 V, which
rectifier (Figur
by more
18). than four compared to the energy produced with a PWM rectifier (Figure 18).

Figure17.
Figure 17.Working
Working points
points for for generator
generator power
power withwith a diode
a diode bridge
bridge rectifier
rectifier for an average
for an average wind wind
speedofof1919
speed m/s
m/s (DC-link
(DC-link voltage
voltage = 48=V).
48 V).
Energies 2021, 14, 666 14 of 20
Figure 17. Working points for generator power with a diode bridge rectifier for an average wind
speed of 19 m/s (DC-link voltage = 48 V).

Figure
Figure 18.18. Working
Working points
points for generator
for generator energy
energy with awith a diode
diode bridgebridge
rectifierrectifier for an average
for an average wind wind
speed
speed of of
19 19
m/sm/s (DC-link
(DC-link voltage
voltage = 48 =V).
48 V).

5.3.2. Variable DC-Link Voltage

5.3.2. Variable DC-Link Voltage
As a starting point, we use the power expression on the generator output. From
As a starting point, we use the power expression on the generator output. From ther
there, we can obtain the expression of the DC bus voltage uDCM for which the generator
we can obtain
associated the expression
with a diode of the
bridge supplies DC buspower
maximum voltage uDCM
to the for Using
DC bus. whichthe
the generator ass
notation
ciated with a diode bridge supplies maximum power
from Figure 11 and with a unit power factor, we obtain: to the DC bus. Using the notatio
from Figure 11 and with a unit power factor, √ we obtain:
!
2
P = 3·V· I = 3· ·U ·I  (16)
π  DC2 
P  3 V  I  3   U DC  I (1
  
 
In addition, from Figure 8, diode rectifier, we can deduce the stator current (I):
In addition, from Figure 8,rdiode rectifier, we can deduce the stator current (I):
 2
K e ·ω
· R2S + XS2 − ( XS · V )2


−V · R S NR
I= 2 + (17)
RS + XS2 R2S + XS2

Ke being the e.m.f. coefficient of the PMVM.

Expression (16) thus becomes:
 s 
2
Ke · ω

V
· R2S + XS2 − ( XS · V )2 


P = 3· 2 ·  −V · R S + (18)
RS + XS2 NR

Differentiating this expression with respect to the DC bus voltage UDC, we deduce
that power P is maximum for UDCM :
 2 q q 
K e ·ω
NR · R2S + XS2 · R2S + XS2 − RS
2
UDCM = (19)
2 2
· XS2


π

If we note stator angular frequency ω, as XS 2 = (LS · ω)2 >> RS 2 , this expression

becomes:
 2
K e ·ω
NR · ( L S · ω − R S )  K e · ω · π 2  RS

2
UDCM = = · 1 − (20)
2 2 2 · NR LS · ω


π · L S · ω
Energies 2021, 14, 666 15 of 20

If the wind speed is 8 m/s, maximum turbine power is reached when N = 20 rpm.
At this operating point, the stator frequency is 68 Hz and it can be found with (20) that
the optimal DC bus voltage is about 48 V. If the wind speed reaches 19 m/s, the turbine’s
maximum power is obtained at nominal rotating speed, giving a stator frequency of 199 Hz.
An amount of 48 V as the DC bus value is no longer optimal: the new optimal voltage
UDCM is obtained from (20) and is about 96 V.
If we may vary the DC bus voltage, we can improve the operation of the energy
conversion system with a diode bridge, by adapting this voltage to the rotating speed.
However, this solution reduces simplicity, sturdiness, and does not bring significant im-
provement in power production. If we apply (18) with a voltage UDC = 96 V, the power is
about 470 W, which is much lower than the 1470 W that the turbine can potentially produce
when the wind reaches 19 m/s.

5.3.3. Machine Optimization for a Diode Bridge Rectifier

Using (18) and (20), we can plot the evolution of the maximum power versus speed
produced by the association of the generator and the diode bridge rectifier. Figure 19 is
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
obtained by using this plot and the characteristic giving the maximum power produced by 16 of 21
the turbine versus speed.

Figure Evolution
19.19.
Figure of the
Evolution maximum
of the power
maximum of the
power of generator and the
the generator andturbine.
the turbine.

There is a speed limit Nlim , beyond which the generator cannot transmit all the power
We can deduce Nlim or here Ωlim expression from the relation giving the maximum
produced by the turbine to the DC bus.
power of the turbine as a function of the rotating speed:
The generator’s rated values are specified for a wind speed of 19 m/s. Thus, among
the solutions plotted in Figure 10, we look  1 for a generatorR giving 3  a speed Nlim as near as
possible to 54 rpm (speed PM ofKthe   3
turbine   maximum
 C  S power
      3for
point  9this  3 speed in (21)
.4  wind
T
 2 popt T 3 
 opt 
Figure 3). 
We can deduce Nlim or here Ωlim expression from the relation giving the maximum
CPopt: of
power maximum power
the turbine coefficient
as a function of the
of the turbine:
rotating CPopt = 7.62/100; ST: turbine area “seen” by
speed:
the wind: ST = 4.5 m2; ρ: air density: ρ = 1.25 kg/m3! ; R: turbine rotor radius: R = 0.9 m; λ
represents the ratio: (R · Ω/S w), 1
Sw being the wind
R speed;3 λopt is the 3value of λ for which
3
PM = KT × Ω3 = · C popt · ST · ρ · 3 × Ω = 9.4 × Ω (21)
Cp = CPopt either λopt = 0.26. 2 λopt
From (18) and (20), we can then deduce the expression of the maximum power at the
CPopt : maximum
generator output power
as acoefficient
function of of speed,
the turbine: CPopt = 7.62/100;
and equate it to (22). SThe
T : turbine area “seen”
only coherent solution
2 3
byis:the wind: ST = 4.5 m ; ρ: air density: ρ = 1.25 kg/m ; R: turbine rotor radius: R = 0.9 m;
λ represents the ratio: (R · Ω/Sw ), Sw being the wind speed; λopt is the value of λ for which
Cp = CPopt either λopt = 0.26. 3
Ke 
RS
 1
 lim rd .s  2 
2  LS  N R
 1 1  1 2 (22)
K T  LS  N R

From this expression, we can make the following remarks:

 The second term of (22) is smaller than the first: using the simulation parameters
Energies 2021, 14, 666 16 of 20

From (18) and (20), we can then deduce the expression of the maximum power at the
generator output as a function of speed, and equate it to (22). The only coherent solution is:
q
3
  Ke · 2 RS
Ωlim rd.s−1 = √ − = Ω1 (1) − Ω1 (2) (22)
KT · LS · NR 2 · LS · NR

From this expression, we can make the following remarks:

• The second term of (22) is smaller than the first: using the simulation parameters
listed in introduction of Section 5, we find that the second term of the expression Ω1
(2) represents about 8% of the first one.
• Ke is proportional to the number of winding turns, and LS are proportional to the
number of turns squared. Thus, Ωlim is independent of this number of turns: changing
the winding cannot improve system operation. Thus, if we want to modify Ωlim , we
are interested at first by the first term Ω1 (1) of (22).
To obtain an expression of Ke and LS , we use the following relations:

Ur · PF
Ke = (23)
Ωr

with Ur : stator voltage at rated speed (Ur = 120 V), PF : power factor, Ωr : rated speed
(rad·s−1 ).
sin cos−1 ( PF ) · Ur


LS = (24)
2 · π · Ir · f r
fr rated frequency:
NR .Ωr
fr = (25)
2·π
Ir rated stator current:
Pr
Ir = (26)
3 · U · PF
Pr : rated power.
Using relations (23) to (26), we find that the first term in (22) can be written:
s
Pr · PF
Ω1 (1) = (27)
2 · KT · Ωr · sin(cos−1 ( PF ))

The application sets the rated values for power and rotating speed. Thus only the
power factor remains as a variable.
The second part of Equation (22) can be written as:

Pr · RS · Ωr
Ω1 (2) = (28)
6 · Ur2 · PF · Ωr · sin(cos−1 ( PF ))

Ω1 (2) being small in comparison with Ω1 (1), we can approximate that stator resistance
does not change from one machine to another. The stator voltage at rated speed Ur will
remain unchanged too. We can then plot Ωlim as a function of the power factor (Figure 19).
Ωlim increases far more quickly when the power factor is greater than 0.9. If we want
to obtain Ωlim = 54 rpm, we need a power factor equal to 0.928. However, the curve on
Figure 20 is plotted without imposing any limit on the machine stator current.
Using (18), we calculate that a machine with a power factor of 0.928, a rated power
of 1.5 kW, and a rated voltage of 120 V, would have a rated current of 4.5 A, but its
stator current would reach 7.5 A at the working point. So as to not oversize the machine,
among the solutions calculated in Table 1, we seek the solution that represents the best
compromise between efficiency and power factor while maintaining a high torque to
weight ratio (Figure 21).
 Ω1(2) being small in comparison with Ω1(1), we can approximate that stator resistance
does not change from one machine to another. The stator voltage at rated speed Ur will
remain unchanged too. We can then plot Ωlim as a function of the power factor (Figure 19).
Energies 2021, 14, 666 Ωlim increases far more quickly when the power factor is greater than 0.9. If
17we
of 20want
to obtain Ωlim = 54 rpm, we need a power factor equal to 0.928. However, the curve on
Figure 20 is plotted without imposing any limit on the machine stator current.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

Figure20.
Figure 20.Speed
Speedlimit
limit(Nlim)
(Nlim)versus
versus power
power factor
factor (PF).
(PF).

Using (18), we calculate that a machine with a power factor of 0.928, a rated power
of 1.5 kW, and a rated voltage of 120 V, would have a rated current of 4.5 A, but its stator
current would reach 7.5 A at the working point. So as to not oversize the machine, among
the solutions calculated in Table 1, we seek the solution that represents the best compro-
mise between efficiency and power factor while maintaining a high torque to weight ratio
(Figure 21).

Figure
Figure21.
21.Power
Power factor
factor of feasiblesolutions
of feasible solutionsversus
versusefficiency.
efficiency.

InTable
In Table 2, the chosen
chosensolution
solutionisiscompared
comparedtoto
the PMVM
the presented
PMVM in Table
presented 1. 1.
in Table

Table2.
Table Characteristics of
2. Characteristics of the
thesolutions
solutionswith
withthe
thehighest
highesttorque-to-weight ratio
torque-to-weight (analytical
ratio sizing).
(analytical sizing).

PMVM
PMVM PMVMPMVMOptimized
OptimizedforforAssoci-
Designation
Designation Optimizedforfor
Optimized Association with a Diode
ation with a Diode Bridge
Torque/Weight Ratio Bridge Rectifier
Torque/Weight Ratio Rectifier
Rated efficiency (%) 84 83.9
Rated efficiency (%)
Torque/weight ratio (Nm·kg)
84
22.7
83.9
18.6
Torque/weight
Outer diameter ratio
(mm) (Nm·kg) 22.7
441 18.6
453
Innerdiameter
Outer diameter (mm)
(mm) 410
441 420
453
Total length(mm) 109 121
Inner diameter (mm) 410 420
Air gap (mm) 0.5 0.5
Total length(mm)
Total mass (kg) 109
11.9 121
14.5
AirNumber
gap (mm)of stator poles 0.5
26 200.5
Power
Total massfactor
(kg) 0.52
11.9 0.8
14.5
Rated frequency (Hz) 199 99
Number of stator
Force density poles
(N/cm 2) 26
1.17 1.0620
Power factor 0.52 0.8
Rated frequency (Hz)
5.3.4. Improvement 199with a High Power Factor 99
Brought by the Generator
Force density (N/cm ) 2 1.17 1.06
To simplify the energy conversion system, we work with a constant DC voltage at the
rectifier output and, by using simulations, we try to evaluate the improvements that can
5.3.4. Improvement Brought by the Generator with a High Power Factor
To simplify the energy conversion system, we work with a constant DC voltage at
the rectifier output and, by using simulations, we try to evaluate the improvements that
can be expected in energy production with a machine optimized for association with a
Energies 2021, 14, 666 18 of 20

be expected in energy production with a machine optimized for association with a diode
bridge rectifier. In these simulations, we use, for every generator, the DC voltage calculated
using (20) for speed Ωlim : this voltage seems to be the most appropriate for maximum
energy production over the entire wind speed variation range. For the generator optimized
for the torque-to-weight ratio: UDC = 48 V, for the generator optimized for association with
the diode rectifier: UDC = 96 V.
With an average wind of 8 m/s, Figure 16 shows that the generator optimized by
considering the torque/weight ratio can produce the power with a PWM rectifier. In
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
comparison with this generator, we obtain 12% less power with the generator optimized 19 of 21
for association with the diode bridge (Figure 22).

Figure
Figure 22.
22.22. Energy
Energy at generator
at at
generator output
output for 8-m/s
for for
8-m/s average
average windwind speed.
speed.
Figure Energy generator output 8-m/s average wind speed.

With
With
With aawind
wind
a wind profile
profile centered
centered
profile onm/s,
on 19
centered on 19m/s,
19 m/s, thegenerator
generator
the generator
the optimized
optimized for thefor
optimized thediode
fordiode
the diode
bridgebridge
bridge
makes it possible
makes it to obtain
possible to working
obtain pointspoints
working nearernearer
the maximal
the power points
maximal power than withthan
points the with
makes it possible to obtain working points nearer the maximal power points than with
machine with awith
themachine
machine high torque-to-weight ratio (Figure 23).
the with aahigh
hightorque-to-weight
torque-to-weight ratio(Figure
ratio (Figure23).
23).

Figure 23. Power results obtained for 19-m/s average wind speed.
Figure
Figure 23.23. Power
Power results
results obtained
obtained for for 19-m/s
19-m/s average
average wind
wind speed.
speed.

TheThe
The energy
energy
energy atthe
at
at the the generator
generator
generator output,
output,
output, despite
despite
despite being
beingbeing 30%than
30%
30% lower lower
lower than
than
with witharectifier,
with
a PWM aPWM
PWMrecti-recti-
fier, represents
represents three
three times
fier, represents times the
the energy
three times energy we
we canwe
the energy can
obtain obtain with
with awith
can obtain a high torque/weight
highatorque/weight generator
generator
high torque/weight generator
associated
associated with
with a a diode
diode bridge
bridge (Figure
(Figure 24).
associated with a diode bridge (Figure 24). 24).
Energies 2021, 14, 666 19 of 20
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 21

Figure24.24.Results
Figure Resultsobtained forfor
obtained energy for for
energy 19-m/s average
19-m/s wind
average speed.
wind speed.

With a high power factor generator, we can then maintain high-performance over a
With a high power factor generator, we can then maintain high-performance over a
wide wind speed range.
wide wind speed range.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
By using simulations, we showed that the association of a PMVM with a diode rectifier
in a windBy using
energysimulations, we showed
conversion system that the
can result association
in good of a PMVM
performance, witha aspecific
requiring diode recti-
fier inofa the
design wind energy for
generator conversion system can result in good performance, requiring a spe-
the association.
cificIndesign of the generator
the application forthis
studied in thearticle,
association.
the system prioritizing generator weight and
compactness seems to offer
In the application high performance
studied in this article, forthe
low wind speeds,
system but isgenerator
prioritizing far less efficient
weight and
incompactness
case of strongseems
winds.to offer high performance for low wind speeds, but is far less the
Therefore, to best exploit the wind turbine without oversizing efficient
generator, a concession
in case of strong winds. must be madeto
Therefore, onbest
the exploit
torque-to-weight
the wind ratio in favor
turbine of the
without power the
oversizing
factor. This concession,
generator, a concessionhowever,
must beismadejustified by torque-to-weight
on the the simplicity andratio
the sturdiness
in favor ofofthethepower
energy
factor.conversion system thereby
This concession, however,obtained.
is justified by the simplicity and the sturdiness of the
We are also studying other converter architectures associated with the Vernier genera-
energy conversion system thereby obtained.
tor effect, its converters already being studied for wind energy conversion.
We are also studying other converter architectures associated with the Vernier gen-
The combination of an optimized Vernier generator with a diode rectifier can be an eco-
erator effect, its converters already being studied for wind energy conversion.
nomical solution for small vertical or horizontal axis wind turbines. For this machine there
are no The combination
mechanical of an
feasibility optimized
constraints Vernier
even generator
for small withor
yoke, tooth a diode
magnetrectifier can be an
dimensions.
economical solution for small vertical or horizontal axis wind turbines. For this machine
there Contributions:
Author are no mechanical feasibility constraints
Conceptualization, even writing—original
designed, analysis, for small yoke, draft
tooth or magnet di-
preparation,
mensions.
P.E. and I.M.; supervision this project, P.E. and D.M.; writing—review and editing, P.E. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Author Contributions:
Funding: Conceptualization,
This research received designed, analysis, writing—original draft preparation,
no external funding.
P.E. and I.M.; supervision this project, P.E. and D.M.; writing—review and editing, P.E. All authors
Institutional
have read andReview Board
agreed Statement:
to the Not
published applicable.
version of the manuscript.
Informed
Funding:Consent Statement:
This research Not applicable.
received no external funding.
Data Availability
Institutional BoardThe
Statement:
Review study didNot
Statement: not applicable.
report any data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
References Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
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