Battery Technologies

Explain the working principle, constructional details and applications of the following.

Nickel Cadmium Battery

Working Principle:
The first equation represents the reaction between the cathode layer nickel and the
separator. It gives an
output of Nickel oxide OH ions. The need for the separator layer as mentioned before is
the provide the
OH ions required for the chemical reaction. For the provision of H20, the separator layer
is soaked with
water for the initial reaction. Later H2O is obtained as one of the byproducts.

On the anode side, the cadmium layer is also combined with OH ions which are obtained
from the
separators layer. This results in cadmium oxide and electrons. It may be noted that the
electrons in both
the equations get canceled. Also, OH ions get canceled. The reminder equation is given
by the third
equation, where nickel is combined with cadmium and water. It results in nickel oxide
and cadmium
oxide.

Constructional Details: In a nickel-cadmium battery, first, a layer of nickel oxide NiO2 is

kept around the redox.
This layer of nickel oxide acts as a cathode layer. Above the nickel oxide layer, a layer of

KaOH is kept, which acts as a separator. It must be noted that this separator layer must

be soaked in water or moist. Its purpose is to provide required OH negative ions, for the

chemical reaction. Above the separator layer, cadmium is placed. The nickel acts as a

positive electrode collector and the cadmium layer acts as a negative layer collector. The
separator layer between the two layers is made up of KOH or NaOH. Its purpose is to

provide OH ions. Apart from these, it also consists of a safety valve, sealing plate,

insulation ring, insulation gasket, and an outer case.

The purpose of the insulator ring is to provide insulation between the two layers. The

insulator gasket is the place where the

insulation ring is kept nearby. The

separator layer is connected to this

ring. The outer case is to provide

protection to the inner layers from

external factors such as damages and

mishandling of the battery. It must be

noted that, due to chemical reactions

taking place within the battery, it is

always hazardous to work with the

battery.

The case of the battery is never

opened, as all the layers are exposed

and it may cause harm to the person

using. Similarly, when not in use, it is

recommended to remove the battery

out of the device.

Applications:
toys, small DC motors, calculators, fans, computers, etc.
Specialty Ni–Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency
lighting, and other applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, they can supply
high surge currents.
A nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd or NiCad) is a rechargeable battery used for portable
computers, drills, camcorders and other small battery-operated devices requiring an
even power discharge. NiCds use electrodes made of nickel oxide hydroxide, metallic
cadmium and an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.

Lithium Polymer Battery

Working Principle: When the battery is charging up, the lithium-cobalt oxide, positive
electrode gives up some of its lithium ions, which move through the electrolyte to the
negative, graphite electrode and remain there. The battery takes in and stores energy
during this process. When the battery is discharging, the lithium ions move back across
the electrolyte to the positive electrode, producing the energy that powers the battery. In
both cases, electrons flow in the opposite direction to the ions around the outer circuit.
Electrons do not flow through the electrolyte: it's effectively an insulating barrier, so far
as electrons are concerned.The movement of ions (through the electrolyte) and electrons
(around the external circuit, in the opposite direction) are interconnected processes, and
if either stops so does the other. If ions stop moving through the electrolyte because the
battery completely discharges, electrons can't move through the outer circuit either—so
you lose your power. Similarly, if you switch off whatever the battery is powering, the
flow of electrons stops and so does the flow of ions. The battery essentially stops
discharging at a high rate (but it does keep on discharging, at a very slow rate, even with
the appliance disconnected).Unlike simpler batteries, lithium-ion ones have built in
electronic controllers that regulate how they charge and discharge. They prevent the
overcharging and overheating that can cause lithium-ion batteries to explode in some
circumstances.

Constructional Details: Like any other battery, a rechargeable lithium-ion battery is made of one
or more power-generating compartments called cells. Each cell has essentially three components: a
positive electrode (connected to the battery's positive or + terminal), a negative electrode
(connected to the negative or − terminal), and a chemical called an electrolyte in between them. The
positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound called lithium-cobalt oxide
(LiCoO2) or, in newer batteries, from lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). The negative
electrode is generally made from carbon (graphite) and the electrolyte varies from one
type of battery to another—but isn't too important in understanding the basic idea of how
the battery works.

Applications: Found in pervasive in mobile devices, power banks, very thin laptop
computers, portable media players, wireless controllers for video game consoles,
wireless PC peripherals, electronic cigarettes, and other applications where small form
factors are sought and the high energy density outweighs cost

Hydrogen Fuel Cell:

Working Principle and Constructional Details: A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of
hydrogen or another fuel to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the
fuel, electricity, water, and heat are the only products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of
the variety of their potential applications; they can provide power for systems as large as
a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer. Fuel cells work like batteries,
but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce electricity and heat as long
as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or
anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel,
such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel
cell, a catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and electrons,
which take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit,
creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode,
where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat.
Applications: Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including
transportation, material handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup power
applications. Fuel cells have several benefits over conventional combustion-based
technologies currently used in many power plants and passenger vehicles.

Capacitor:
Working Principle: A capacitor is a device that is used to store charges in an electrical
circuit. A capacitor works on the principle that the capacitance of a conductor increases
appreciably when an earthed conductor is brought near it. Hence, a capacitor has two
plates separated by a distance having equal and opposite charges.
Constructional Details: A capacitor is made of two electrically conductive plates placed
close to each other, but they do not touch each other. These conductive plates are
normally made of materials such as aluminum, brass, or copper. The two conductive
plates of the capacitor are good conductors of electricity.
Applications:
● Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and
discharging.
● Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
● Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect
a loudspeaker.
● Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
● Tuning - for example in a radio system.