10 1016@j Renene 2020 10 082

Journal Pre-proof
Coconut fatty acid distillate as novel feedstock for biodiesel production and its
characterization as a fuel for diesel engine
K. Rajesh, M.P. Natarajan, P.K. Devan, S. Ponnuvel
PII: S0960-1481(20)31648-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.10.082
Reference: RENE 14372
To appear in: Renewable Energy
Received Date: 29 May 2020

Revised Date: 5 October 2020
Accepted Date: 18 October 2020
Please cite this article as: Rajesh K, Natarajan MP, Devan PK, Ponnuvel S, Coconut fatty acid
distillate as novel feedstock for biodiesel production and its characterization as a fuel for diesel engine,
Renewable Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.10.082.
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COCONUT FATTY ACID DISTILLATE AS NOVEL FEEDSTOCK
FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND ITS
CHARACTERIZATION AS A FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE
Rajesh Ka, Natarajan M Pb, Devan P Kc, Ponnuvel Sd
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RMK College of Engineering and
Technology, Tamil Nadu, India
E-mail address: rajeshmechh@gmail.com
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Tamil Nadu,
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India
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E-mail address: mpnatarajan@yahoo.com
c -p
Department of Mechanical Engineering, RMK College of Engineering and
Technology, Tamil Nadu, India
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E-mail address: pkdevan68@gmail.com
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d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara Colleg of Engineering,
Tamil Nadu, India
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E-mail address: ponnuvel@svce.ac.in

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1 COCONUT FATTY ACID DISTILLATE AS NOVEL FEEDSTOCK
2 FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND ITS
3 CHARACTERIZATION AS A FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE
4
5 Rajesh K a,*, Natarajan M P b, Devan P K a, Ponnuvel S c
6
7 ABSTRACT
8 The coconut fatty acid distillate (CFAD) was used as a novel feedstock for biodiesel
9 production in this investigation. Its characterization as fuel in diesel engine was also studied.
10 A maximum biodiesel yield of 92.6% was obtained, when esterification is performed with
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11 10:1 methanol to oil ratio, 2.5% sulphuric acid at 60°C for 90 min. This is followed by
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12 transesterification with optimized parameters of methanol to oil ratio 8:1, 1.5% potassium
13 hydroxide at 60°C for 90 min. 20%, 40%, 60% and 100% of CFAD biodiesel (CFAB) was
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14 added to diesel to form blends CFAB20, CFAB40, CFAB60 and CFAB100. Engine test
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15 results showed that the performance of CFAB20 is closer to diesel than the other CFAB
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16 blends. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of CFAB20 was found to be 4.7% lesser than
17 diesel. Nitrogen oxide emission is higher for all biodiesel blends due to enhanced combustion
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18 characteristics. However, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and smoke were reduced by 50%,
19 36.6% and 42.9% respectively for CFAB100 when compared to diesel at full load. Thus it is
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20 inferred that the CFAD is a potential source for biodiesel production. CFAB20 can be used in
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21 diesel engines with acceptable BTE and reduced emissions without any engine modification.
22
23 Keywords: Coconut fatty acid distillate, Biodiesel, Esterification, Performance, Emission,
24 Fatty acid composition.
25
26 1. INTRODUCTION:
27 Energy consumption is one way to evaluate the economic growth, progress and welfare of
28 a nation. Energy and its sources play a vital role in a day to day development, which is an
29 important area that needs to be focused on. The global primary energy consumption rate
30 increased to about 2.9% during the year 2018, which is almost double when compared to the
31 average energy consumption rate in the last 10 years [1]. The consumption of fossil fuel has
32 increased in the recent decade due to rapid industrialization, transportation and modern
33 civilization [2]. The transportation sector depends on liquid fuel derived from fossil fuels.
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34 Considering the current consumption trend, experts predict that the reserves of fossil fuel can
35 last only for a few decades. The growing demand for conventional fuels creates a serious
36 threat to the sustainability of fossil fuels, an increase in fuel cost, fuel demand and
37 environmental concerns. Also, the combustion of fossil fuels results in emissions having
38 adverse effects on human health and the environment [3]. Thus, the depletion of fossil fuels
39 has gathered the attention of the scientific community towards the production of renewable,
40 less polluting and economically viable alternative fuels.
41
42 The potential fuels, including biodiesel and bio-alcohol, can be used directly in internal
43 combustion engines without major alterations [4]. Biodiesel is one of the better alternatives to
44 be used in diesel engines due to its superior characteristics like rich oxygen content, high
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45 cetane number, better combustion, non-toxic, biodegradable, negligible sulphur content and
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46 reduced emissions [5]. Biodiesel is produced from the feedstock, such as vegetable oils,
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48
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animal fats and algae in recent years. Even though biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils,
the use of edible oils will lead to food versus fuel criticism. Due to an increase in population,
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49 the use of edible oils for biodiesel production will lead to an increase in prices, demand and
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50 food security issues [6]. The use of second-generation feedstock like non-edible oils for the
51 production of biodiesel is one way to overcome the above issues.
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53 Many studies explored on biodiesel production using non-edible oils such as Jatropha,
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54 Pongamia pinnata, Croton megalocarpus, Calophyllum inophyllum, Neem, Moringa oleifera,

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55 Castor oil, Madhuca indica, etc., [7]. However, edible or non-edible oil from food crops
56 requires acres of farming land, maintenance, cultivation and also deforestation in some cases.
57 As a result, the cost of feedstock is about 50% to 80% of the price of the biodiesel produced
58 [8,9]. To address the issues related to biodiesel feedstock, the use of by-products from
59 vegetable oil refineries such as soapstock, acid oil and deodorizer or fatty acid distillates can
60 be economical for biodiesel production. Very few researches were done using the by-
61 products of vegetable oil refinery such as palm fatty acid distillates, soybean oil deodorizer
62 distillate, sunflower oil deodorizer distillate, waste rice bran acid oil and rapeseed soapstock
63 as feedstock for producing biodiesel. In this work, a novel feedstock, coconut fatty acid
64 distillate (CFAD) which is a processing residue of the coconut oil refinery is used for
65 biodiesel production.
66
67 In recent years efforts are made to improve the production of biodiesel from second-
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68 generation feedstock through optimizing the parameters affecting the overall yield and
69 characterization of the fuel in diesel engines. Jayaprabakar et al. studied the optimization
70 parameters to produce biodiesel from sheepskin and its compatibility was tested in a diesel
71 engine. A maximum yield of 92% was achieved when processed through esterification (0.5
72 wt% H2SO4, molar ratio 18:1, temperature 65°C, time 4h) and transesterification process (0.5
73 wt% NaOH, molar ratio 6:1, temperature 65°C, time 2h). B20 blend showed better
74 performance compared to diesel with respect to BTE, SFC and BP at full load [10]. Kavitha
75 et al. obtained a biodiesel yield of 90.2% from Sterculia oil using Box-Behnken design for
76 optimizing the transesterification process. Catalyst 1.5 wt%, methanol to oil ratio 1:12,
77 temperature 55°C and agitation speed of 900 rpm found to be the optimum parameters. The
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78 performance test was carried for B10, B20, B30, B40 and B100 blends in a diesel engine. The
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79 research concluded that B10 and B20 showed better performance and emission when
80 compared to standard diesel fuel [11].
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82 Kataria et al. used waste cooking oil for producing biodiesel using heterogeneous catalyst
83 transesterification and performance study in a variable compression ratio engine. They
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84 conducted experiments on diesel engine with the following biodiesel blends B20, B40, B60,
85 B80 and B100. For CR 15 and 17.5, SFC decreased for all blends with an increase in load.
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86 Also, higher CO emission was observed at CR 15 than diesel [12]. Parida and Rout prepared
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87 and studied the argemone oil biodiesel extraction along with performance and emission
88 characteristics in diesel engines. Due to the high acid value of argemone oil, the biodiesel
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89 was prepared by combination of esterification and transesterification process which achieved

90 a yield of 86%. They concluded that 20% biodiesel blend resulted in performance and
91 emission characteristics which were very close to diesel [13].
92
93 In another study made by Hajlari et al. castor oil is used as feedstock and biodiesel is
94 produced through standard transesterification process. The selected parameters were
95 methanol to oil ratio 6:1, NaOH catalyst of 1 wt%, reaction temperature of 60°C and reaction
96 time of 30 min. The results of the engine test revealed that reduced brake power and high
97 value of SFC were seen with an increasing proportion of biodiesel blend (B5 & B20). Also,
98 the soot emission of diesel fuel is low when compared to B5 and B20 blends [14]. Singh et al.
99 investigated the Momordica Charantia (L.) based biodiesel extraction and effects of B20
100 blend at various engine speeds of 1200, 1500 and 1800 rpm. The eggshell derived calcium
101 oxide heterogeneous catalyst was used in the transesterification reaction. The investigation
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102 resulted in a yield of 96.8% with the following parameters of 10 wt% of catalyst, temperature
103 of 65°C, time of 80 min and stirring speed of 450 rpm. Based on the experiments carried out,
104 NOx emission of the B20 blend was significantly low. The CO, CO2, Particulate matter and
105 sulphur dioxide were close to diesel at all speed conditions [15].
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107 Anjana et al. analyzed biodiesel production from Pongamia pinnata oil with high FFA
108 content. Two-stage esterification and transesterification processes were used in the
109 production of biodiesel. For the esterification molar ratio of 6:1, 2% of H2SO4 by volume,
110 temperature of 60°C, time of 2h and an agitation speed of 600 rpm were considered. The
111 transesterification reaction was carried out at a molar ratio of 12:1, 4 wt% Kl/CaO catalyst,
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112 temperature of 65°C, time of 2h and an agitation speed of 600 rpm. The process resulted in a
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113 maximum conversion of 95.7%. The blends of B10, B20 and B30 were tested in the diesel
114 engine. The research concluded that performance and emissions were comparable with diesel
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[16]. Yadav et al. investigated oleander oil for biodiesel production and its suitability on a
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116 diesel engine. They achieved a biodiesel yield of 97.1% through two-step transesterification
117 at optimum conditions using the molar ratio of 0.45 v/v, H2SO4 catalyst of 1.2% v/v, process
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118 temperature of 45°C and reaction time of 15 min. Oleander esters are further treated with a
119 molar ratio of 0.25 v/v, KOH catalyst of 0.75% w/v, process temperature of 50°C and a
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120 reaction time of 15 min. B20 blend resulted in an average increase of 2.06% of BTE. The
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121 B30 blend showed a 40.6% reduction in carbon monoxide when compared to diesel [17].
122
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123 The influence of Aphanamixis polystachya methyl esters (APME) and its blends were
124 experimentally investigated for its performance and emission in CI engines by Palash et al.
125 The APME was produced by two-step transesterification. The selected parameters for
126 esterification were 1:24 methanol to oil ratio, 1% v/v of HCl, 60 °C reaction temperature, a
127 reaction time of 3h at an agitation speed of 600 rpm. Further, transesterification was
128 processed with a 1:6 molar ratio, 1% m/m KOH at 60 °C with a stirrer speed of 600 rpm for
129 2h. APME5 and APME10 blends resulted in a torque reduction of 0.9% and 1.81%.
130 Similarly, the reduction in brake power by 0.9% and 2.1% were observed when compared to
131 diesel. Both the blends resulted in a huge increase in nitrous oxide emission than diesel [18].
132 Sekhar et al. used the RSM technique to optimize biodiesel production from Pithecellobium
133 dulce seed oil (PDSO). The research achieved a PDSOME yield of 93.24% under the
134 optimum conditions of molar ratio 6:1, reaction temperature 60°C, 0.8 wt% KOH catalyst
135 and reaction time 90 min. Further experimental investigations for blends (20, 40, 60, 80, 100
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136 Vol%) were compared with diesel. BTE reduction of 2.08% for PDSOME20 was observed at
137 full load. HC, CO and NOx were considerably reduced for PDSOME and its blends when
138 compared to diesel except smoke [19]. Thus from the study, the oil having high free fatty acid
139 percentage required two-stage esterification and transesterification process for producing
140 biodiesel. Different blends of biodiesel were tested for its compatibility in diesel engines.
141
142 1.1 Reason for selecting CFAD as feedstock
143 China, the United States and India are the countries that accounted for more than two-
144 thirds of the total energy demand. India is the third-largest country in the world to import oil
145 to meet its demands. As India is concerned, for the period 2007-2017, the average increase in
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146 oil consumption is 5.2% and increased to 7.9% per annum in 2018 alone [1]. Due to
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147 increasing demand, finding feasible and sustainable alternative fuels is of great importance,
148 particularly for huge oil-importing countries like India. CFAD is a by-product of coconut oil
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refinery which is available in plenty in India. India is the largest producer of coconut (32.8%
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150 of total) in the world, which is followed by Indonesia and the Philippines in the year 2017 as
151 shown in Fig. 1 [20].
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152
153
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Fig. 1. Global production of Coconuts Fig. 2. Global production of Coconut oil

Source: International coconut community Source: united states department of agriculture
154
155 The percentage production of coconut oil for the year 2018-19 is shown in Fig. 2.
156 India has produced 4,52,000 tonnes of coconut oil for its domestic use and export in the year
157 2018-19. The export of coconut oil is 7,300 tonnes in the year 2017-18 and 6,800 tonnes in
158 2018-19 [20]. The trend signifies that most of the oil produced is utilized within the country.
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159 Coconut oil is refined to increase the storage life, to reduce free fatty acids for avoiding
160 oxidation, to avoid turning into rancid and also for health concerns. The process of
161 production of CFAD during physical refining is illustrated in Fig. 3. Large quantities of
162 CFAD produced during the physical refining of coconut oil are generally used as raw
163 material for soap and animal feed. Another advantage is that it does not require separate
164 farming land or other investments for its production. As far as the food-grade coconut oil
165 demand exists, CFAD will be available. Hence, CFAD is an excellent alternative source for
166 producing biodiesel.
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168
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169 Fig. 3. Process of coconut fatty acid distillate production
170
171 1.2 Objective of this study
172 The main aim of this research is to investigate the CFAD as a prospective source for
173 biodiesel to meet the energy demands. This work is executed in four different stages i)
174 analysis of physicochemical properties of CFAD, ii) biodiesel production by acid
175 esterification followed by alkaline transesterification, iii) studying the effect of process
176 variables such as molar ratio, catalyst concentration and reaction temperature for alkaline
177 transesterification and iv) testing of biodiesel in a diesel engine with various blends and
178 comparison with diesel. Although various researches have been done on biodiesel production
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179 and performance, no specific work has been reported using CFAD as feedstock for biodiesel
180 production and as fuel in diesel engines. Hence this paper compiles the outcomes of the usage
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181 of CFAD as feedstock for biodiesel production. Also, the characteristics patterns of coconut
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fatty acid distillate biodiesel (CFAB) and its blends in a diesel engine.
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184 2. Materials and method:
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185 2.1 Materials

186 The CFAD was procured from a local oil dealer Rassi foods Ltd, Tamil Nadu, India.
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187 Physical cleaning of CFAD by filtration was done to remove suspended solid particles.
188 Further, it was heated between 100–120°C to remove any water present. Analytical grade
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189 Methanol (99.8%), potassium hydroxide (99%), Phenolphthalein indicator, Ethanol (99.7%)
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190 and anhydrous sulphuric acid (99.9%) were purchased from Sriram enterprises, Tamil Nadu,
191 India.
192
193 2.2. Characterization of CFAD
194
195 The characterization of CFAD is important before biodiesel production for its
196 suitability as feedstock. Vegetable oils are a combination of various saturated and unsaturated
197 fatty acids. It is important to study the characterization of CFAD before its selection as
198 feedstock for biodiesel production. The fatty acid composition was determined using gas
199 chromatography (GC), which is shown in Table 1. From the results of the GC test, saturated
200 fatty acids of CFAD oil were found to be 91.53% and unsaturated fatty acid content is only
201 8.47%. The degree of saturation is high for lauric acid (45.33%) followed by myristic acid
202 (16.92%). The physicochemical properties of CFAD are measured in accordance with ASTM
203 standards and are listed in Table 2.
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207 Table 1. Fatty acid composition of CFAD
Fatty Acids Molecular Structure Molecular Weight (g/mol) Content (%)
Caproic C6:0 116.1 0.724
Caprylic C8:0 144.2 10.206
Capric C10:0 172.3 6.749
Lauric C12:0 200.3 45.533
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Myristic C14:0 228.4 16.922
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Palmitic C16:0 256.4 8.841
Stearic C18:0 284.4 2.551
Oleic C18:1
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Linoleic C18:2 280.44 1.634
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Linolenic C18:3 278.43 0.064

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210 Table 2. Physicochemical properties of CFAD
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Properties CFAD Method

Kinematic Viscosity @40°C (cSt) 10.34 ASTM D445
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Density @15°C (kg/m3) 892 ASTM D4052

Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 249.54 ASTM D5558-95
Iodine Value (g Iodine/100g) 8.66 ASTM D5768-14
Acid Value (mg KOH/g) 49 ASTM D664
Free fatty acid (% as Lauric) 24.5 -
Colour Dark brown -
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212 The acid value of CFAD oil is 49 mg KOH/g equivalent to FFA level of 24.5%. This
213 implies that the two-stage esterification and transesterification process is required for
214 conversion into biodiesel [21]. Direct alkaline transesterification will lead to saponification
215 during transesterification. This affects the product yield and induces difficulty in the phase
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216 separation of biodiesel and glycerine [9].
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218
219 2.3 Two-step biodiesel production from coconut fatty acid distillate
220 A half-litre three-necked flask was used as a container for adding the mixture of oil,
221 Methanol and catalyst. The heating mantle was used to maintain the temperature and speed
222 controlled stirrer for proper mixing. A thermometer was used to monitor the proper
223 temperature during the reaction process. The phase separation of biodiesel and glycerine was
224 carried out in a half litre separating funnel.
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227 2.3.1 Acid-catalyzed esterification of CFAD
228 The first stage esterification reaction was carried due to the high acid value of CFAD
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oil (49 mg KOH/g). Fig. 4 shows the typical process diagram of CFAD biodiesel production.
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230 200 ml of CFAD oil was taken as feed for the process. Methanol to oil ratio 10:1 vol/vol of
231 oil, H2SO4 catalyst of 2.5% vol/vol of oil, desired reaction temperature 60°C and reaction
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232 time of 90 min was selected for esterification [22]. The oil was first heated to 60°C and
233 maintained at the desired temperature. Mixtures of methanol and sulphuric acid are prepared
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234 separately in the mentioned proportion and added to the oil. The mixture is stirred
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235 continuously at a constant speed of 600 rpm. The reaction time was calculated from the time
236 of adding alcohol and catalyst mixture. The reaction mixture was then transferred to the
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237 separating funnel and retained for 8h for phase separation of ester and water along with other
238 impurities. The ester was heated to 100°C-120°C to remove any trace of water before
239 attempting the transesterification. The esterification process was repeated twice to achieve
240 ester FFA of 1.9%, which is less than 2.5% suitable for transesterification. Fig. 5 shows the
241 raw CFAD, CFAD after esterification and phase separation of ester and water.
242
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243
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244 Fig. 4. Typical process diagram for CFAD biodiesel production

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245
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Fig. 5. (a) Raw CFAD, (b) CFAD oil after Esterification & (c) Phase separation after Esterification
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248
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249 2.3.2 Transesterification of CFAD esters
250 The CFAD ester was used as a feed for transesterification to obtain biodiesel. Various
251 factors that affect biodiesel production are molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time,
252 agitation speed, catalyst concentration, type of alcohol used, etc [22]. The present work
253 analyzed the effect of Methanol to oil ratio, catalyst concentration and reaction temperature
254 on the production of biodiesel from CFAD. The standard parameters selected for
255 transesterification are methanol to oil ratio of 8:1, catalyst concentration 1% (KOH) at 60°C
256 for 90 min and agitation speed of 600 rpm. An experimental design with a varying range of
257 parameters is as follows: methanol to oil ratio of 6:1 to 12:1, reaction temperature 50°C to
258 65°C and catalyst concentration of 0.5 to 2% [23-25]. The experiments were carried within
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259 the above mentioned parametric ranges and plotted against the yield of biodiesel.
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261 The CFAD ester was taken in the three-necked flask and heated to a pre-set
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temperature. Methoxide solution was prepared separately with a measured quantity of
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263 methanol and KOH catalyst. Methoxide solution was added to the ester when the temperature
264 is stabilized. The reaction was continued for a fixed time at the desired temperature and
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265 continuously stirred. The reaction product was then transferred to the separating funnel and
266 allowed to separate for 8 h. In the end, two layers were formed. The upper layer contained
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267 coconut fatty acid distillate biodiesel (CFAB) and the lower layer contained glycerine. The
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268 reactant mixture after transesterification, Phase separation of glycerine and biodiesel is given
269 in Fig. 6. The biodiesel was collected by gravity separation and washed with warm water to
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270 eliminate traces of unreacted catalyst, glycerine and other impurities [26]. The washed crude
271 biodiesel was heated to 100°C - 120°C to expel any leftover water [22]. The yield of CFAD
272 biodiesel produced is calculated using the equation (1).
273
274 CFAB Yield (%) = x 100 (1)
275
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276 Fig. 6. (a) CFAD ester after transesterification (b) Phase separation after transesterification
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279 2.3.3 Physicochemical properties of CFAB and its significance
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The physicochemical properties of the biodiesel are purely based on the type of
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281 feedstock and composition of fatty acids. The kinematic viscosity is an important property
282 and its high value will lead to poor atomization during injection, incomplete combustion,
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283 intense fouling and non-suitability for cold regions [27]. The kinematic viscosity of biodiesel
284 was found to be 4.3 cSt. The density of biodiesel was 879 kg/m3, higher compared to diesel
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285 which may lead to higher fuel consumption and NOx emissions [12]. CFAD biodiesel has a
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286 higher flash point (90°C) than diesel. It is another important property which induces the
287 advantage of safe handling and storage. On the contrary, the high flash point of biodiesel
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288 affects engine performance due to its low volatile nature [28]. The pour point is a significant
289 property of the fuel to flow at the lowest temperature without pumping difficulty before the
290 formation of gel [12]. The pour point was found to be -3°C for CFAB. The calorific value of
291 the fuel has a significant influence on the fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency of
292 an engine. The calorific value of CFAB was measured as 36069 J/kg which is low when
293 compared to diesel. The acid value was measured for CFAB as 0.8 mg KOH/g. It has a
294 serious effect on the fuel supply system due to corrosion at higher acid values. The
295 physicochemical properties of CFAB biodiesel were shown in Table 3.
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297
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299
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301 Table 3. Physicochemical properties of CFAD Biodiesel
Properties CFAD biodiesel Petrodiesel Method

Kinematic Viscosity @40°C (cSt) 4.30 2.3 ASTM D445
Density @15°C (kg/m3) 879 810 ASTM D4052
Flash Point (°C) 90 55 ASTM D93
Calorific Value (kJ/kg) 36069 42500 ASTM D240
Pour point (°C) -3 -12 ASTM D97
Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.8 - ASTM D664

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304 2.4 Engine test rig and experimental procedure
305 The experimental setup consists of a single-cylinder four-stroke water-cooled
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Kirloskar made direct injection diesel engine generating 3.5 kW maximum power at a rated
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307 speed of 1500 rpm. The photographic view of the engine setup is shown in Fig. 7 and the
308 geometric specifications of the test engine are given in Table 4. The engine was loaded with
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309 eddy current dynamometer and tested at different loading conditions (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%
310 and 100%) for all the fuel blends. The engine settings were kept unmodified throughout the
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311 experiment. “Enginesoft” software was used to measure the performance and combustion
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312 characteristics of the engine. The tailpipe emissions HC, CO and NOx were measured using
313 “AVL DIGAS 444N” five gas analyzer at various engine loads. Diesel tune digital
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314 smokehead (model DX260 smokehead) was used to assess the intensity of smoke in the
315 exhaust gas.
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317 The experimental engine was tested with Diesel, CFAB and its blends (CFAB20,
318 CFAB40, CFAB60 and CFAB100). The engine was made to run with diesel fuel initially and
319 warmed up for 20 min without applying any load. The warm-up phase was ended when the
320 oil and cooling water temperature were stable. All the blends were tested with similar
321 conditions from no load to full load condition at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The AVL gas
322 analyser was calibrated with reference gas before every measurement to ensure accuracy. The
323 sample probe from the smokehead was cleaned using compressed air and cleanliness of the
324 lenses was checked before the start of each test to improve the exactness of measurement.
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Fig. 7. The photographic view of engine setup
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329 Table 4. Test engine specifications

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Engine parameters Specifications
Model Kirloskar TV1

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Engine type Single cylinder, 4 stroke, vertical diesel engine

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Cooling system Water-cooled
Maximum power 3.5 kw @ 1500 rpm
Cylinder bore 87.5 mm
Stroke length 110 mm
Connecting rod length 234 mm
Dynamometer Eddy current, water-cooled
Injection timing 23° before TDC
Injection pressure 200 bar
Software Engine performance analysis software “Enginesoft”

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332
333 2.5 Uncertainty analysis
334 Uncertainties and errors in the measurements can arise due to various factors like
335 instrument selection, calibration, environmental condition, testing procedures, observation
336 method, interpretation etc. [29]. The analysis was performed to validate the reliability of the
337 measured value of the instrument [30]. In this study, the percentage relative uncertainty of
338 engine load, speed, exhaust temperature, fuel consumption, HC, CO, NOx and smoke opacity
339 were calculated using linearized approximation method of uncertainty [31,32]. The overall
340 uncertainty of the experimental investigation was found after calculating the individual
341 uncertainty of the measured parameters using the equation (2). The percentage uncertainty of
342 parameters measured is given in Table 5.
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344 Table 5. List of measurements, instruments, accuracy and uncertainty percentage
Measurement Instrument
-p Accuracy Uncertainty (%)
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Engine load Strain gauge type load cell ± 0.1 kg ± 0.2
Speed Speed sensor ± 10 rpm ±1

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Time Digital stopwatch ± 0.2 s ± 0.2

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Exhaust temperature K-type thermocouple ± 1℃ ± 0.1

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Fuel flow DP transmitter - ±1
Engine power - - ±1
BSEC - - ± 1.5
BTE - - ±1
HC AVL Gas analyser ± 15 ppm ± 0.2
CO AVL Gas analyser ± 0.02% ± 0.2
NOx AVL Gas analyser ± 20 ppm ± 0.2
Smoke opacity Smoke meter ± 0.1 ±1

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346
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347 Overall uncertainty = ∑( !"# !$ %& " ℎ (" ") ! )+
348 (2)
349 Overall uncertainty = square root of [(engine load)2 + (engine speed)2 + (time)2 + (exhaust
350 temperature)2 + (Engine power)2 + (fuel flow)2 + (BTE)2 + (BSEC)2
351 +(HC)2 + (CO)2 + (NOx)2 + (Smoke opacity)2
352
353 = Square root of [(0.2)2 +(1.0)2 +(0.2)2 +(0.1)2 +(1.0)2 +(1.0)2 +(1.0)2
354 +(1.5)2 +(0.2)2 +(0.2)2 +(0.2)2 +(1.0)2
355
356 = ± 2.73%
357
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358 3. Results and Discussions
359 The CFAB was produced by two-stage esterification and transesterification due to
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360 higher acid value. The effect of parameters on the production of biodiesel was studied. The
361
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experiments were conducted for different blends of CFAB in order to determine the effect of
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362 biodiesel on the performance and emissions characteristics. Performance characteristics such
363 as specific energy consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature were
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364 studied with respect to load. Variations of exhaust emission parameters like HC, CO, NOx
365 and Smoke at different loading conditions were also discussed. All the experimental tests
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366 were repeated thrice under the same operating conditions and the average of the
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367 measurements is reported. The error bars presented in the graphs are based on the standard
368 deviations.
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369
370 3.1 Effects of reaction parameters on biodiesel production
371
372 3.1.1 Effect of methanol to oil ratio:
373 Fig. 8 presents the yield of biodiesel concerning methanol to oil ratio (6:1, 8:1, 10:1
374 and 12:1). The molar ratio is one of the important factors which affects the yield of biodiesel.
375 The transesterification requires a minimum of 3:1 molar ratio to produce methyl esters.
376 Excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction in forwarding direction since
377 transesterification is reversible. Also, excess methanol removes the product molecules from
378 the catalyst surface and improves catalytic activity due to the exposed contact surface [12].
379 The results indicated a slow reaction rate at molar ratio 6:1, resulting in a yield of 81.5%. The
380 increase in a molar ratio to 8:1 significantly improved the biodiesel yield to 91.2%. The yield
381 dropped to 88.7% and 88.4% for the molar ratios 10:1 and 12:1. Any increase in the molar
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382 ratio beyond the optimum point did not result in better yield. This is due to an increase in
383 solubility of glycerol which makes biodiesel separation difficult and drives the reaction
384 backwards, reducing the yield of biodiesel [23]. Excess methanol not only reduces the yield
385 of biodiesel but also gives rise to the cost of methanol recovery. Hence, it is important to find
386 the optimum value to achieve maximum yield and methanol to oil ratio was found to be 8:1.
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387
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388 Fig. 8. Effect of methanol to oil ratio on biodiesel yield.

389 Reaction conditions: KOH catalyst – 1%, temperature - 60°C, time – 90min
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390
391 3.1.2 Effect of catalyst concentration:
392 The transesterification reaction was carried out at a molar ratio of 8:1, reaction
393 temperature of 60°C and varying catalyst concentration (0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 wt%). The most
394 commonly used alkali catalysts are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide for alkaline
395 methanolysis. The variation of yield with different concentration of catalyst is shown in Fig.
396 9. It is evident that the yield increased from 75.1% to 90.2% with the increase in catalyst
397 concentration from 0.5% to 1.5%. The conversion efficiency dropped with an increase in
398 catalyst above 1.5%. The higher concentration of catalyst in the transesterification led to the
399 formation of soap which affected the yield [33]. Also, the negative impact is due to high
400 viscous and emulsified reaction mixture formation, which created resistance to the mass
401 transfer [26]. Catalyst concentration of 1.5 wt% gave the maximum yield and was taken as
402 the optimum value.
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404 Fig. 9. Effect of catalyst concentration (KOH) on biodiesel yield
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405 Reaction conditions: methanol to oil ratio - 8:1, temperature - 60°C, time – 90min
406
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407 3.1.3 Effect of reaction temperature:

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408 The reaction temperature is another factor having greater importance in

409 transesterification. Based on the type of oil used, the transesterification reaction can even
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410 occur at room temperature. The temperature is varied from 50°C to 65°C keeping other
411 parameter values constant. Fig. 10 summarizes the experimental effect of varying
412 temperature with the corresponding biodiesel yield. The yield of biodiesel increases with
413 reaction temperature and maximum yield of biodiesel was achieved at the temperature of
414 60°C. The reaction temperature had a positive effect, which enhanced the reaction rate,
415 thereby reducing the viscosity of the mixture. This improved the mass transfer rate between
416 the oil and methanol phases due to gain in kinetic energy of the reactant [12]. The yield
417 decreased dramatically for a reaction temperature of 65°C. This was due to the loss of
418 methanol from the reaction mixture, as its boiling point is close to 65°C. Also, at higher
419 temperatures, the saponification of triglycerides occurs due to the base catalyst before the
420 methanolysis gets over [23].
421
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423 Fig. 10. Effect of reaction temperature on biodiesel yield
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424 Reaction conditions: methanol to oil ratio - 8:1, KOH catalyst – 1%, time – 90min
425
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426 3.1.4 Estimation of the optimum yield of CFAD Biodiesel

427 The optimum conditions obtained for the production of CFAD biodiesel through
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428 transesterification were methanol to oil ratio of 8:1, catalyst concentration of 1.5 Wt% and
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429 reaction temperature 60°C keeping other factors constant. The experiment was carried out
430 thrice in order to achieve the closeness of the result. The yields obtained for optimum
431 conditions were 92.5, 93.1 and 92.2%. Thus, a maximum yield of 92.6% CFAD biodiesel
432 was attained.
433
434 3.2 Performance characteristics
435 3.2.1. Brake specific energy consumption
436 The brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) for CFAB fuel blends and diesel is
437 presented in Fig. 11. BSEC is calculated as the product of brake specific fuel consumption
438 and calorific value. The BSEC is a significant parameter for comparing fuels having varying
439 calorific value with engine performance. It was observed that the BSEC decreased with a
440 corresponding increase in load for both CFAB blends and diesel. The main reason for the
441 trend is reduced ignition delay due to the elevated temperature in the cylinder at higher load
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442 resulted in better combustion. The BSEC values of biodiesel show an increasing trend with
443 an increase in blending ratio with diesel. Fuel properties like calorific value, specific gravity
444 and density have a greater influence on BSEC [34]. The BSEC of CFAB20, CFAB40,
445 CFAB60 and CFAB100 at maximum load conditions were 11.05, 12.01, 13.20 and 13.61
446 MJ/kWh which is higher than the diesel value of 10.41 MJ/kWh. To produce the same power
447 output more fuel is delivered to the engine due to the lower calorific value of biodiesel
448 resulted in increased BSEC. The other possible reason for the increase in BSEC is higher
449 density and bulk modulus. The diesel and biodiesel blends were pumped to the engine on a
450 volumetric basis at constant injection pressure and injection timing. Due to higher density,
451 increased mass of CFAB blended fuel is injected for the same volume as diesel [35]. Also,
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452 the bulk modulus is 5 -10% higher for biodiesel than diesel which helps to attain earlier fuel
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453 injection. This led to the admission of more fuel into the combustion chamber resulting in
454 increased BSEC than diesel [36]. The trends were in good agreement with the findings of
455 other biodiesel fuels [37,38].
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456
457 Fig. 11. Brake specific energy consumption of tested fuels at various loads
458
459 3.2.2 Brake thermal efficiency
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460 BTE is one of the important parameters to study the brake power output of an engine
461 in response to the energy input of the fuel. The BTE of various fuel blends in terms of the
462 load is given in Fig. 12. It was observed that BTE for all the fuels increased with respect to
463 the load applied. This is because a lean air-fuel mixture is formed at low load conditions in
464 comparison with the full load. The lean mixture causes poor combustion resulting in higher
465 fuel consumption which tends to decrease the BTE [39]. The result shows that all blends of
466 biodiesel have lower BTE when compared to diesel at all load conditions. It is noticeable that
467 the diesel poses the highest value of 34.17% BTE whereas; CFAB100 has the least value of
468 26.45% at full load condition. As known, BTE is inversely proportional to brake specific fuel
469 consumption and more fuel is supplied to produce the same amount of power. Reduction in
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470 BTE is further caused as a result of inferior spray characteristics, higher viscosity, higher
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471 volatility and low heating value of fuel [40]. But shorter ignition delay due to the higher
472 cetane index of biodiesel favoured quick start of combustion resulting in better combustion
473
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despite above-mentioned reasons [41,42]. Among the blends, the engine run with CFAB20
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474 recorded 32.55% BTE which is very close to diesel. This is due to lower blending percentage
475 of biodiesel and better combustion resulted from enriched oxygen. Therefore, the BTE of
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476 diesel is comparable with CFAB20. It is also inferred that biodiesel with the lowest blend has
477 better efficiency.
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478
479 Fig. 12. Brake thermal efficiency of tested fuels at various loads
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480 3.2.3 Exhaust gas temperature

481 EGT is in direct correlation with load because at a higher load, the engine requires
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482 more fuel to be burnt to produce the required power necessary to hold conditional loading
483 [43]. The variation in EGT of diesel and biodiesel fuels is shown in Fig. 13. The EGT shows
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484 an increasing trend with the increase in the blending concentration of biodiesel. For diesel,
485 the EGT at no load was measured as 163°C and increased to 395°C at full load. The
486 CFAB100 have a higher EGT of 190°C and 452°C at no load and full load conditions. It is
487 assessed that the EGT of CFAB fuels were comparatively higher than diesel at all loads. EGT
488 of CFAB20, CFAB40 and CFAB60 were close at part loads and show small variations at
489 higher load due to more fuel supplied. The main cause of higher EGT is associated with the
490 quality of fuel combustion and the rich oxygen content of biodiesel. The higher density of
491 fuel promotes earlier fuel injection which may enhance better mixing of air with fuel for
492 improved combustion. Also, biodiesel and its blends have a shorter ignition delay than diesel
493 due to the higher cetane index [41]. The above factors contribute to the reduced premixed
494 combustion and longer mixed combustion. The existence of unburnt fuel particles at the later
495 stage of mixed combustion proceeds to burn which resulted in higher EGT [44,45].
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496
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497
498 Fig. 13. Exhaust gas temperature of tested fuels at various loads
499
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500 3.3 Emission characteristics

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501 3.3.1 Carbon monoxide

502 The variation in CO emissions for the fuels tested at specific loading condition is
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503 elucidated in Fig. 14. Various factors significantly affect CO emission are the design of
504 combustion chamber, the load applied, engine speed, injection timing, injection pressure, type
505 of fuel, air-fuel ratio and fuel atomization rate [46]. At no-load condition, the CO emission is
506 low for all the fuels. This increases with an increase in load for diesel and CFAB fuels. The
507 reason for the rise in CO at higher loads is due to an increase in fuel supplied which results in
508 the rich fuel mixture. This leads to improper combustion in the engine resulting in higher CO
509 levels for all the tested fuels. The CO emission is observed to be higher for diesel when
510 compared to all the blends of CFAB. A possible reduction in CO was seen with the increase
511 in the blending ratio of biodiesel. The CO and HC emission decreased greatly by shorter
512 chain length and monounsaturated fatty acids [47]. The oil selected for the study has a higher
513 percentage of shorter-chain and single bond saturated fatty acids. The short-chain fatty acid
514 molecules tend to have higher oxygen to carbon ratio (O/C). Therefore, the decrease in CO
515 emission is due to the higher oxygen content of biodiesel which leads to complete and cleaner
23
516 combustion [48]. CFAB40 and CFAB60 exhibit a very close trend at all loading conditions of
517 the engine. Highest CO values of diesel, CFAB20, CFAB40, CFAB60 and CFAB100
518 measured were 0.2, 0.18, 0.15, 0.14 and 0.1%. The CFAB100 has a significant reduction of
519 50% CO emission than diesel at full load.
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520
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521 Fig. 14. Carbon monoxide emissions of tested fuels at various loads
522
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523 3.3.2 Hydrocarbon emissions

524 Hydrocarbon emission of diesel and CFAB blends concerning engine load is
525 presented in Fig. 15. The probable causes for the formation of hydrocarbon emission in a
526 compression ignition engines are due to the entrapment of fuel in the crevice area, injector
527 nozzle and interface between the cylinder and piston [49]. Other sources of HC includes local
528 over lean/rich air-fuel mixture, fragmentary evaporation of fuel and impingement of fuel
529 sprayed on the combustion chamber walls [50]. At no load and partial load conditions, the
530 amount of HC emitted is low compared to higher loads. Among the tested fuels, HC emission
531 of diesel is recorded higher due to the rich carbon nature of the fuel and limited time for
532 combustion due to ignition delay. Reduction in HC intensity of CFAB fuels is due to
533 enhanced hydrocarbon oxidation favoured by rich oxygen content of CFAB methyl esters.
534 High cetane number, presence of short-chain saturated fatty acids, advanced fuel injection
535 and combustion timing are the factors contributing to lower HC emissions [48]. The high
24
536 temperature prevailing in the combustion chamber due to improved combustion supported
537 better fuel evaporation and consequent reduction in HC emission. The HC emission noted for
538 the diesel was 71 ppm which is 36.6% more compared to that of CFAB100 at full load.
539 Similarly the CFAB20, CFAB40 and CFAB60 showed significant reduction of 11.2%, 16.9%
540 and 25.4% with respect to diesel. It can be inferred that the HC decreased with increasing
541 concentration of biodiesel.
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543 Fig. 15. Hydrocarbon emissions of tested fuels at various loads

544
545 3.3.3 Nitrogen oxides
546 Fig. 16 presents the variation of NOx emission from no load to full load for all the
547 tested fuels in diesel engines. The nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
548 combinedly called NOx emission. The predominant mechanisms for the NOx formation are
549 Zeldovich, prompt or Fenimore, fuel NOx, N2O pathway and NNH [51]. Factors that have a
550 greater effect in NOx emissions when biodiesel is used as fuel are air-fuel equivalence ratio,
551 compression ratio, inlet air temperature and pressure, physicochemical properties of the fuel,
552 injection timing and ignition delay [52]. The NOx emission of biodiesel and its blends are
553 found to be increasing with the engine load, which is inexpedient. The NOx increases with an
554 increase in load which is due to more fuel supplied for the same power output. As a result of
555 the combustion of biodiesel fuels, more hydrogen atoms and CH2 radicals are produced. This
25
556 resulted in higher levels of CH, CN and C2 radicals formation causing high NOx [53]. Also,
557 biodiesel has higher oxygen content which promotes complete combustion and higher
558 combustion temperature, thereby increasing the NOx emission [54]. The highest value of
559 NOx measured for diesel, CFAB100, CFAB60, CFAB40 and CFAB20 is 1850 ppm, 2250
560 ppm, 2077 ppm, 1994 ppm and 1952 ppm respectively at full load. The NOx emission for
561 CFAB100 is quite high i.e 17.7% when compared to diesel.
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562
563 Fig. 16. Nitrogen oxides of tested fuels at various loads
564
565 3.3.4 Smoke opacity
566 Fig. 17 shows the smoke opacity in the exhaust gas of test fuels at different engine
567 loading conditions. Smoke is a typical diesel engine emission formed consisting of high soot
568 concentrations, sulphur dioxide, water vapour, volatile vapour, etc. in the exhaust gas. The
569 soot is mainly a carbonaceous fraction of particulate matter formed due to combustion of the
570 rich fuel-air mixture. Soot, adsorbed unburned hydrocarbons on the soot core and sulphates
571 are the main contents of the particulate matter. Smoke emission increased with medium and
572 high loading conditions compared to low load condition for all the tested fuels. This is due to
573 more fuel supplied to maintain the power output. The air-fuel ratio and cylinder temperature
574 are important for the formation of smoke. Decreased air-fuel ratio and higher cylinder
26
575 temperature exist at medium and high loads compared to low load. But there are some spots
576 in the combustion chamber with a lower air-fuel ratio than the stoichiometric value which
577 attributes to increased smoke [55]. The biodiesel fuels resulted in diminished smoke density
578 compared to diesel. The percentage decrease in smoke emission for CFAB20, CFAB40,
579 CFAB60 and CFAB100 are 28.5%, 42.8%, 50% and 64.2 % at no load condition and 10.7%,
580 14.3%, 28.6% and 42.9% at 100% load compared to diesel fuel. Diesel has higher smoke due
581 to lack of oxygen, high carbon to hydrogen ratio and also contains aromatic compounds [10].
582 High oxygen content, prolonged combustion duration and higher combustion temperature of
583 biodiesel promote soot oxidation [56]. Improved oxidation of soot particles leads to the
584 formation of CO and CO2 thereby reducing smoke emission.
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586
587 Fig. 17. Smoke opacity of tested fuels at various loads
588
589
590 CONCLUSION
591 In the present investigation, biodiesel preparation from coconut fatty acid distillate and its
592 characterization as a fuel in diesel engine was studied. Biodiesel was produced by two-step
593 processes, esterification and transesterification due to the high acid value of the coconut fatty
27
594 acid distillate feedstock. Esterification process was carried out with 10:1 methanol to oil
595 ratio, 2.5% H2SO4 at 60°C. The concluded optimum parameter values of 8:1 methanol to oil
596 ratio, 1.5% KOH at 60°C was used for transesterification. This condition resulted in a
597 maximum CFAB yield of 92.6%. The brake thermal efficiency of all biodiesel fuels is lower
598 when compared to diesel. CFAB20 showed better performance and it is in an acceptable
599 range with diesel. When tested with biodiesel and its blends HC, CO and Smoke emissions
600 were reduced to higher levels than diesel. CFAB100 possesses better characteristics
601 compared to all the fuels tested. On the other hand, oxides of nitrogen increased for CFAB
602 and its blends when compared to diesel. The CFAB20, CFAB40, CFAB 60 and CFAB100
603 showed an average increase of 5.1%, 7%, 10.9% and 17.7% at full load.
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604 The present study has established that the CFAD as a plausible feedstock for biodiesel
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605 production. To meet the demand and to reduce the dependency on regular feedstock, the
606 CFAD can be one of the potential sources. The performance and emission characteristics of
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CFAB and its blends are comparable with diesel fuel. It can be concluded that the CFAB20
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608 blend produced results closer to diesel. It can be used in unmodified diesel engines to reduce
609 the dependency on diesel fuel. In future, studies can be carried out to improve the biodiesel
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610 yield using various optimization techniques. Investigation focusing on reducing the NOx with
611 higher blends is another topic for future work.
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612
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613
Nomenclature
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APME Aphanamixis polystachya methyl EGT Exhaust gas temperature

esters
BP Brake power FFA Free fatty acid
BSEC Brake specific energy consumption GC Gas chromatography
BTE Brake thermal efficiency H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
CaO Calcium oxide HC Hydrocarbon
CFAD Coconut fatty acid distillate Kl Potassium Iodide
CFAB Coconut fatty acid distillate biodiesel KOH Potassium hydroxide
CFAB20 80% Diesel and 20% Coconut fatty N2O Nitrous oxide
acid distillate biodiesel
CFAB40 60% Diesel and 40% Coconut fatty NaOH Sodium hydroxide
28
CFAB60 40% Diesel and 60% Coconut fatty NO Nitric oxide
CFAB100 100% Coconut fatty acid distillate NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
biodiesel
CO Carbon monoxide NOx Nitrogen oxides
CO2 Carbon dioxide PDSO Pithecellobium dulce seed
ME oil methyl ester
CR Compression ratio RSM Response surface
methodology
DI Direct Injection SFC Specific fuel consumption
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615 Declaration of Competing Interest
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
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617 relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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618
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34
COCONUT FATTY ACID DISTILLATE AS NOVEL FEEDSTOCK FOR
BIODIESEL PRODUCTION AND ITS CHARACTERIZATION AS A
FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE
Highlights
• A by-product from vegetable oil refinery as feedstock for biodiesel production
• The Oil characterization revealed the presence of 91.53% saturated fatty acids
• Two-stage transesterification was used due to the high acid value of the oil.
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• Performance and emission results of B20 blend is closer to diesel
•
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CO, HC and smoke opacity of B100 was reduced by 50%, 36.6% and 42.9% at full
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load.
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Declaration of interests
☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests:
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(K. RAJESH)
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(Dr. M.P. Natarajan)

of
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(Dr. P.K. Devan)
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Jo
(Dr. S. Ponnuvel)
CREDIT AUTHOR STAEMENT IS GIVEN BELOW
K. RAJESH : Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Software,

Writing- Original draft preparation
M.P. NATARAJAN : Data curation, Supervision, Formal analysis, Writing- Review

and editing
P.K. DEVAN : Resources, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
of
Writing- Review and editing.
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S. PONNUVEL : Investigation, Visualization, Writing- Review and editing.
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K. Rajesh, M.P. Natarajan, P.K. Devan, S. Ponnuvel

To appear in: Renewable Energy

Received Date: 29 May 2020

© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Rajesh Ka, Natarajan M Pb, Devan P Kc, Ponnuvel Sd

E-mail address: ponnuvel@svce.ac.in

54 Pongamia pinnata, Croton megalocarpus, Calophyllum inophyllum, Neem, Moringa oleifera,

89 was prepared by combination of esterification and transesterification process which achieved

Fig. 1. Global production of Coconuts Fig. 2. Global production of Coconut oil

185 2.1 Materials

Caproic C6:0 116.1 0.724

Caprylic C8:0 144.2 10.206

Capric C10:0 172.3 6.749

Lauric C12:0 200.3 45.533

Stearic C18:0 284.4 2.551

Linolenic C18:3 278.43 0.064

Properties CFAD Method

Density @15°C (kg/m3) 892 ASTM D4052

244 Fig. 4. Typical process diagram for CFAD biodiesel production

274 CFAB Yield (%) = x 100 (1)

Properties CFAD biodiesel Petrodiesel Method

Density @15°C (kg/m3) 879 810 ASTM D4052

Flash Point (°C) 90 55 ASTM D93

Calorific Value (kJ/kg) 36069 42500 ASTM D240

Pour point (°C) -3 -12 ASTM D97

Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.8 - ASTM D664

329 Table 4. Test engine specifications

Engine parameters Specifications

Model Kirloskar TV1

Engine type Single cylinder, 4 stroke, vertical diesel engine

Cooling system Water-cooled

Maximum power 3.5 kw @ 1500 rpm

Cylinder bore 87.5 mm

Stroke length 110 mm

Connecting rod length 234 mm

Dynamometer Eddy current, water-cooled

Injection timing 23° before TDC

Injection pressure 200 bar

Software Engine performance analysis software “Enginesoft”

Engine load Strain gauge type load cell ± 0.1 kg ± 0.2

Speed Speed sensor ± 10 rpm ±1

Time Digital stopwatch ± 0.2 s ± 0.2

Exhaust temperature K-type thermocouple ± 1℃ ± 0.1

Fuel flow DP transmitter - ±1

HC AVL Gas analyser ± 15 ppm ± 0.2

CO AVL Gas analyser ± 0.02% ± 0.2

NOx AVL Gas analyser ± 20 ppm ± 0.2

Smoke opacity Smoke meter ± 0.1 ±1

388 Fig. 8. Effect of methanol to oil ratio on biodiesel yield.

407 3.1.3 Effect of reaction temperature:

408 The reaction temperature is another factor having greater importance in

426 3.1.4 Estimation of the optimum yield of CFAD Biodiesel

480 3.2.3 Exhaust gas temperature

500 3.3 Emission characteristics

501 3.3.1 Carbon monoxide

523 3.3.2 Hydrocarbon emissions

543 Fig. 15. Hydrocarbon emissions of tested fuels at various loads