Metal Forming

Extrusion , Wire Drawing and Rolling

Prof. S.K.Sahoo
 Extrusion
Definition:
Extrusion is defined as the process of shaping material,
such as aluminum, by forcing it to flow through a shaped
die orifice under high pressure. Extruded material emerges
as an elongated piece with the same profile as the die
opening.

•Squeezing toothpaste out of tube is a very good

example of the process
 Principles of Working
• A ram /Punch advances from one end of the die and
causes the metal to flow plastically through the die

High compressive force exerted by the ram gives rise to high

compressive stress in the billet due to its reaction with the
container and wall. These stresses exceed yield strength and
effective in producing solid state plastic flow of material.
 Principles of Working

The force required for

extrusion depends on:
• The strength of the billet
material
• The extrusion ratio Ao/Af
• Friction between the billet
and the chamber and die
surface
 Extruded items
• Railings for sliding doors
• Window frames
• Tubing having various cross-
sections
• Aluminum ladders
• Numerous structural and
architectural shapes
 Continue…

Examples of parts made by sectioning off extruded long product

 Advantages of Extrusion
• Many shapes can be produced that are not possible
with rolling
• Amount of reduction in a single step is only limited
by the equipment, not the material or the design
• Dies are relatively inexpensive
• Small quantities of a desired shape can be produced
economically
• Large deformations can take place without fracture,
because the material is under high triaxial compression
during the process.
 Continue…
• It can be applied to difficult to form, like stainless steel,
nickel based alloys and other high-temperature materials.
• Automation of extrusion process is simpler as items are
produced in a single passing.
• Dimensional accuracy of extruded parts is generally
superior to that of rolled ones.
• The range of extruded items is very wide. Rods from 3-
250 mm in diameter, pipes of 20-400 mm in diameter
with wall thickness of 0.1 mm and above, more
complicated shapes which cannot be obtained by other
mechanical working methods.
 Types of Extrusion Methods
A) Based on working Temperature:
a) Hot extrusion : Above the recrystalization temperature
of billet.
• The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.
– Need to pre-heat dies to prolong die life and reduce billet cooling.
– Hot working tends to develop an oxide film on the outside of the work unless
done in an inert environment.
Solution:
 A smaller-diameter dummy block can be
placed ahead of ram/punch and billet is
pushed for extrusion. A layer of oxidized
material is then left in the chamber
sticking to wall, and is later removed and
final part is free of oxides.
 Extrusion Methods…

b) Cold extrusion: Below the recrystalization temperature,

light materials like copper , brass, aluminium are also
extruded in cold condition.
-Products of cold extrusion include aluminium cans,
collapsible tubes and gear blanks.
-The process can be used for most materials, provided that
sufficiently robust machinery can be designed.

c) We can have also Warm extrusion.

 Advantages Cold vs. Hot Extrusion
• Cold:
– Better mechanical properties due to work-hardening.
– Good dimensional tolerances & surface finish.
– No need to heat billet.
– Competitive production rates & costs.
• Hot:
– Larger variety of materials.
– Less forces required.
– Better material flow.
 Continue…
B) According to the method of application of force:
• Direct extrusion
– Punch pushes the entire billet through a stationary die.
• Indirect extrusion
– A hollow punch with a die pushes a stationary billet.
• Impact extrusion
– The punch gives repeated impact force to a confined
billet to get seamless collapsible tooth paste tube like
components.
• Hydrostatic extrusion
– Force is applied through fluid medium around the
billet.
 Continue…
B) According to the method of application of force:

• Combined extrusion process

– Extrusion with forging can be combined to get
complex shapes.
• Tube/ Hollow shape extrusion
– Special dies or rollers are used to get tube and hollow
shapes.
• Vertical or Horizontal extrusion
– It depend on equipment's ram moves vertical or
horizontal.
 Direct or forward Extrusion

Die

Billet

– Punch movement & product material flow in same direction.

– Must provide additional power to overcome friction between
billet surface and die walls
•At lower temperature, a mixture of oil and graphite is generally
used. At high temperature glass powder is used which stays in
liquid from giving necessary heat insulation and lubrication effect.
 Indirect /Backward/Inverted Extrusion

Die
Billet

– A hollow ram/punch pushes the die back through a stationary,

confined billet
– Direction of force or ram direction is opposite of the extruded
metal flow direction.
– No relative motion and no friction between billet and die walls.
– More complex process, more expensive equipment required.
 Lateral Extrusion

– Punch movement & product material flow in perpendicular

direction.
– Must provide additional power to overcome friction between
billet surface and die walls and velocity change.
– Used for specific flange creation.
 Impact Extrusion

•The slug or billet kept on the die & punch impacts it with high
pressure. The product extruded between the punch and die opposite
to punch movement.
•It is used to produce short length collapsible toothpastes tubes. It is
usually done cold condition & for soft metal like lead , tin ,copper
etc.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
•The pressure required for extrusion is supplied by the incompressible
fluid medium surrounding the billet, except where the billet contacts
the die. It eliminates the friction.
•Due to the hydrostatic pressure
the ductility of the material
increases. Even brittle materials
like tungsten, cast iron and
stainless steel etc can be
extruded.

• Applications: Cladding of metals, making wires of less ductile

materials, extrusion of nuclear reactor rods etc. However, the
absence of container friction combined with reduced die friction
can increase the tendency to internal crack formation.
 Combined Extrusion processes
Combination of operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion
and forging.

a) Combined forward and backward extrusion

 Combined Extrusion processes

b) Combined extrusion and forging also called cold extrusion & forging
 Extrusion of tube and hollow Shapes/ Hooker Extrusion
Tubes and hollow shapes can be produced by extrusion by attaching a
mandrel to the end of the ram. Tubes are produced by starting with a
hollow billet in which mandrel is positioned co-axially with die
opening and then further movement of ram extrusion taken place.

Mandrel and ram have independent motions use a hollow billet

 Extrusion of tube and hollow Shapes/ Hooker Extrusion

Tubes can also are produced using solid billet in which a solid billet is
first pierced and then extruded.

Mandrel and ram move as a single unit. Using a solid billet

 Extrusion tubing with a Porthole die or Spider die

• The metal is forced to flow into separate streams

and around the central bridge, which supports a
short mandrel.
• The separate streams of metal which flow
through the ports are brought together and gets
welded together since it is still in plastic state, and
the metal exits from the die as a tube.
 Production of seamless pipe and tubing

• Extrusion–rolling is suited for

producing seamless pipe and tubing,
especially for metals which are
difficult to work.
• The red-hot billet is rotated and
drawn by rolls over a piercing rod,
or mandrel. The action of the rolls
causes the metal to flow over and
about the mandrel to create a hollow
pipe shell.
 Production of seamless pipe and tubing

(a)The Mannesmann mill is used for the rotary

piercing of steel and copper billets using two barrel-
shape driven rolls, which are set at an angle to each
other. The axial thrust is developed as well as
rotation to the billet.
(b)The plug rolling mills drive the tube over a long
mandrel containing a plug.
(c) The three-roll piercing machine produces more
concentric tubes with smoother inside and outside
surface.
(d)The reeling mill burnishes the outside and inside
surfaces and removes the slight oval shape, which is
usually one of the last steps in the production of pipe
or tubing.
 Extrusion variables
(influencing the force required to cause metal flow)

1) Type of extrusion (direct / indirect)

2) Extrusion ratio
3) Working temperature
4) Speed of deformation (punch speed)
5) Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall.
•Type of extrusion
The behavior of extrusion pressure with
ram travels for both direct and indirect
methods Indicate:
It consists of 3 stages.
a) Initial compression stage: The rapid
increase in pressure is due to the initial
compression of the billet to fill the container.
b) Stable coining stage: In this stage flow of the extruded metal
starts. As length of billet decrease, pressure decrease for direct
extrusion .but it remain constant for indirect one as friction is absent.
c) Unstable end stage: At the end of the extrusion, the billet size
reduced to minimum which requires more pressure for the metal to flow
from distance from die.
•Extrusion ratio: V0 A0

Af
Extrusion ratio, R, is the ratio of the initial Vf
cross-sectional area , Ao, of the billet to the final
cross-sectional area , Af , after extrusion.

R ~ 40:1 for hot extrusion of steels.

R ~ 400:1 for aluminium.
A0  A f
r
Fractional reduction in area, A0 or

Relation between R & r can be written as:

•Extrusion ratio:
V0 A0

Af
Vf

As, volume input=output V0*A0=Vf*Af

where V0,Vf are the velocities of punch/billet and extruded part .

As, A0/Af = R Vf=R*V0

Note: R is more descriptive at large deformations.

Ex: R = 20:1 and 50:1 r = 0.95 and 0.98 respectively.

•Effects of temperature on extrusion
• Decreased flow stress or deformation resistance due to increasing extrusion
temperature.
• The top working temperature below the melting point or hot-shortness range but
above the recrystallization temperature that provide the metal with suitable plasticity.
• Oxidation of billet and extrusion tools.
• Softening of dies and tools.
• Difficult to provide adequate lubrication.

Note: Working temperature in extrusion is normally higher than used in forging and
rolling due to relatively large compressive stresses in minimising cracking.
For steel it is about 100-1200 0C and pressure is between 800-1200 MPa. The
equipments are preheated to about 3500 C to avoid cold cracking. Glass powders are
used at this high temperature for lubrication purpose.
 •Speed of deformation/Ram speed or extrusion speed

• Low extrusion speeds lead to greater cooling of the billet.

• The higher the temperature of the billet, the greater the effect of
low extrusion speed on the cooling of the billet.
• Therefore, high extrusion speeds are required with high-strength
alloys that need high extrusion temperature.

As speed increase, the billet doesn’t get time to cool. So its

temperature will more. Also the internal deformation causes ride in
temperature is more in speed extrusion which may cause hot
shortness. So, high extrusion speed is used for high strength alloys
that need high extrusion temperature.
•Relationships between Extrusion ratio, Temperature and Pressure

• For a given extrusion pressure, extrusion ratio R increases with

increasing Extrusion temperature.
• For a given extrusion temperature, a larger extrusion ratio R can be
obtained with a higher extrusion pressure.
Extrusion temperature Extrusion ratio (R)
Extrusion pressure

Relationships between extrusion speed and heat dissipation

Extrusion speeds heat dissipation

Extrusion speeds Heat dissipation Allowable extrusion ratio

•Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall
(a) Low container friction and a well-lubricated billet – nearly
homogeneous deformation (indirect extrusion or hydrostatic
extrusion ): Deformation of billet is nearly uniform except at the
edge of the die.
b) Moderate container wall friction: Producing a dead zone of
stagnant metal at corners which undergoes little deformation.
Essentially pure elongation in the centre and extensive shear along
the sides of the billet.
 •Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall

c) High friction at the container-billet Interface: Metal flow

is concentrated toward the centre and an internal shear
plane develops – due to cold container. In the sticky
friction, the metal will separate internally along the shear
zone.
 Extrusion equipment (Presses, dies and tools)
Extrusion equipment mainly includes:
1)Presses 2) Extrusion dies 3) Tools

1)Presses: Most extrusions are

made with hydraulic presses.

• These can be classified based

on the direction of travel of the
ram.

1) Horizontal press
2) Vertical press
Typical arrangement of extrusion tools.
Horizontal extrusion presses
(15- 50 MN capacity or upto 140 MN)
• Used for most commercial extrusion of bars and shapes.
Disadvantages:
• deformation is non-uniform due to different temperatures
between top and bottom parts of the billet.

Vertical extrusion presses (3- 20 MN capacity)

Chiefly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.
Advantages:
• Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
• Higher rate of production.
• uniform deformation, due to uniform cooling of the billet in the
container.
•Container: It is the massive /bulky part which makes the extrusion
chamber and takes the compressive stress and thermal shocks, made
of alloy steel. The inside surface is protected with a linear which can
take stress and temperature effect and can be replaced regularly.

•Punch: It consists of
a) Ram/Plunger of the press which supply the compressive force.
b) Pressure stem: It transfer the force,concentrate the force to billet.
c) Pressure Plate/Dummy block: It fully enclose the billet inside the
cylinder and give protection from temperature effect to the pressure
stem. It’s diameter is slightly less than diameter of billet.
•Die Block/stock: It consists of
a) Die: Made of non shrinkable die steel (Ni,Cr alloyed steel),gives
the required cross section to the extended product.
b) Die holder: It supports the die.
c) Die-bolster: Support the die and die holder and die backer.
d) Die-backer: Take compressive stress of die and retain it in holder.
e) Die-wheel: Keep die holder and die together.
f) Die-set/pattern: Keep all the components of the die stack.
Die materials
• Dies are made from highly alloy tools steels or ceramics (zirconia,
Si3N4 ).
(for cold extrusion offering longer tool life and reduced lubricant
used, good wear resistance).

Die design consideration

• Size to weight ratio: minimum
• Symmetrical: more accurate.
• Wall thickness: different wall thicknesses in one section should be
avoided.
• Simple shapes: the more simple shape the more cost effective.
• Sharp or rounded corners: should be avoided.
• Tolerances: added to allow some distortions
 •Type of dies & die angle
Chamber Die
There are three general types of extrusion Hydraulic
dies: 1) Flat-faced dies 2) Conical dies Piston Billet
stock

Extruded
3) Curved dies. shape

1) Flat-faced dies: Metal entering the die will form

a
dead zone and shears internally to form its own die
angle.
• A parallel land on the exit side of the die helps
strengthen the die and allow for reworking of the
flat face on the entrance side of the die without
increasing the exit diameter. α = 900
 •Type of dies & die angle

2) Conical/Taper Dies:
• for most operation, 450 < α< 600

3) Curved Dies:
• Friction loss and redundant work can
be minimized
•It can be cosine, sine, elliptic, circular,
hyperbolic, polynomial etc.
 Extrusion defects
1) Formation of annular ring of oxide : Centre of the billet moves
faster than the periphery. After about 2/3rd of the billet is extruded,
the outer surface of the billet moves towards the centre and extruded
through the die near the axis of the rod. Since the surface of the billet
often contains an oxidised skin, this type of flow results in internal
oxide stringers on the transverse section through the extruded product
it appears like an annular ring of oxide.

Remedy:
• discard the remainder of the billet (~30%) where
the surface oxide begins to enter the die not
economical.
• use a follower/dummy block with a smaller diameter of the container
to scalps the billet and the oxidised layer remains in the container.
2) Continuous centre hole or Piping or Funneling:
Cause: This arise at last part of extrusion, ie, when the last one
fourth of the billet is compressed, due to rapid radial flow of metal
into die opening results in the creation of an axial hole or funnel,
in the back of end of the extruded product. It may extend for some
distance into the back end, so to be discarded.

Remedy: The length can be minimised by inclining the face of

the ram at an angle to the ram axis.
3) Centre burst or chevron cracking:
Cause: It can occur at low extrusion ratio or due to low
frictional conditions on the zone of deformation at the
extrusion die. It is due to the presence of oxide layer or
non plastic welding at the centre.
Remedy: Usually high friction (at a the tool-billet interface)
gives a sound product.
4) Surface cracking:
• It can be a badly roughened surface to repetitive transverse
cracking called fir-tree cracking. This is due to longitudinal
tensile stresses generated as the product passes through the die.
• The most common case is too high ram speed for the extrusion
temperature.
• At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the sudden
building up of pressure and then breakaway will cause transverse
cracking.

Remedy: Use of optimal ram speed and billet temperature and

heating the container.
5) Variations in structure and
properties within the extrusions Extrusion
due to non-uniform deformation for Grain direction
growth
example at the front and the back of
the extrusion in both longitudinal
and transverse directions.
• Regions of exaggerated grain
growth, due to high hot working
temperature.

6) Hot shortness (in hot extrusion):

High temperatures generated cause incipient

melting, which causes cracking.
 Drawing / Wire drawing
•Drawing is a metal working
process in which material is
pulled through a die in order to
reduce it in size & to get desired
shape. Round, square, hexagon and
other shape can be obtained by this
process.

•The diameter & thickness of tube can also

be reduced by drawing. The process is
similar to wire drawing except that a
mandrel tapered pug is kept at die opening.
Tube Drawing Operations
 Extrusion load calculation
Assumption: 1. Homogenous deformation,
ie., stresses are uniform across the section
•No friction
Let initial conditions are: A0, l0, D0
Final states are: Af, lf, Df
For a ram or billet movement of ‘l0 ’ with
punch pressure ‘p’ and Area ‘A0’
External work supplied=p · A0 · l0
A0
Same work is used for internal metal p l0 Af
deformation, If V=volume lf
lf
Internal work done= Y f ·ε ·V=Y f ·ln ·V
Ao l0 (V= A0 l0 = Af lf )
Y
= f · ln ·V
Ao Af
Equating, p= Y· f ·ln . Giving Extrusion Load requirements, F =p · A0
Af
or F= Y f· ln Ao · A0
Af
 Drawing Process
• Process variables in wire drawing:
Die angle, Reduction in cross-sectional area per pass,
Speed of drawing, Temperature, and Lubrication
affect the drawing force, F.
Drawing Force: Y f – average flow stress of the material
F = Y f  ln (Ao/Af) · Af

Strain, ɛa = 0
ɛb = ln (lf/ lo) = ln (Ao/Af)
b
1  K n 1 
Yf 
 b   a  1  n   a
 Maximum Reduction

Assume perfectly plastic material (n=0), no friction, no

redundant work,
Ao Ao 1
 d  Y f ln  Y ln  Y ln Y
Af Af 1 r

Then
ln Ao A f  ln 1 1  r  1
Ao A f  1 1  r  e
 max  1.0 for perfectly plastic material
The maximum possible area ratio Ao A f  e  2.7183
The maximum possible reduction rmax  e  1 e  0.632
or 63.2%
 Example: A 35 mm rod dia is extruded to 20 mm dia. Initial
length of billet is 75 mm. True stress-strain follow σ = 750 ɛ0.25
MPa. Find extrusion ratio & ram pressure?

Answer: Extrusion ratio; R, = Ao / Af = do2/ df2 = 352 / 202 = 3.06

Load required is F =Y f Ao·ln (Ao/Af)
Strain ɛb = ln (lf/ lo) = ln (Ao/Af) = ln 3.06
Ao=  ( 35 ) m 2ɛa = 0 , σ = 750 ɛ0.25 ;
2

4 1000
b
1  K n 1 
Yf 
 b   a  1  n   a 1
ln( 3.06 )
 750 0.21 
Yf     493.7 MPa
ln(3.06)  0  1  0.25  0
Putting values,
 35
F = 493.7x106 · 4 (1000 ) 2 ·(ln 3.06) N
=475kN
Rolling is a bulk deformation process in which the metal is
plastically deformed by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls. The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously
squeeze the work between them.
Advantages:
• Provides high production rate
• Provides good control over the
dimensions of the finished product

Type of Rolling:
• Hot rolling: Metal is rolled at a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature. Higher reduction in the cross-
section is achieved
• Cold rolling: Metal is rolled at a temperature below its
recrystallization temperature. Better strength and control of
dimensions are achieved.
•Based on work piece geometry :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam
 Shape Rolling

I-sections
 Flat Roll products

Bloom first break down from ingot .cross section size various from
150×150mm to 250×300mm. Cross section area more than 225cm2.
Billet: It is made from bloom. Its cross section varies from
50×50mm to 125×125mm.
Slab: It is made from ingot or bloom .It is rectangular .Thickness
50-150mm& width 0.6-1.5m widths at least twice the thickness.
Cross section area is more than 100cm2.
Plate: plate is a finished or semi finished product with thickness
more than 6.35mm, width equal to width of roll.
 Flat Roll products

Sheet: It is thinner than plate i.e. maximum thickness is 6.35mm.

Width is more than 600mm.
Strip: It is a narrow sheet of maximum width of 600mm & thickness
maximum6.35mm.
Foil: It is a thin strip with a maximum width of 300mm and a
maximum thickness of 1.5mm.
Bar: - It is a long, straight, symmetrical piece of uniform cross
section. It may be round, square, or other configuration, the round is
called rod.
Wire- It is a thin variety of bar with maximum 9.5mm cross section.
 Types of roll stands/mill
2-high
2-high reversing

4-high
3-high Backing rolls

Idle roll
Working rolls
 Types of roll stands/mill
Cluster rolls (12-high) Planetary mill

Backing
rolls

Tandem rolling mill

 Rolling Defects
•Elastic deformation rolls and rolling mill due to high
rolling load. This gives poor dimensional accuracy.
•Bending of rollers: Due to roll separating force rolls bend
so the metal get curved . To avoid this, rolls are given a
crown or camber. So that after bending it becomes
straight.
 Rolling Defects

Because of roll bending the rolled sheets become thin along

the edge, whereas at centre, the thickness is higher.
Similarly, deflected rolls result in longer edges than the
centre. Edges of the sheet elongate more than the centre.
Due to continuity of the sheet, we could say that the centre
is subjected to tension, while edges are subjected to
compression. This leads to waviness along edges. Along the
centre zipper cracks occur due to high tensile stress there. Rolling
direction

•Waviness – This is due to the

different elongation at different
location.
Wavy edge
 Rolling Defects
•Edge and Zipper cracks –The centre of
metal elongate more than at edge which
gives rise to edge and zipper cracking.
•Edge spreading For low reduction the top & Edge cracks
bottom surface spread more that centre gives rise
to concave edge .For high reduction it gives rise to
convex edge.
•Alligatoring- If stresses are sever & there already
exist a crack or defects at middle , then the work Zipper cracks
piece becomes two part which look like an alligator
mouth in opening position.
 Mechanics of Rolling
Rolls transfer energy to the strip through friction. As the strip is
dragged by the rolls into the gap between them, it decreases in
thickness while passing from the entrance to the exit. Meanwhile
its length gradually increases from the entrance to the exit.
• For volume constancy: h0V0w0 = hfVfwf (wf =w0, Typically wf =1.02w0 ) As
h0 > hf , Vf >Vo (Velocity of strip increases from Entry to Exit)

V0 = input velocity
Vf = final or output velocity
R = roll radius
h0 = Input billet height
hf = output or final thickness
= = angle of bite
L = Roll Gap or projected arc length
N-N = neutral point or no-slip point
W =width of sheet
 Mechanics of Rolling

To the left of the Neutral Point:

Velocity of the strip < Velocity of
the roll
To the right of the Neutral Point:
Velocity of the strip > Velocity of
the roll
At the Neutral Point:
Velocity of the strip =
To the left of the Neutral Point: Surface velocity of the roll
Friction help to drag the strip into the Gap
To the right of the Neutral Point:
Friction oppose the strip movement
 Roll bite condition
For the workpiece to enter the throat
of the roll, the component of the
friction force must be equal to or
greater than the horizontal
component of the normal force.
Where,
F= is a tangential friction
force
Pr = radial force

But we know
• If  < tan  , the workpiece cannot be
Therefore  ≥ tan  drawn into the roll gap.

Therefore, Free engagement will occur when  > tan 

To increase the effective values of  , grooving the rolls parallel to
the roll axis can be done. Using big rolls to reduce tan  or if the
roll diameter is fixed, ho to be reduced.
 The maximum reduction/Draft, (h)max
In Triangle ABC
Where,
a= h/2
Draft, h=h0 – hf

As a is much smaller than R, we can then ignore a2.

 Rolling Load
Roll Force/Load: F = LwYave
L= Projected Roll-strip contact length
w=Average strip width

• Contact length L  Rh0  h f 

• Average flow stress:
• If,   k n

f

 d
k n
f h0
 k n 1  
n  f  ln
Yave  0
  k
f
hf
f   f (n  1)  0 n 1
•Ring Rolling

Schematic illustration of a
ring-rolling operation.
Thickness reduction
results in an increase in
the part diameter.
•Thread Rolling

Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (c) reciprocating flat dies;

(b) two-roller dies.
Threaded fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by
these processes, at high rates of production.
 Tube Rolling
Diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing can be reduced by
tube rolling, which utilizes shaped rolls