Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Financial Management PDF
Financial Management PDF
347EN130
348EN130
349EN130
1 – 24
1 – 22
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
LESSONS : 1 – 24
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
1
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
EDITORIAL BOARD
Members
Dr. R. Rajendran
Dean
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University
Annamalainagar.
Dr. A. Rajamohan
Dr. C. Samudhrarajakumar Professor and Head
Professor and Head Management Wing, D.D.E.
Department of Business Administration Annamalai University
Annamalai University Annamalainagar.
Annamalainagar.
Internals
Dr. D. Senthil Dr. S. Jambulingam
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Management Wing Management Wing
D.D.E.
D.D.E.
Annamalai University
Annamalai University
Annamalainagar.
Annamalainagar.
Externals
Dr. R. Thenmozhi Dr. Jayapal
Professor and Head Professor and Head
Department of Management Studies Department of Bank Management
University of Madras Alagappa University
Chennai. Karaikudi.
Lesson Writers
Units: I – III Units: IV – VI
Dr. V. Sachithanantham Dr. D. Ayubkhan
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Management Wing Department of Commerce
D.D.E Quaide Milleth College for Men
Annamalai University
Chennai.
Annamalainagar.
i
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
Lesson Title Page No.
No.
1 Overview of Financial Management 1
2 The Time Value of Money 26
3 Short term Financing 35
4 Working Capital Management 44
5 Management of Cash 92
6 Receivables Management 107
7 Inventory Management 121
8 Long Term Financing 142
9 Equity And Preference Shares 154
10 Debentures and Bonds 174
11 Listing and Underwriting of Securities 191
12 Retained Earnings 205
13 Dividned and Dividend Policy 224
14 Theories of Dividend 238
15 Dividend Policy and Dividend Pay-out Ratio 255
16 Cost of Capital 270
17 Computation of Cost of Capital 275
18 Capital Stucture 292
19 Theories of Capital Structure 300
20 Leverage 319
21 Corporate Restructuring: Mergers Amalgamations 332
and Acquistions
22 Financial Management of Sick Units 346
23 Economic Value Added 358
24 Value of Shares 371
1
LESSON – 1
personnel. Thus it may be stated that all the functions or activities of the business
depends on how best all these functions can be co-ordinated.
A tree keeps itself green and growing as long as its roots sap the life juice from
the soil and distribute the same among the branches and leaves. The activities of
an organization also keep going smoothly as long as finance flows through its veins.
Any and every business will ultimately be reflected through its finance the mirror
and also the barometer of the enterprise functions.
Finance and Other Functional Areas of Management
Financial Management and Research and Development: The Research and
Development manager has to justify the money spent of research by coming up with
new products and process which would help to reduce costs and increase revenue.
If the Research and Development department is like a bottomless pit only
swallowing more and more money but not giving any positive results in return, then
the management would have no choice but to close it. No commercial entity runs a
Research and Development department for conducting infructuous basic research.
For instance, until 5 years ago, 80% of the Research and Development efforts of
Bush India, the 45-year old consumer electronics company, well known for its
audio systems, were in TVs and only 20% was in audio. But the fact that a 15-year
stint in the TV market starting form 1981 when the company shifted its interest
from the audio line to TV manufacture, led the company’s decline to near oblivion,
pausing the once-famous. Bush brand name to near anonymity, called for a change
in production and re-orientation of Research and Development strategy. The
company has also identified and shut down some of its non-productive divisions
and trimmed its workforce. At the beginning of 1992. Bush had 872 employees, by
the ends this was cut down to 550. The company had to further cut it down to 450
by the end of 1993.
Financial Management and Materials Management: Likewise the materials
manager should be aware the inventory of different items in stores is nothing but
money in the shape of inventory. He should make efforts to reduce inventory so
that the funds release could be put to more productive use. At the same time, he
should also ensure that inventory of materials does not reach such a low level as to
interrupt the production process. He has to achieve the right balance between too
much about which you will read more in the lessons on Working Capital
Management. The in an organization are reflected in the financial statements in
rupees.
Financial Management and Production Management: In any manufacturing
firm, the Production Manger controls a major part of the investment in the form of
equipment, materials and men. He should so organize his department that the
equipments under his control are used most productively, the inventory of time and
work stoppages are minimized. If the Production Manager can achieve this, he
would be holding the cost of the output under control and thereby help in
3
maximizing profits. He has to appreciate the fact that whereas the price at which
the output can be sold is largely determined by factors external to the firm like
competition, government regulations, etc., the cost of production is more amenable
to his control. Similarly, he would have to make decisions regarding make or buy,
buy or lease etc., for which he has to evaluate the financial implications before
arriving at a decision.
Financial Management and Marketing Management: Marketing is one of the
most important areas on which the success or failure of the firm depends to a very
great extent. The philosophy and approach to the pricing policy are critical
elements in the company’s marketing effort, image and sales level. Determination of
the appropriate price for the firm’s products is importance both to the marketing
and the financial managers and, therefore, should be a joint decision of both. The
marketing manager provides information as to how different prices will affect the
demand for the company’s products in the market and the firm’s competitive
position while the finance manager can supply information about costs, change in
costs at different level of production and the profit margins required to carry on the
business. Thus, the finance manager contributes substantially towards formulation
of the pricing policies of the firm.
Financial Management and Personnel Management: The recruitment, training
and placement of staff are the responsibility of the Personnel Department. However,
all this requires finances and, therefore, the decisions regarding these aspects
cannot be taken by the Personnel Department in an isolation of the Finance
Department.
Thus, it will be seen that the financial management is closely linked with all
other areas of management. As a matter of fact, the financial manager has a grasp
over all areas of the firm because of his key position. Moreover, the attitude of the
firm towards other management areas is largely governed by its financial position. A
firm facing a critical financial position will devise its recruitment, production and
marketing strategies keeping the overall financial position in view. While a firm
having a comfortable financial position may give flexibility to the other management
functions, such as, personnel, materials, purchase, production, marketing and
other polices.
Evolutionary Change in the Concept of Finance
The word “finance” has been interpreted differently by different authorities.
More significantly, the concept of finance has changed markedly from time to time.
For the convenience of analysis different view points of finance have been
categorized into three major groups.
Finance Means cash only
Starting from the early part of the present century, finance was described to
mean cash only. The emphasis under this approach is only liquidity and financing
of the firm. Since nearly every business transaction involves cash, directly or
4
indirectly, finance is concerned with everything that takes place in the conduct of
the business. However, it must be noted that this meaning of finance is too broad to
be meaningful.
Finance is raising of Funds
The second grouping, also called the ‘traditional approach’, is concerned with
raising funds used in an enterprise. It covers; (a) instruments, institutions,
practices through which funds are raised and (b) the legal and accounting
relationships between a company and its sources of funds, including the
redistribution of income and assets among these sources. This concept of finance
is, of course, broader than the first as it is concerned with raising of funds.
Finance, during the forties through the early fifties, was dominated by this
traditional approach. However, it could not last for long because of some
shortcomings. First, this approach emphasized the perspective of an outsider
lender. It only analysed the firm and did not emphasis decision-making within the
firm. Second, this approach laid heavy emphasis on areas of external sources of
long-term finance. However, short-term finance i.e., working capital is equally
important. Third, the function of efficient employment of resources was totally
ignored.
Finance is raising and Utilization of Funds
The third grouping is called the integrated approach or ‘Modern Approach’.
According to this approach, the concept of finance is concerned not only with the
optimum way of raising of funds but also their proper utilization too in time and
low cost in a manner that each rupee is made to work at its optimum without
endangering the financial solvency of the firm. This approach to finance is
concerned with (a) determining the total amount of funds required in the firm,
(b) allocating these funds efficiently to the various assets, (c) obtaining the best mix
of financing-type and amount of corporate securities, (d) use of financial tools to
ensure proper and efficient use of funds
1.3.1 Evolution of Finance as a Discipline
To begin the study of financial management what is needed is to address to
two central issues First, what is financial management and what is the role of
finance manager? Second, what is financial decision making and what is the goal of
financial management?
Finance has emerged as a distinct area of study during second half of the
twentieth century. But even before that some direct or indirect references to finance
function were made on a casual basis. The evolution of finance function and the
changes in its scope appeared due to two factors, namely,
1. The continuous growth and diversity in business, and
2. The gradual appearance of new financial analytical tools.
Financial Management is concerned with the planning and controlling of the
firm’s financial resources. It was a branch of Economics till 1890. Later on it was
developed into a separate subject. Since thirty years, the importance of Financial
5
relate with the arrangement of cash and credit so that the organization may have
the means to carry out its objectives as satisfactorily as possible.”
Phillippatus has given a more elaborate definition of the term financial
management. According to him “Financial Management is concerned with the
managerial decisions that result in the acquisition and financing of long-term and
short-term credits for the firm. As such it deals with the situations that require
selection of specific assets (or combination of assets), the selection of specific
liability (or combination of liabilities) as well as the problem of size and growth of an
enterprise. The analysis of these decisions is based on the expected inflows and
outflows of funds and their effects upon managerial objectives.”
“Financial management is the operational activity of a business that is
responsible for obtaining and effectively utilizing the funds necessary for efficient
operation.” by Joseph & Massie
“Financial management is an area of financial decision making, harmonizing
individual motives and enterprise goals” by Weston and Brigham
“Financial management is the area of business management devoted to a
judicious use of capital and a careful selection of sources of capital in order to
enable a business firm to move in the direction of reaching its goals" by J.F.
Bradlery
Financial Management may also be defined as ‘planning, organizing, direction
and control of financial resources with the objectives of ensuring optimum
utilization of such resources and providing, insurance against losses through
financial deadlock.’ This definition clearly explains four broad elements viz.,
planning, organizing, direction and control. The details under these elements are as
follows.
a) Ascertainment of need
Planning
b) Determination of sources
c) Collection of funds
Organising
d) Allocation of funds
While the functions under planning and organizing are mostly of ‘discrete’
nature (undertaken from time to time and very often independently), those under
control area are ‘continuous’ in nature. All the principles, steps and weapons of
managerial control are applicable in proper control of financial resources and their
utilization. Hence, it is rightly said by Howard and Upton that financial
management is an application of general managerial principles to the area of
financial decision making viz. Funds requirement decision. Investment decision,
financing decision and Dividend decision. Hunt, William and Donaldson have
rightly called it as ‘Resource Management.’
Financial management is intimately interwoven into the fabric of management
itself. Not only is this because the results of managements’ actions are expressed in
financial terms, but also principally because the central role of financial
management is concerned with the same objectives as those of management itself
and with the way in which the resources of the business are employed and how it is
financed. Because it is about making profits and profits will be determined by the
way in which the resources of the business in terms of people, physical resources,
capital, and any other specific talents are organized.
Financial management is concerned with identifying sources of profit and the
factors which affects profit. That is to say with operating activities in the way in
which the assets are used, and form a longer term point of view, the process of
allocating funds to use within the business. In these activities, financial managers
form part of a management team applying their specialist advice and processing
and marshalling the data upon which decisions are based.
1.3.3 Goals of Financial Management
1.3.3.1 Specific Objective
1. Profit Maximisation: Earning profits by a corporate or a company is a social
obligation. Profit is the only means through which an efficiency of organisation can
be measured.
As the business units are exploiting the resources of the country namely, land,
labour, capital and resources, has an obligation to make use of these resources to
achieve profits. It is an economic obligation to cover the cost of funds and offer
surplus funds to expansion and growth. Accumulated profits reduce the risks of an
enterprise. It should serve as the base for all types of decisions. Profit maximization
achieved by an organisation is regarded as a primary measure of its success. The
survival of the firm depends upon its ability to earn profits. Though the profit
maximization has many features different people expressed different opinions to
consider this as main goal of a company.
8
From the above points it is clear that firms always would like to have normal
profits and Profit maximization in only an illusion But the companies do earn the
profits to pay dividends to shareholders, to meet the obligation of creditors, to offer
fair amount of wages and salaries by maintaining high quality of products.
Through this, the image of the company will go up. The image offers high
returns to the equity shareholders in the stock market, resulting in capital
appreciation to the owners in. course of time, which is called “Wealth
Maximisation”.
1.3.3.2 Wealth Maximisation
The concept of ‘Wealth Maximisation’ refers to the gradual growth of the value
of assets of the firm in terms of benefits it can produce. Any financial action can be
judged in terms of the benefits it produces less cost of action. The wealth
maximization attained by a company is reflected in the market value of shares. In
other words, it is nothing but the process of creating wealth of an organisation. This
maximizes the wealth of shareholders.
Wealth maximization is the net present value of a financial decision. Net
present value will be equal to the gross present value of the benefits of that action
minus the amount invested to receive such benefits. (NPV = GPV of benefits -
investments). The gross present value I ascertained by discounting or capitalizing
its benefits at a rate, which reflects their timing and uncertainty. Any financial
action results in positive NPV, creates wealth to the organisation. If the NPV is
negative, it reduces the existing wealth of the shareholders. The total cash inflow of
the organisation must always be more than the cash outflows. The surplus inflow of
cash indicates the size of wealth, which was added to the total value of the assets.
When earnings per share (EPS) and profit after taxes are considered as indicators of
welfare of shareholders, they clearly exhibit that 'profit' cannot take care of the
welfare of shareholders. An earnings of profits is uncertain and it is exposed to the
risk. A new financial action may bring down the ‘economic welfare’ of owners, in
spite of the increase in profits?
Significance of Wealth Maximisation
The company, although it cares more for economic welfare of the shareholders,
it cannot forget the others who directly or indirectly contribute effectively for the
overall development of the company, namely, Lenders or Creditors, Workers or
Employees, Public or Society and Management. In this backdrop, let us examine
the relevance of wealth maximization.
10
reputation and creditworthiness. Hence it has to care for the society and
consumers. Consumers are to be given good quality product with fair prices. It has
to care for society by participating directly or indirectly in its social actions namely,
sponsoring social programmes, free medical camps, free educational programmes
etc. To achieve this, a business unit must have to strike a balance between social
responsibility and profit maximization. Although the society’s needs are to be taken
care of by the company, it cannot forget the welfare of the owners, who are the
actual instruments in promoting economic welfare of the owners, who are the
actual instruments in promoting economic welfare of the society. Relevance of
“Wealth Maximisation” to the firm lies in its healthy relationship with the society.
Management: The total success of a business entity mainly depends on the
decisions of the management. The contribution of finance manager to this is
substantial. He has to make and guide the management in taking ‘right decision at
the right time’. He has to have maximum control over the movement of funds and
deploy the funds in the profitable avenues to reach maximum profits. They have to
show their competence in allowing a company to grow in all directions, create
confidence in the minds of equity shareholders.
From the forgoing discussion, it may be observed that the wealth maximization
is the ulterior motive of any firm. It cannot ignore the welfare of the organs or
associates who collectively contribute for the wealth maximization. Thus wealth
maximization takes place after satisfying these organs (lenders, workers,
management and society).
Advantages of Wealth Maximisation
1. Wealth maximization is a clear term. Here, the present value of cash flows is
taken into consideration. The net effect of investment and benefits can be measured
clearly, (quantitatively)
2. It considers the concept of time value of money. The present values of cash
inflows and outflows help the management to achieve the overall objective of a
company.
3. The concept of wealth maximization is universally accepted, because, it
takes care of interest of financial institution, owners, employees and society at
large.
4. Wealth maximization guides the management in framing consistent strong
dividend policy to reach maximum returns to the equity holders.
5. The concept of wealth maximization considers the impact of risk factor,
while calculating the NPV at a particular discount rate, adjustment is being made
to cover the risk that is associated with the investments?!
CRITICISMS OF WEALTH MAXIMISATION
The concept of wealth maximization is being criticized on the following grounds:
The objective of wealth maximization is not descriptive. The concept of
increasing the wealth of the stockholders differs from one entity to another
12
shareholders. The return on equity will not only increase, but also the risk. A
proper balance will have to be struck between return value per share will be
maximized and firm’s capital structure would be optimum. Once the financial
manger is able to determine the best combination of debt and equity, he must raise
the appropriate amount through best available sources.
Capital
Budgeting
Decisions Return
Capital
Structure
Decisions
Market
Value
Dividend of the Firm
Decisions
Working
Capital Risk
Decisons
Dividend Decision: The next crucial financial decision is the dividend decision.
This decision is the basis of dividends payment policy, reserves policy, etc. The
dividends are generally paid as some percentage of earnings on the paid-up capital.
However, the policy pursued by management concerning dividends payment is
generally stable in character. Stable dividends policy implies the payment of same
earnings percentage with only small variations depending upon the pattern of
earnings. The stable dividends policy among other things increases the market
value of the share. The amount of undistributed profits is called ‘retained earnings.’
In other words, dividends payout ratio determines the amount of earnings retained
in the firm. The amount of earnings of profit to be kept undistributed with the firm
must be evaluated in the light of the objective of maximizing shareholders’ wealth.
1.3.4.2 Short-Term Financial Decision
The job of the financial manger is not just limited to the long-term financial
decisions, but also extends to the short-term financial decisions aiming at
safeguarding the firm against illiquidity or insolvency. Surveys indicate that the
largest portion of a financial manager’s time is devoted to the day to day internal
operations of the firm; this may be appropriately subsumed under the heading
Working Capital management. Working capital management requires the
understanding and proper appreciation of its two concepts-gross and net working
15
capital. Gross working capital refers to the firm’s investment in current assets such
as cash, short-term securities, debtors, bills receivable and inventories. Current
assets have the distinctive characteristics of being convertible into cash within as
accounting year. Net working capital refers to the difference between current assets
and current liabilities. Current liabilities are those claims of outsiders which are
expected to mature for payment within an accounting year and include trade
creditors, bills payable, bank overdraft and outstanding expenses. For the financial
manger both these concepts of gross and net working capital are relevant.
Investment in current assets affects firm’s profitability, liquidity and solvency.
In order to ensure the neither insufficient nor unnecessary funds are invested in
current assets, the financial manger should develop sound techniques of managing
current assets. He should estimate firm’s working capital needs and make sure that
funds would be made available when needed.
Investment Decisions
Allocation and Rationing the Resources
Risk Vs. Return Framing (Fixed & Current) Risk Vs. Return
Assets Management polices
Cost of Capital
Debt/Equity Ratios Payout Ratios
Core in the Framew ork of
Financial Management Decison Making
Financing Decisions
Investment Decisions
Dividend Decisions
The cost of capital acts as the core in the framework for financial management
decision-making. It has a two-way effect on the investment, financing and dividend
decisions. It influences and is in turn influenced by them. The cost of capital leads
to the acceptance or rejection of projects, as it is the cut-off criterion in investment
decisions. In turn, the profitability of projects raises or lowers the cost of capital.
16
The financing decisions affect the cost of capital because it is the weighted average
of the cost of capital, in turn, influences the financing decisions. The dividend
decisions try to meet the expectations of the investors raise or lower the cost of
capital. The following figure explains the components of finance functions and their
interrelation.
Figure-4 Finance Function
Finance Functions
Executive Functions Incidental Functions
a) Financial forecasting a) Cash receipts and payments
b) Investment Policy b) Custody of valuable papers
c) Dividend Policy c) Keeping mechanical details of financing
d) Cash flows and requirements d) Record keeping and reporting
e) Deciding upon borrowing e) Cash planning
policy
f) Negotiations for new outside f) Credit management
financing
g) Checking upon financial and
performance
Organisation for Finance Function: Almost anything in the financial realm falls
within such a committee’s realm, including questions of financing, budgets,
expenditures, dividend policy, and future plans. Such is the power of financial
committee that in most cases their recommendations are approved as a matter of
course by the full board of directors. On the operational level, the financial
17
Board of Directors
President
Controller Treasurer
The above chart shows that the Vice-President (Finance) exercises his
functions through his two deputies known as: 1. Controller – concerned with
internal matters, 2. Treasurer – basically handles external financial matters.
Vice President
Finance
Controller Treasurer
1. Planning and Control 1. Provision of Finance
2. Reporting and Interpreting 2. Investor Relations
3. Tax Administration 3. Short-term Financing
4. Government Reporting 4. Banking and Custody
5. Protection of Assets 5. Credit and Collections
6. Economic Appraisal 6. Investments
7. Insurance
Fig. 5 Functions of Controller and Treasurer
The controller is concerned with the management and control of the firm’s
assets. His duties include providing information for formulating the accounting and
financial policies, preparation of financial reports, direction of internal auditing,
budgeting, inventory control, taxes, etc. While the treasurer is mainly concerned
with management of the firm’s funds, his duties include the following.
18
The controller function generally concentrates on the asset side of the balance
sheet, while the treasurer function concentrates on the claims side i.e., identifying
the best sources of finance to utilize in the business and timing the acquisition of
funds.
Controller’s and Treasurer’s Functions in the Indian Context
The terms ‘controller’ and ‘treasurer’ are essentially sued in U.S.A. However,
this pattern is not popular in India. Some companies do use the term ‘Controller’
for the official who performs the functions of the chief accountant or the
management accountant. However in most cases, in case of Indian companies, the
term ‘General Manager (Finance) or Chief Finance Manager is more popular. Some
of the functions of the Controller and the Treasurer such as government reporting,
insurance coverage, etc., are taken care of by the Secretary of the company. The
function of the treasurer of maintaining relations with its investors is also not
much relevant in the Indian context since by and large Indian investors/
shareholders are indifferent towards attending the general meetings. The finance
manager in Indian companies is mainly concerned with the management of the
firm’s financial resources. His duties are not compounded with other duties
generally in large companies. It is a healthy sign since the management of finances
is an important business activity requiring extraordinary skill and attention. He has
to ensure that the scarce financial resources are put to the optimum use keeping in
view various constraints. It is, therefore, necessary that the finance manager
devotes his full time attention and energies only in raising and utilizing the
financial resources of the firm.
Routine Duties of Financial Manager
Apart from the three broad functions of financial management mentioned
above, the financial manager has to perform certain routine or recurring function.
These are stated below:
i) Keeping track of actual and projected cash outflows and making adequate
provision in time for any shortfall that may arise.
ii) Managing of cash centrally and supplying the needs of various divisions
and departments without keeping idle cash at many points.
iii) Negotiations and relations with banks and other financial institutions.
iv) Investment of funds available and free a short period.
v) Keeping track of stock exchange prices in general and prices of the
company’s shares in particular.
vi) Maintenance of liaison with production and sales departments for seeing
that working capital position in not upset because of inventories, book
debts, etc.
vii) Keeping management informed of the financial implication of various
developments in and around the company
20
Non-Routine Duties
The non-recurring duties of the financial executive may involve preparation of
financial plan at the time of company promotion, expansion diversification,
readjustments in times of liquidity crisis, valuation of the enterprise at the time of
acquisition and merger thereof, etc.
Today’s financial manager has to deal with a variety of developments that
affect the firm’s liquidity and profitability, including:
a) High financial cost identified with risk-bearing investments in a capital-
intensive environment;
b) Diversification by firms in to differing businesses, markets, and product
lines;
c) High rates of inflation that significantly affect planning and forecasting the
firms operations;
d) Emphasis on growth, with its requirements for new sources of funds and
improved uses of existing funds;
e) High rates of change in technology, with an accompanying need for
expenditures on research and development;
f) Speedy dissemination of information, employing high speed computers and
nationwide and worldwide networks for transmitting financial and
operating data.
Social Responsibility of Financial Manager
Another point that deserves consideration is social responsibility: should
businesses operate strictly in the stockholders’ best interest, or are firms also partly
responsible for the welfare of society at large? In tackling this question, consider
first the firms whose rates of return on investment are close to normal, that is,
close to the average for all firms. If such companies attempt to be socially
responsible, thereby increasing their costs over what they otherwise would have
been, and if the other business in the industry do not follow suit, then the socially
oriented firms will probably be forced to abandon their efforts. Thus, any socially
responsible acts that raise costs will be difficult, if not impossible, in industries
subject to keen competition.
What about firms with profits above normal levels – can they not devote
resources to social projects? Undoubtedly they can many large, successful firms do
engage in community projects, employee benefit programmes, and the like to a
greater degree than would appear to be called for by pure profit or wealth
maximization. Still, publicly owned firms are constrained in such actions by capital
market factors. Suppose a saver who has funds to invest is considering two
alternative firms. One firm devotes a substantial part of its resources to social
actions, while the other concentrates on profits and stock prices. Most investors are
likely to shun the socially oriented firm, which will put it to a disadvantage in the
capital market. After all, why should the stockholders of one corporation subsidies
21
society to a greater extent than stockholders of the businesses? Thus, even highly
profitable firms (unless they are closely held rather than publicly owned) are
generally constrained against taking unilateral cost-increasing social action.
Does all this mean that firms should not exercise social responsibility? Not at
all-it simply means that most cost-increasing actions may have to be put on a
mandatory rather than a voluntary basis, at least initially, to insure that the
burden of such action falls uniformly across all businesses. Thus, fair hiring
practices, minority training programmes, product safety, pollution abatement,
antitrust actions, and are more likely to be effective if realistic rules are established
initially and enforced by government agencies It is critical that industry and
government cooperate in establishing the rules of corporate behavior and that firms
follow the spirit as well as the letter of the law in their actions. Thus, the rules of
the game become constraints, and firms should strive to maximize stock prices
subject to these constraints.
FINANCE MANAGER
Finance manager is a person who heads the department of finance. He forms
important activities in connection with each of the general functions of
management. He groups activities in such a way that areas of responsibility and
accountability are clearly defined. His focus is on profitability of the firm. The profit
centre is a technique by which activities are decentralised for the development of
strategic control point. The determination of the nature and extent of staffing is
aided by financial budget programme. Planning involves heavy reliance on financial
tools and analysis. Control requires the use of the techniques of financial ratios and
standards. Briefly, an informed and enlightened use of financial information is
necessary for the purpose of co-coordinating the activities of an enterprise. Every
business, irrespective of its size, should, therefore, have a financial manager who
has to take key decisions on the allocation and use of money by various
departments. Specifically, the finance manager should anticipate financial needs;
acquire financial resources and allocate funds to various departments of the
business. If the financial manager handles each of these tasks well, his firm is on
the road to good financial health. Since the financial manager is an integral part of
the top management, he should shape his decisions and recommendations to
contribute to the overall progress of the business. It is his primary objective, to
maximize the value of the firm to its stockholders.
1.3.5 Functions of Finance Manager
The following are some of the important functions of the finance manager.
He should anticipate and estimate the total financial requirements of the
firm (Preparing sound financial plan).
He has to select the right sources of funds at right time and at right cost.
[Balancing the own capital (EQUITY) and borrowed capital (DEBT) for the
best advantage of the firm.]
22
.
26
LESSON – 2
their existing assets to its present condition. In actual sense there are certain
difficulties for the computation of replacement value. For example there may be
some difficulties to ascertain the present value of similar assets used by the firm.
And also it ignores value of intangible assets.
(v) Going concern value: According to the going concern concept it is assumed
that the business will continue for a very long period of time. Simply the business is
not discontinued. Going concern value is the price which a firm could realize if it is
sold as running the business. Generally the going concern value will be always
higher than the liquidation value. Valuation refers to the process that links risk and
return to determine the value of an asset.
(vi) Bonds or debenture valuation: In order to raise long term funds the
government, public sector and private sector companies may issue the securities
known as bonds.
2.3.3 Valuation Concepts
The above discussion establishes that there is a preference of having money at
present than at a future point of time. This automatically means: that a person will
have to pay in future more for a rupee received today; and a person may accept less
for a rupee to be received in future. There are two different concepts:
1. Compound Value Concept.
2. Present Value Concept.
Each of these concepts are being explained in detail in the following pages.
Compound Value Concept
In case of this concept, the interest earned on the initial principal becomes a
part of principal at the end of the compounding period. For example, if Rs. 100 is
invested at 10% compound interest for two years, the return for first year will be Rs
10 and for the second year interest will received on Rs. 110 (Le. 100 + 10). The total
amount due at the end of second year will become Rs. 121 (i.e. 100 + 10 + 11). This
can be understood better with the following illustration:
Illustration 1: Rs. 1.000 is invested at 10% compounded annually for three
years. Calculate the compounded value after three years.
Solution
Amount at the end of 1st year will be:
1,000 + (1,000 x .10) =Rs. 1,100
or1,000 x (1.10) =Rs. 1,100
Amount at the end of 2nd year will be:
1,0.00-+(l.l00 x.10) =Rs.1,210
or1.100x (1.10) =Rs. 1,210
Amount at the end of 3rd year will be:
29
i = interest rate
n = number of years for which compounding is to be done.
The-term compounded value is also referred to as terminal value i.e. value at
the end of a period.
Illustration 2: Calculate the compound value when Rs. 1,000 is invested for 3
years and the interest on it is compounded at 10% p.a. semi-annually.
Solution
The general formula is
A = P(l + i/m)mxn
Substituting the value we get
2x3
10
A 1,0001
2
1,340
Compounding Annuities
Compound Value Annuity Table assumes an annuity payment of Rs. 1 for 'n'
years at an interest rate of T. It gives the compound value when Re. 1 is invested
every year for 'n' years at 7 rate of interest. Annuity Table gives the compound value
of an annuity immediately after the last payment is made. In other words it gives
the compound value of an annuity at the point where the last installment is paid.
This effectively means that annuity involving A: number of payments will occur over
a period of x-l number of years. This will be clear from the following illustration.
Illustration 4: Find the compounded value of annuity when three equal yearly
payments of Rs. 2,000 are deposited into an account that yields 7% compound
interest.
Solution: We know that the annuity table gives the compound value
immediately after 3rd installment. So, the 3rd installment will be compounded for
'nil' years. 2nd Installment will be compounded for 1 year and 1st installment will
be compounded for 2 years.
The annuity Table gives the compound value as 3.215 when Re. 1 is paid every
year for 3 years at 7%. Thus, the compounded value of annuity of Rs.2,000 is:
= Rs. 2,000 x (3.215) = 6,43o
Present Value or Discounting Concept
The present value concept is exact opposite of the compounding technique
concept. In case of compounding we calculate the future value of a sum of money or
series of payments, while in case of Present Value Concept, we estimate the present
worth of a future payment/installment or series of payments adjusted for the time
value of money.
The basis of Present Value approach is that opportunity cost exists for money
lying idle. That is to say, that interest can be earned on the money. This return is
termed as 'discounting rate'. Given a positive rate of interest, the present value of
future rupee will always be lower. The technique for finding the present value is
termed as ‘discounting’.
Present Value after 'n' Years
From the above discussions it is obvious that value of Re. 1 received after a
time period, is less that its present worth. Therefore, an investor would like to part
away with a sum that is less than Re. T to get Re. 1 after a time period. To calculate
the amount that he is willing to part away with, the following formula can be used:
A
Pv
(1 i)n
Here Pv = Principal amount the investor is willing to forego at present
i = interest rate
A = Amount at the end of the period n
n = number of years
32
This basically means add up the Present Value Factors and multiply with Rs.
500, Le., 3.170 x 500 = Rs. 1,585.00.
Formula for calculation of the present value of an annuity can be derived from
the formula for calculating the Present Value of a series of cash flows.
A A
Pv 1 2 .......... .... An
(1 i)I (1 i)I (1 i)n
1/4
1 1 1 1
A .......... .......... .....
(1 i)1 (1 i)2 (1 i)3 n
(1 i)
n 1
A
t 1 (1 i)n
33
Where:
PVAn = Present value of ‘n’ annuity’
A = Value of single installment
i = Rate of interest.
However, as stated earlier a more practical method of computing the present
value would be to the annual installment with the present value factor. The formula
would then be as follows:
PVAn = A x ADF
where ADF denotes Annuity Discount Factor.
The PVAn in the above example can be calculated as:
500 x 3.170 = Rs. 1,585
Present Value of a Perpetual Annuity
A person, may like to find out the present value of his investment in case, he is
going to get a constant return year after year. An annuity of this kind which goes on
for ever is called a perpetuity. A practical example is the way in which scholarships
are given to the students in schools/colleges. An individual invests a certain sum of
money, on which a constant interest is received year after year. This return is given
in the form of award, to students achieving academic excellence. This type of
annuity continues forever.
The present value of a perpetuity of an amount A can be ascertained by simply
dividing A by interest rate as discount i, symbolically represented as A/i.
Illustration 6: Mr. Principal wishes to institute a scholarship of Rs. 500 for an
outstanding student every year. He wants to know the present value of investment
which would yield Rs. 500 in perpetuity, discounted at 10%.
Solution: The present value can be simply calculated by dividing Rs. 500 by
.10 that gives us Rs. 5,000. This is quite convincing since an initial sum of Rs.
5,000 would if invested at a rate of 10% would provide a constant return of Rs. 500
for ever without any loss of initial capital.
2.4 REVISION POINTS
Annuity: Refers to a uniform cash flows or a series of equal annual payment for
a specified period
Time value: Value of money received today is more than value of same amount
received after a certain period.
2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is the concept of time value of money?
2. List out the techniques of time value of money?
3. State the reasons for time preference for money.
4. Write short notes: (i) Annuity (ii) Discount rate (iii) Annuity due and (iv)
Effective Interest rate.
34
2.6 SUMMARY
The more important objective of financial management is to maximize the
shareholders Wealth or maximize the value of the shares in the market. In order to
achieve this objective there is a need to develop valuation model. In other words the
investors from their opinion above the firm on the basis of information about these
decisions while taking these decisions the finance manager must keep the time
factor in mind i.e., (i) when interest on funds raised will have to be paid ;(ii) When
return in investment will be received and (iii) whether it will be received on
consistent basis. All this requires that the finance manager knows about the
various valuation concept Compound value concept, annuity concept, present value
concept etc. All there concept are basically based on their fact that the money has a
time value.
2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. …………………………of the assets means value recorded in the books or
balance sheet of a firm which is prepared according to accounting concept.
2. ………………….is the value of asset or the security bought or sold in the
market at the current market rate or present value.
3. …………………… is exact opposite of the compounding technique concept
2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. http://educ.jmu.edu/
2. http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/
3. www.finance professor.com
2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain the different methods of valuing the firms
2. Eplain the signifance of of time value of money.?
2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Reeta manthur, Indian Financial System, Jain Book Agency. New Delhi
2. Machiraju , Indian Financial System, Jain Book Agency, New Delhi.
3. Vasant Desai, Indian Financial System and development, Sulthan Chand .
2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
What is the present value of an income stream which provides rs.2000 a year
for the first five years and Rs.3000 a year forever therafter, if the discount rate is 10
percent?
2.12 KEYWORDS
Book Value, Market Value, Liquidation Value, Replacement Value, Going
concern Value, Compund Value Concept, Present Value concept.
35
LESSON - 3
current liabilities, in reality these items may assume non-current character over
years. In current assets by search into the sundry debtors and inventory, one may
get disillusioned from such hidden non-current elements. Similarly, in current
liabilities management may declare allowable limit of turnover cycle and chances
for matching current assets with current liabilities.
(ii) Short-term Finance Requirement: The organization’s long-term investment
plan based on management's objectives should be broken down into short-term
operating plans. This short-term operating plans determine the quantum of finance
required for short-term horizon.)
(iii) Self-generation of Funds: Projected forecast of cash should show self-
generation of funds to meet the operating plan. Residual of the projected cash flow
would represent the final period-to-period requirement of finance calling for a
financing package-which is the focal point.
(iv) Management of Current Assets: It is ordinarily assumed that various items
of current assets are efficiently managed. But it would be necessary to know the
optimal turnover and mix of current assets, after taking into consideration that:
(a) Cash and marketable securities give a return lower than other items of
current assets.
(b) Autonomous cash inflows/outflows are a result of the company's
established policy and involve no decision variables. This means that the company
has an established policy with regard to the discharge of the bills of various
creditors and Credit grants to customers are matched according to the credits from
suppliers of goods and services.
(c) There has to be a definite policy of eliminating minimizing the use of
working capital for meeting long-term needs, i.e., acquisition of non-current assets.
(d) Within the organisation there must be information consciousness and
system orientation.
If the above measures are adopted, it would be possible to get a clear picture of
the objectives long-term plan, short-term operating plan, liquidity preference, risk
attitudes, etc.
3.3.2 Characteristics of Short-Term Financing
(i) Short-term finance tends to be-less expensive than long-term finance. The
principal supplier of the short-term variety is the banking system and its overdrafts
and loans have the additional advantages of being available quickly and
inexpensively.
(ii) Short-term financing embraces the borrowing or lending funds for a short
period of time, say one year or less.
(iii) There is a common tendency for greater use of short-term financing among
small concerns and lesser use among large concerns is prevalent in practically all
types of business. This is probably accounted for by the fact that small-sized
37
wide variety of purposes, and, more important, they purchase consumptive goods
on time from retail stores.
(v) Banking Credit: It relates to the process by means of which banking
institutions are enabled to attract funds of depositors and to make loans and create
obligations, payable on demand, which are not backed by a matching cash reserve.
(vi) Investment Credit: It is used in connection with the development of
business enterprises such as railroads, factories, workshops, stores, farms, mines,
etc. The funds borrowed are used mainly for the creation of "Fixed" or durable
forms of capital goods; hence the term “fixed capital”,
(vii) Commercial Credit: It is employed in financing the production,
manufacture and marketing of goods in furnishing working capital. In contrast with
investment, credit, the borrower is usually in a position to repay his loan in a very
short period of time.
(viii) Consumptive Credit: It involves the granting of loans or the selling of
goods on time to individuals who use the money or the goods received for the
purpose of satisfying consumptive wants!"?
3.3.4 Sources of Short-Term Financing
1. Trade Credit
Trade creditors in the narrowest sense are manufacturers, wholesalers, other
suppliers of merchandise, materials or suppliers, that is, tangible goods, that are
sold to other business establishments on the basis of deferred payment. In a
broader sense trade creditors include those firms rendering services to other
concerns. Credit is extended by these firms in an Endeavour to increase their sales
or because of custom that has been built up over time. Such credit is not a cash
loan but results from a sale of goods or services which need not be paid for until
some time after the sale takes place. Trade creditors are the most important single
source of short-term credit.
2. Bank Credit
Commercial banks are a major source of finance to industries and commerce.
Banks have introduced many innovative schemes for the disbursements of
credit. The schemes of village adoption, agricultural development branches and
equity fund for small units are representative of such schemes. They have moved in
the direction of bridging certain difficulties or gaps in their policies such as giving
too little credit to agriculture, small industries, etc. Banks in India provides mainly
short-term credit for financing working capital needs, although they have of late
started attending to term loan requirements in a small measure. Term credit is
mainly extended by development and financing institutions also called as
development banks”.
Cash credit and overdrafts are the running accounts from which the borrower
can withdraw funds as and when needed after the credit limit is sanctioned by the
bank. Cash credit is given against the security of commodity stocks, whereas
39
Features of Factoring
1. Client can get 80% of the invoice amount from the factor after the factoring
agreement.
2. Client shifts his responsibility of credit collection from the customers.
3. The responsibility of maintaining credit sales ledger vests with the factor.
4. The client will have easy access to know the details of credit sales.
5. The financial position of the client can be strengthened as factoring supply
easy cash. This helps the company to provide funds for working capital.
6. The remaining balance of 20% of invoice amount will be paid by the factor
at the time of realisation of assigned invoice.
7. Client has to pay service charges in addition to the interest on funded
amount to the factor.
8. Factoring allows client to spend more time on planning for his business, as
the time to be spent on credit collection is looked after by factor.
9. Factor many at times offers the services of consultancy in areas of
production, finance and marketing.
Pricing of Factoring Services
Pricing of factoring service mainly depends on two factors/aspects:
1. Administrative Aspect: The activities relating to sales ledger maintenance,
credit collection, and protection against bad debts are charged at 0.5-2.5% on the
turnover.
2. Interest or Discount Charges: Interest or discount charges are levied on the
client for providing instant cash up 80% on the invoice value. The base for charging
interest would be the interest rate of bankers.
Types of Factoring
Factors influencing the type of factoring service:
The type of factoring services available in India and rest of world is varied.
There is no uniform system prevailing in the factoring arrangements. The selection
of the type of factoring service mainly depends on the nature of the client's
business, volume of business and the cost that can be charged on the service. In
addition to these three, factor must also have to consider the safety and security for
his funds as well as the services.
However, in the general global practice, the following package of factoring
services are offered:
1. Full Service Factoring: This method is one of the most popular factoring
service practiced in India. Under this system, factor provides finance, maintains
sales ledger, undertakes credit collection, offers protection against bad debts and
offer consultancy services. In the event of bad debts, if the factoring agreement has
been made as “Factoring with recourse”, the obligation to repay the dues vests with
41
clients. In case of “Factoring with non-Recourse” factors has to absorb the loss of
bad debts. Even under ‘factoring with recourse’ if the size of bad debts and other
monetary loss is huge. It is the ultimate responsibility of the client to make good
the loss to the factor. In other words, factoring without recourse will automatically
be converted into Factoring with Recourse.
2. Factoring with Recourse or With Recourse Factoring: Under this method, the
client is not given protection against the bad debts. In the normal factoring
arrangements 90 days credit collection period will be allowed to customer to pay his
dues. If the customer fails to pay his dues within this allotted time, it becomes the
responsibility of the client to pay the remaining balance of the amount to factor.
Otherwise, factor can charge “Refactoring Charges” on the dues of the customers.
In addition to finance, factor offers the services of maintaining sales ledger
accounts and offer consultancy services to the clients.
3. Maturity Factoring: Under this method, factor offers only services relating to
maintenance of sales ledger account, asset management, credit control including
collection of debts, debt protection and will not provide finance. Therefore, it is also
called as ‘Collection Factoring.
4. Invoice Factoring: Under this system, invoices are sold to a factor as opposed
to the system previously mentioned where actual goods are sold. The scheme in
practice commences with an agreement made with the business desiring funds. The
method is not inflexible and may be adjusted to particular requirements. The
business list the invoices it wishes to sell, stating the anticipated settlement dates.
5. Bulk Factoring: Under this method, the total agreed bunch of invoices of the
client will be considered for providing 80% finance to client. However, the
arrangement of this will be made known to the debtors. Hence, the responsibility of
maintaining sales ledger, collection of credit and the risks of bad debts vests with
client himself.
6. Agency Factoring: This is a unique type of factoring arrangement in which
the risks and responsibility of clients and factors are clearly defined. Client takes
the responsibility of maintaining the sales ledger administration and collection of
debts from the customers.
7. Undisclosed Factoring: Under this method, instead of making a sale direct to
the customer, on arrival of the time for delivery goods are sold to a factor for cash
who then appoints the business as its agent to collect the debt outstanding. A
cheque is received on delivery of the goods and the customers collects the debt on
behalf of the factor, but the factor has no recourse to the business in the event of a
bad debt arising.
3.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SHORT-TERM FINANCING
Advantages
Easier to Obtain: For most firms it is easier to secure short-term funds than
long-term funds, because creditors advancing funds for a few weeks or months
42
generally assume less risk than on longer loans. There is less chance of substantial
change in the credit standing of the borrower occurring before maturity because of
a change in his competitive position or because of a change in general economic
conditions. Most of the employees of business firms are paid weekly or monthly. An
employee who is paid every two weeks is, in effect, extending credit to his employer
for an amount which averages one week's wages. Moreover, short-term credit is
obtained automatically, since in the ordinary course of business, expenses
accumulate for a period before they actually become due and require repayment.
Such accumulating but unpaid amounts appear as accruals under current
liabilities.
Cost: Short-term financing may be obtained at lower cost than long-term
financing. By cost is meant interest plus any service charges or other costs on an
annual basis paid by the borrower in connection with the credit.
Flexibility: Short-term financing is more flexible than long-term financing.
Flexibility refers to the ability of the business to secure funds as and when they are
needed and repay them as soon as the need vanishes.
Disadvantages
Frequent Maturities: The greatest hazard of short-term liabilities is the frequent
maturity of principal. Debts must be paid at maturity, or else the business may be
closed by creditors.
High Cost: The second possible disadvantages of short-term finance is that it
may be very costly, as the rate of interest may be high. On account of credit risk,
collateral protection, general economic outlook and size of loan, the rate of interest
demanded by lenders may be high.
Widely Fluctuating: Total asset debt of a business fluctuate over the year and
over the business cycle. The extent of the fluctuation depends on the nature of the
business conducted. A cannery or coal business has large seasonal fluctuations
and a heavy machinery manufacturer or building contractor would have large
cyclical variations. Within enterprises with personal asset fluctuations it is the
current assets rather than the fixed assets that show practically all the variation.
Inventory will have to be increased just prior to the busy season.
3.4 REVISION POINTS
Trade credit: Credit extended by the suppliers of goods in normal course of
business.
Bank Credit: Commercial banks grant short-term finance to business.
Bills discounting: Banks also advance money by discounting bills of exchange,
promissory notes and hundies.
Factoring : An arrangement between a factor and his client which includes
finance, maintenance of accounts, collection of debt and protection against credit
risk.
43
44
LESSON – 4
broader view of working capital would also include current liabilities. The current
liabilities includes all types of liabilities which will mature for payment within a
period of one year e.g., bank overdraft, trade creditors, outstanding expenses,
provision for taxation, proposed dividend, etc. Thus, working capital management
involves the managing of individual current liabilities and the managing of all inter-
relationships that link current assets with current liabilities and other balance
sheet accounts. The net concept is advocated for the following reasons:
i) In the long-run what matters is the surplus of current assets over current
liabilities.
ii) It is this concept which helps creditors and investors to judge the financial
soundness of the enterprise.
iii) Can always be relied upon to meet the contingencies (the excess of current
assets over current liabilities).
iv) Helps to find out the correct financial position of companies having the
same amount of current assets.
The net working capital may either be positive or negative. If the total current
assets are more than total current liabilities, then the difference is known as
positive net working capital, otherwise the difference is known as negative net
working capital.
4.3.2 Constituents of Working capital
No matter how, we define working capital, we should know what constitutes
current assets and current liabilities. Refer Balance Sheet of any company for this
purpose.
Current Assets: The following listed are the companies as current assets:
1. Inventories: (a) Raw materials and packing materials, (b) Work-in progress,
(c) Finished/Traded Goods and (d) Stores, Spares and fuel.
2. Sundry Debtors: (a) Debts outstanding for a period exceeding six months, (b)
Other debts.
3. Cash and Bank Balances: (a) With Scheduled Banks (i) in Current accounts,
(ii) in Deposit accounts; (b) with others, (i) in Current accounts.
4. Loans and Advances: (a) Secured Advances; (b) Unsecured (considered good),
(i) Advances recoverable in cash or kind for value to be received, (ii) Deposits,
(iii) Balances with customs and excise authorities.
Current Liabilities: The following items are included under this category,
1. Sundry Creditors
2. Unclaimed dividend warrants
3. Unclaimed debenture interest warrants
4. Short term loans and advances
5. Provision for taxation
47
6. Proposed dividend I
4.3.3 Classification of Working Capital
Generally speaking, the amount of funds required for operating needs varies
from time to time in every business. But a certain amount of assets in the form of
working capital are always required, if a business has to carry out its functions
efficiently and without a break. These two types of requirements –permanent and
variable are the basis for a convenient classification of working capital
Figure-1 Types of working capital.
Working Capital
Permanent Temporary
(or Fixed) (or Variable/Fluctuating)
distribution, war contracts, contractors to supply new businesses, and the like,
which can be undertaken only if sufficient funds are available, and which in many
cases mean the survival of a business.
2. Variable Working Capital
The variable working capital changes with the volume of business. It may be
sub-divided into (i) Seasonal and (ii) Special Working Capital. In many lines of
business (e.g., Gur or sugar and Fur industry operations are highly seasonal and as
a result, working capital requirements vary greatly during the year. The capital
required to meet the seasonal needs of industry is termed as Seasonal Working
Capital. On the other hand, Special Working Capital is that part of the variable
working capital which is required for financing special operations, such as the
inauguration of extensive marketing campaigns, experiments with new products or
with new methods of distribution, carrying put of special jobs and similar to the
operations that are outside the usual business of buying, fabricating and selling.
This distinction between permanent and variable working capital is of great
significance particularly in arranging the finance for an enterprise. Regular or fixed
working capital should be raised in the same way as fixed capital is procured,
through a permanent investment of the owner or through long-term borrowing. As
business expands, this regular capital will necessarily expand. If the cash returning
from sales includes a large enough profit to take care of expanding operations and
growing inventories, the necessary additional working capital may be provided by
the earned surplus of the business. Variable needs can, however, be financed out of
short-term borrowings from the Bank or from public in the form of deposits.
The position with regard to the ‘fixed working capital’ and ‘variable working
capital’ can be shown with the help of the following figures:
Y
Variable working
capital
Amount
O Period X
From the above figure it should not be presumed that permanent working
capital shall remain fixed throughout the life of the concern. As the size of the
business grows, permanent working capital too is bound to grow. The position can
be depicted with the help of the following figure:
Y
Variable working
capital
Amount
al
Capit
kin g
ed Wor
Fix
O Period X
So unlike a static concern, the fixed working capital of a growing concern will
increase with the growth in its size.
Elements of Working Capital
(i) Cash: Management of cash is very important fro firm’s point of view. There
must be balance between the twin objectives of liquidity and cost while managing
cash. There must be adequate cash to meet the requirements of all segments of the
organization. Excess cash may be costly to meet the requirements of all segments of
the organization. Excess cash may be costly for the concern as it will increase the
cost in terms of interest. Less cash may also be harmful to the concern as it will not
be able to meet the liabilities as the appropriate time. Thus the requirements of the
cash must be estimated properly either by preparing cash flow statements or cash
budgets. This will help the management to invest the idle funds remuneratively and
shortages, if any, may be met timely by making different arrangements. Therefore,
it is necessary that every segment of the organisation must have adequate cash in
order to meet the requirements of that segment without having surplus balances.
Cash management is highly centralized whereby cash inflows and outflows are
centrally controlled but in multi-divisional companies it may be possible to
decentralize cash requirements so that every company may have cash for its
requirements.
50
(i) The Production Cycle: There is bound to be time span in raw materials input
in manufacturing process and the resultant output as finished product. To sustain
such production activities the requirement of investment in the form of working
capital is obvious. The lesser the production cycle (or the operating cycle) the lesser
will be the requirements of working capital. There are enterprises due to their
nature of business will have shorter cycle than others. Further, even within the
same group of industries, the more the application of technological advances in, will
result in shortening the operating cycle. In this context the choice of product
requiring shorter or greater operating cycle will have a direct impact on the working
capital requirements. This is factor of paramount importance irrespective of
whether a new industry is venturing production of the first time or an on-going
business. Hence it can be said that the time span for each stage of the process of
manufacture if geared to improve upon will lead to better efficiency and utilisation
of working capital.
(ii) Work-in-Process: A close attention is to be given to the accumulation of
work-in-progress or work-in-process. Unless the sequences of production process
leading to conversion into finished product is kept under close observation to
achieve better production and productivity, more and more working capital funds
will be tied up. In this context, proper production planning and control is vital.
(iii) Terms of Credit from Suppliers of Materials and Services: The more the
terms of credit is favourable i.e., the more the time allowed by the creditor’s to pay
them, the lesser will be the requirement of working capital. Hence, the aspect in
working capital management. In this process the impact of the requirement of
finance is shared by the creditors for goods and services.
(iv) Realisation from sundry Debtors: The lesser the time span between selling
the product and the realisation the more will be the quicker inflow of cash. This, in
turn, will reduce the finance required for working capital purposes. A realistic credit
control will reduce locking up of finance in the form of sundry debtors. The impact
of better realisation will not only help in reducing the working capital fund
requirement but also can boost up the finance needed for other operational needs.
The important factors in credit control will be: (a) volume of credit sales desired; (b)
terms of sales and (c) collection policy.
(v) Control on Inventories: The decision to maintain appropriate minimum
inventories either in the form of raw material, stores materials, work-in-process or
finished products is an important factor in controlling finance locked up. The better
the control on inventories the lesser will be the requirements of working capital.
The following vital factors involved in inventory management are to be considered
for an effective inventory control: (a) volume of sales, (b) seasonal variation in sales,
(c) selling ‘off the shelf’, (d) stocking to gay from higher price under inflationary
conditions, (e) the operating cycle, i.e., the time interval between manufacturing,
selling and realization, and (f) safety or buffer stock. A minimum policy levels of
52
stock may have to be maintained to seize the opportunity of selling when there is
spark in demand for the product.
(vi) Liquidity Versus Profitability: The management dilemma as to the optimal
balancing between liquidity (and solvency) and the profitability is another factor of
great importance on the determination of the level of working capital requirement.
In other words, the level of liquidity and the profitability to be maintained according
to the goals of financial management.
(vii) Competitive Conditions: The whole question of cash inflow depends as to
the quickness in selling the products and the realisation thereof. In this context,
the nature of business and the product will be the two important contributory
factor as to the policy on the quantum of working capital requirements.
(viii) Inflation and the Price Level Changes: In an inflationary trend, the impact
on working capital is that more finance is needed for the same volume of activity
i.e., one has to pay more price for the purchase of same quantity of materials or
services to be obtained; such raising impact of prices can be fully or partly
compensated by increasing the selling price of the product. All business may not be
in a position to do so due to their nature of product, competitive market or
Government’s regulatory price.
(ix) Seasonal Fluctuation and Market Share of Product: There are products
which are mostly in demand in certain periods of the year. In other words, there
may not be any sale or only a fraction of the total sale in off-season due to seasonal
nature of demand for the product. There may be shifting of demand due to better
substitute of the product available. This means the company affected by this
economics, attempts to plan diversification to sustain profit, expansion and growth
of the business. In certain businesses, demands for products are of seasonal in
nature and for certain businesses, the raw materials buying have to be done during
certain seasonal timings. Naturally the working capital requirement will be more in
certain periods than in others.
(x) Management Policy on Profits, Retained Profit, Tax Planning and Dividend
Policy: The adequacy of profit will lead to strengthen the financial position of the
business through cash generation which will be ploughed back as internal source
of financing. Tax planning is an integral part of working capital planning. It is not
only the question of quantum of cash availability for tax payment at the appropriate
time but also through tax planning the impact of tax payable can be reduced.
Dividend Policy considers the percentage of dividend to be paid to the shareholders
as interim and / or final dividend. There must be cash available at the appropriate
time after the dividend is declared. This way the dividend payment is connected
with working capital management.
(xi) Terms of Agreement: It refers to the terms and conditions of agreement to
repay loans taken from bankers and financial institutions and acceptance of ‘fixed
deposits’ from public. The question of fund arrangement whether for working
53
capital needs or to long term loans is to be decided after taking into account the
repayment ability? The cash flow projection will have to be made accordingly.
(xii) Cash (Flow) Budget: In order to meet certain cash contingencies it may be
necessary to have liquidity in form of marketable securities as cash reservoir. This
extra cash reserve may remain as an idle fund. This type of cash reserve is
necessary to meet emergency disbursements.
(xiii) Overall Financial and Operational Efficiency: A professionally managed
company always applies appropriate tools and techniques to achieve efficiency and
utilization of working capital fund. Adequacy of assessment and control of business
will lead to improve the ‘working capital turnover’. Management also will have to
keep itself abreast of the environmental, technological and other changes affecting
the business so that an effective and efficient financial management can play a vital
role in reducing the problems of working capital management.
(Xiv) Urgency of Cash: In order to avoid product becoming obsolete or to under-
cut the competitors to hold the market share or in case of emergency for cash
funds, it may be necessary to sell out products at a cheaper rate or at a discount or
allowing cash rebate for early realization from sundry debtors (customers). This
situation may boost up the cash availability. However, this sort of critical situation
should be avoided as this results in reducing profit.
(xv) Importance of Labour Mechanisation: Capital intensive industries, i.e.,
mechanized and automated industries, will require lower working capital, while
labour intensive industries such as small scale and cottage industries will require
larger working capital.
(xvi) Proportion of Raw Material to Total Costs: If the raw materials are costly,
the firm may require larger working capital while if raw materials are cheaper and
constitute a small part of the total cost of production, lower working capital is
required.
(xvii) Seasonal Variation: During the busy season, a business requires larger
working capital while during the slack season a company requires ‘lower working
capital. In sugar industry the season is November to June, while in the woolen
industry the season is during the winter. Usually the seasonal or variable needs of
working capital are financed by temporary borrowing.
(xviii) Banking Connections: If the corporation has good banking connections
and bank credit facilities, it may have minimum margin of regular working capital
over current liabilities. But in the absence of the availability of bank finance, it
should have relatively larger among of net working capital.
(xix) Growth and Expansion: For normal rate of expansion in the volume of
business, one may have greater proportion of retained profits to provide for more
working capital, but fast growing concerns require larger amount of working
capital. A plan of working capital should be formulated with an eye to the future as
well as present needs of a corporation.
54
The long term working capital can be conveniently financed by (a) owners’
equity e.g. shares and retained earnings, (b) preferred equity, (c) lenders’ equity e.g.,
debentures, and (d) fixed assets reduction e.g., sale of assets, depreciation on fixed
assets etc. This capital can be preferably obtained from owners’ equity as they do
not carry with them any fixed charges in the form of interest or dividend and so do
not throw any burden on the company.
59
Intermediate working capital funds are ordinarily raised for a period varying
form 3 to 5 years through loans which are repayable in instalments e.g. term-loans
from the commercial banks or from finance corporations. Short term working
capital funds can be obtained for financing day-to-day business requirements
through trade credit, bank credit, discounting bills and factoring of account
receivables. Factoring is a method of financing through account receivable under
which a business firm sells its accounts to financial institution, called the factor.
Sources of short-term finance: In choosing a source of short term financing, the
finance manager is concerned with the following five aspects of each financing
arrangement.
(i) Cost: Generally the finance manager will seek to minimize the cost of
financing, which usually can be expressed as an annual interest rate. Therefore,
the financing source with the lowest interest rate will be chosen. However, there are
other factors which may be important in particular situations.
(ii) Impact on credit rating: Use of some sources may affect the firm’s credit
rating more than use of others. A poor credit rating limits the availability, and
increases the cost of additional financing.
(iii) Reliability: Some sources are more reliable than others in that funds are
more likely to be available when they are needed.
(iv) Restrictions: Some creditors are more apt to impose restrictions o the firm
than others. Restrictions might include rupee limits on dividends, management
salaries, and capital expenditures.
(v) Flexibility: Some sources are more flexible than others in that the firm can
increase or decrease the amount of funds provided very easily.
All these factors must usually be considered before making the decision as to
the sources of financing.
Trade Credit
Trade credit represents credit granted by manufacturers, wholesalers, etc., as
an incident of sale. The usual duration of credit is 30 to 90 days. It is granted to the
company on ‘open account’, without any security except that of the goodwill and
financial standing of purchaser. No interest is expressly charged for this, only the
price is a little higher than the cash price.
The use of trade credit depends upon the buyer’s need for it and the
willingness of the supplier to extend it. The willingness of a supplier to grant credit
depends upon (i) the financial resources of the supplier; (ii) his eagerness to dispose
of his stock; (iii) degree of competition in the market; (iv) the credit worthiness of
the firm; (v) nature of the product; (vi) size of discount offered; (vii) the degree of risk
associated with customers.
The length of the credit period depends upon: (a) Customer’s marketing period
(b) nature of the product (long credit for new; seasonal goods and short credit on
60
perishable goods and low-margin goods) and (c) customer location (long distance
evidencing the amount that he owes to the seller.
Cost of Trade Credit: The trade credit as a source of financing is not without
cost. The cost of trade credit is clearly determined by its terms. However, the terms
of trade credit vary industry to industry and from company to company. However,
regardless of the industry, the two factors that must be considered while analyzing
the terms and the cost of trade credit are: (i) the length of time the purchaser of
goods has before the bill must be paid and (ii) the discount, if any that is offered for
prompt payment. For instance, a concern purchases goods worth Rs.10,000/- on
terms Rs.10,000/2/10, net 30 days. It means if the payment is made within ten
days the firm will be entitled for 2% cash rebate; otherwise the payment is to be
made within 30 days I full. If the concern wants to use Rs.9,800/- for 20 days at a
cost of Rs.200/- and then its actual cost works to 2.04%.
Advantages of Trade Credit
Trade credit, as a form of short term financing has the following advantages:
i) Ready Availability: There is no need to arrange financing formally.
ii) Flexible Means of Financing: Trade credit is a more flexible means of
financing. The firm does not have to sign a Promissory Note, pledge
collateral, or adhere to a strict payment schedule on the Note.
iii) Economic Means of Financing: Generally during periods of tight money
large firms obtain credit more easily than small firms do. However, trade
credit as a source of financing is still more easily accessible by small firms
even during the periods of tight money.
Customers Advances
Depending upon the competitive condition of the market and customs of trade,
a company can meet its short-term requirements at least partly through
customer/dealers advances. Such advances represent part of the price and carry no
interest. The period of such credit will depend upon the time taken to deliver the
goods. This type of finance is available only to those firms which can dictate terms
to their customers since their product is in great demand as compared to the
products of the other competitive firms.
COMMERCIAL BANK: BILL DISCOUNTING AND CASH CREDIT
Bank credit is the primary institutional source for working capital finance.
Banks offer both unsecured as well as secured loans to business firms. At one time
banks confined their lending policies to such loans only. Banks, now, provide a
variety of business loans, tailored to the specific needs of the borrowers, still, short
term loans are an important source of business financing such as seasonal build
ups in accounts receivable, and inventories. The different forms in which unsecured
and secured short-term loans may be extended are discounting of bills of exchange,
overdraft, cash credit, loans and advances. Banks provide credit or the basis of the
security. A loan may either be secured by tangible assets or by personal security.
61
Tangible assets may be charged as security by any one of the following modes, viz.,
lien, pledge, hypothecation, mortgage, charge, etc.
Discounting and Purchase of Bills: Under the Bill Market scheme, the Reserve
Bank of India envisages the progressive use of bills as an instrument of credit as
against the current practice of using the widely prevalent cash credit arrangement
for financing working capital. To popularize the scheme, the discount rates are fixed
at lower rates than those of cash credit, the difference being about 1 to 1.5 per
cent.
Cash Credits: Banks in India normally make loans and advances in three
forms viz., cash credits, overdrafts and loans. Cash credit is an arrangement by
which a banker allows the customer to borrow money upto a certain limit (called
cash credit limit) against some tangible security or on the basis of a promissory –
not signed and fixes the limit annually or quarterly after taking into account several
material levels, etc. The banker keeps adequate cash balances so as to meet the
customer’s demand as and when demand arises. Once the cash credit arrangement
is made, the customer need not take the whole advance at once but may draw out
or utilize the bank credit at any time without keeping a credit balance. Further, the
borrower can put back any surplus amount which he may find with him for the
time being. The bank can also withdraw the credit at any time in case the financial
position of the borrower goes down. Generally the borrower is charged interest on
the actual amount utilized by him and for the period of actual utilization only;
interest is charged by the bank on daily debit balance.
Overdrafts: When a customer having a current account requires a temporary
financial accommodation, he is allowed to overdraw (to draw more than his credit
balance) his current account up to an agreed limit. Overdraft accounts can either
be secured or unsecured, usually, security is insisted upon for an overdraft
accounts can either be secured or unsecured, usually, security is insisted upon for
an overdraft arrangement. The customer is allowed to withdraw the amount by
cheques as and when he needs it and repay it by means of deposits of actual
utilization. This is more advantageous to the customer-borrower in the sense that
the interest is charged only on the amount drawn by him. But the banker is
comparatively at a disadvantage because he has to keep himself in readiness with
the full amount of the overdraft and he can charge interest on the amount actually
drawn. An overdraft, is different from a cash credit in that the former is supposed
to be for a comparatively short time whereas the letter is not so.
Loans: When an advance to a customer is made in a lump sum against
security or otherwise, without liberty to him of repaying, with a view to making a
subsequent withdrawal it is called a loan. The entire loan amount is paid to the
borrower in cash or is credited to his current account and interest is charged on
the full amount of the loan form quarterly rests from the date of sanction. Where
the loan is repayable in instalments the interest is charged only on the reduced
balance. A loan once repaid in instalments the interest is charged only on the
62
reduced balance. A loan once repaid in full or in part cannot be withdrawn again by
the borrower, unless the banker grants a fresh loan which will be treated as a
separate transaction. In this respect a loan account differs from a cash credit or an
overdraft account. A banker prefers to make an advance in the form of a loan
because he can charge interest on the entire amount of the loan sanctioned or
disbursed and secondly, loan account involves a smaller operating cost than
overdraft or cash credit because in the latter case there is continuity and
magnitude of operation.
Critical Evaluation of Bank Finance
Bank credit offers the following advantages to the borrowing companies
i) Timely Assistance: Banks assist the borrowing companies by providing
timely assistance to meet the working capital requirements. A company can
usually rely upon the bank for amounts of loan upto an agreed limit
sanctioned by bank in advance.
ii) Flexibility: Bank assistance is flexible to the company. The accommodation
can easily be got extended and may be used when it is urgently needed. It
helps the company in maintaining good will in the market. Also, if the
amount of loan or a part of it is no more required it can be repaid and
interest on it be saved.
iii) Economy: Bank assistance entails the payment of only interest and does
not involve the kind of costs which are to be incurred in the issue of
securities such as commission on underwriting etc. Moreover, the rate of
interest is not very high. The interest is payable only for the period the loan
remains unpaid. Thus it reduces the cost of borrowings.
iv) No Interference with Company Management: The loan provided by the bank
is simply a loan and no string is attached to it. Generally banks do not
interfere with the management of the borrowing companies, till bank is
assured of the repayment of loans.
v) Secrecy: This is by far the greatest advantage of bank finance. Any
information supplied to bank regarding financial position of the borrowing
company is not made public in any way by the bank.
Drawback of Bank Finance: Bank accommodation and loans suffer from the
following drawbacks:
i) Burden of Mortgage or Hypothecation: The stock of raw material, finished
or semifinished goods are tobe kept in a godowns under bank control and
can be used only with the permission of bank or after paying the amount
of loan.
ii) Short-Duration of Assistance: Banks provide only shot-term assistance
generally for the period less than a year and its renewal or extension is
quite uncertain depending upon the discretion of bank’s authorities.
63
(In
lakhs)
Current Liabilities Rs. Current Liabilities Rs.
Creditors for purchases 150 Raw Material 400
Other Current Liabilities 50 Work-in-process 75
Bank borrowings including bill 500 Finished goods 200
discounted
Other current assets 25
Receivable including discounted 100
bills
Total Current Liabilities 700 Total Current Assets 800
The current assets have been worked out on the basis of suggested norms or
past practices, whichever is lower.
Computation of maximum permissible borrowings
66
(In lakhs)
Method 1 Rs. Method 2 Rs. Method 3 Rs.
Total current assets 800 Total current assets 800 Total current assets 800
Less: Current 200 Less: 25% above from 200 Less: ‘core’ 120
Liabilities long-term sources Current Assets 680
other than bank
Working capital gap 600 Working capital gap 600 (assume) 170
Less: 25% of above 150 Less: current 200 25% of above from 510
from long-term liabilities other than long-term sources
sources bank borrowings Less: Current liabilities 200
other
Maximum bank 450 Maximum bank 400 than bank borrowings
borrowing per-missible borrowing per- Maximum bank
missible borrowing 310
per-missible
Actual borrowing 500 Actual borrowing 500 Actual borrowing 500
Excess borrowing 50 Excess borrowing 50 Excess borrowing 50
vii) The maturity period of Commercial Papers may vary from 3 to 6 months.
viii) The minimum denomination of a Commercial Paper issues and
underwriting of the issue is not mandatory.
ix) The minimum size of a commercial paper issue is Rs. 25 lakhs.
Commercial Papers are mostly used to finance current transactions of a
company and to meet its seasonal needs for funds. They are rarely used to finance
the fixed assets or the permanent portion of working capital. The rise and
popularity of Commercial Papers in other countries like USA, UK, France, Canada
and Australia, has been a matter of spontaneous response by the large companies
to the limitations and difficulties they experienced in obtaining funds from banks.
Commercial Papers in India
The introduction of Commercial Papers in India is a result of the suggestions
of the Working Group (known as Vaghul Committee) on Money Market in 1987.
Subsequently, in 1989, the RBI announced its decision to introduce a scheme by
which certain categories of borrowers could issue Commercial Papers in the Indian
Money Market. This was followed by RBI Guidelines on issue of Commercial Papers
in January 1990, further revised in April 1991. These guidelines apply to all Non-
Banking Finance and Non-Finance Companies.
Some recent issues of Commercial Papers by Indian Companies and their
CRISIL Ratings are shown below
Size of Issue
Company CRISIL Rating
(Rs. Crores)
1. Cadbury India Limited 7.5 Pl +
2. Century Textiles and Industries 10 Pl +
Limited
3. CIPLA Limited 10 Pl+
4. National Thermal Power Corporation 50 Pl+
Limited (NTPC)
5. Special Steels Limited 15 Pl
6. Ashok Leyland Finance Limited 15 Pl+
7. Bajaj Auto Finance Limited 8 Pl+
INTER-CORPORATE DEPOSITS
A deposit made by one company with another, normally for a period up to six
months, is referred to as an inter-corporate deposit. Such deposits are of three
types.
Call Deposits: In theory, a call deposit is withdrawable by the lender on giving
a day’s notice. In practice, however, the lender has to wait for at least three days.
The interest rate on such deposits may be around 14 per cent per annum.
Three Months Deposits: More popular in practice, these deposits are taken by
borrowers to tide over a short-term cash inadequacy that may be caused by one or
more of the following factors: disruption, dividend payment, and unplanned capital
expenditure. The interest rate on such deposits is around 16 per cent annum.
Six-month Deposits: Normally, lending companies do not extend deposits
beyond this time-frame. Such deposits, usually made with first-class borrowers,
carry an interest rate of around 18 per cent per annum.
Growth of Inter-Corporate Deposit Market: Traditionally, some prosperous
companies in the fold of big business houses such as Birlas and Goenkas carried
substantial liquid funds meant primarily to exploit investment opportunities in the
form of corporate acquisitions and takeovers. Until such opportunities arose, the
liquid funds were deposited with other companies with an understanding that they
would be withdrawn at short notice. From the early seventies (more particularly
from 1973), the inter-corporate deposit market grew significantly I the wake of the
following development.
(i) Substantial excise duty provisions made by the companies every since the
Bombay High Court made a ruling that excise duty was not payable on post-
manufacturing expenses.
(ii) Curbs on working capital financing imposed by the Reserve Bank of India
after the first oil shock of 1973.
(iii) Imposition of restrictions on acceptance of public deposits (this was
perhaps caused largely by the failure of W.G. Forge and Company Limited).
(iv) Burgeoning liquidity of scooter companies (little Bajaj, Honda etc.) and, of
late, of car companies (like Maruti Udhyog), which have received massive booking
deposits from their customers.
Characteristics of the Inter-Corporate Deposit Market
Lack of Regulation: While section 58A the Companies Act, 1956, specifies
borrowing limits for inter-corporate loans of a long-term nature, inter-corporate
deposits of a short-term nature are virtually exempt fro any legal regulation. The
lack of legal hassles and bureaucratic red tape makes an inter-corporate deposit
transaction very convenient. In a business environment otherwise charactersied by
a plethora of rules and regulations, the evolution of the inter-corporate deposit
market is an example of the ability of the corporate sector to organize itself in a
reasonably orderly manner.
72
Inventory of
raw materials
Accounts
receivable
Semi-finished
goods
Inventory
of finished goods
Thus we see that an working capital, generally, has the following four distinct
stages:
1. The raw materials and stores inventory stage;
2. The semi-finished goods or work-in-progress stage;
3. The finished goods inventory stage; and
4. The accounts receivable or book debts stage.
Each of the above working capital cycle stage is expressed in terms of number
of days of relevant activity and requires a level of investment to support it. The sum
total of these stage-wise investments will be the total amount of working capital of
the firm.
A series of such operating cycle recur one after another and chain continues
till the end of the operating period. In this way the entire operating period has a
number of operating cycles. It is important to note that the velocity or speed of this
cycle should not slacken at any stage; otherwise the normal duration of the cycle
will be lengthened, resulting in an increased need for working fund. The faster the
speed of the operating cycle, shorter will be its duration and larger will be the
number of total operating cycles in a year (operating period) which n turn would be
instrumental in giving the maximum level of turnover with comparatively lower level
of working fund.
The four steps involved in this method are (i) computing the duration of the
operating cycle. (ii) calculating the number of operating cycles in the operating
period, (iii) estimating the total amount of annual operating expenses, and (iv)
ascertaining the total working capital requirements. Each step is discussed with
some detail in the following paragraphs.
(i) Duration of Operating Cycle: The duration is computed in days by adding
together the average storage period of raw materials, works-in-progress, finished
goods and the average collection period and then deducting from the total the
average payment period. The formula to express the framework of the operating
cycle is:
O=(R+W+F+D)-C
Where: O = Duration of operating cycle
R = Raw material average storage period
W = Average period of work-in-progress
F = Finished goods average storage period
D = Debtors collection period
C = Creditors payment period
The average inventory, trade creditors, work-in-progress, finished goods and
book debts can be computed by adding the opening and closing balances at the end
of the year in the respective accounts and dividing the same by two. The average
76
per day figures can be obtained by dividing the concerned annual figures by 365 or
the number of days in the given period.
(ii) Number of Operating Cycle in Operating Period: This is found out by
dividing the total number of days in the operating period by number of days in the
operating cycle as shown below:
P
N
O
Where: N = Number of operating cycle in operating period
P = Number of days in the operating period
O = Duration of operating cycle (in days)
Suppose the operating period is one year (365 days) and the duration of
operating cycle is 73 days then the number of operating cycles in the operating
period will be:
365
N 5 cycles
73
Aggressive Approach
The firm’s financing plan is said to be aggressive if the firm uses more short-
term negotiated financing than is needed under a matching approach. The firm is
no longer financing all its permanent assets with long-term financing. Such plans
are said to be aggressive because they involve a relatively heavy use of (riskier)
short-term financing. The more short-term financing used relative to long-term
financing, the more aggressive is the financing plan. Some firms are even financing
part of their long-term assets with short-term debt, which would be a highly
aggressive plan.
Conservative Approach
Conservative financing plans are those plans that use more long-term
financing than is needed under a matching approach. The firm is financing a
portion of its temporary current assets requirements with long-term financing. Also,
in periods when the firm has no temporary current assets the firm has excess
(unneeded) financing available that will be invested in marketable securities. These
plans are called conservative because they involve relatively heavy use of (less risky)
long-term financing.
Comparison of Conservative, Heading and Aggressive Approaches: These
approaches to working capital financing can be compared on the basis of (a) cost
considerations, (b) profitability considerations, and (c) risk considerations
(probability of technical insolvency). This following statement gives a comparative
evaluation.
lines of credit to fund them. Similarly, if the contraction of current assets is less
than expected, short-term loan payments can still be met, but less surplus cash
will be available for investment in marketable securities. In contrast to the other
working capital policies, a balanced policy will demand more management time and
effort. Under the policy, the financial manager will not only have to arrange and
maintain short-term sources of financing but must be prepared to manage the
investment of excess funds.
The Appropriate Working Capital Policy
The analysis so far has offered insights into the risk-profitability trade-off
inherent in a variety of different policies. Just as there is no optimal capital
structure that all firms should adopt, there is no one optimal working capital policy
that all firms should employ. Which particular policy is chosen by a firm will
depend on the uncertainty regarding the magnitude and timing of cash flows
associated with sales; the greater this uncertainty, the higher the level of working
capital necessary. In addition, the cash conversion cycle will influence a firm’s
working policy; the longer the time required to convert current assets into cash, the
greater the risk of illiquidity. Finally, in practice, the more risk adverse
management is the greater will be the net working capital position. The
management of working capital is an ongoing responsibility that involves many
interrelated and simultaneous decisions about the level and financing of current
assets. The considerations and general guidelines offered in this lesson should be
useful in establishing an overall net working capital policy.
Illustration
Problem 1: Prepare an estimate of working capital requirement from the
following (information of a trading concern:
a) Projected annual sales 1,00,000 units.
b) Selling price Rs. 8 per unit.
c) Percentage net profit on sales 25.
d) Average credit period allowed to customers - 8 weeks.
e) Average credit period allowed to suppliers - 4 weeks.
f) Average stock holding in terms of sales requirement -12 weeks.
g) Allow 10% for contingences. (MC1M - April 96)
Solution
Step 1 : Classify the given information into current assets and current
liabilities.
81
Step 2 : Calculate the cost of sales to find out the components of current
assets. This is being done by excluding the percentage of profit
out of sales.
82
Solution
Duration of Operating Cycle Days
i) Materials storage period 40
ii) Production cycle period 15
iii) Finished goods storage period 18
iv) Average collection period 60
133
Less: Average payment period 60
Duration of Operating Cycle 73
Solution
Statement of Working Capital Requirements
Selling Price Cost Price
Basis Basis
Current Assets: (Rs. in lakhs) (Rs. in
lakhs)
Stock Rs.1.00 lakh × 8 weeks 08.00 08.00
Debtors–At cost equivalent Rs.1.00 lakh×10 =10.00 12.50 10.00
lakh
Profit Rs. 13 × 10=2.50 lakh
52
20.50 18.00
Less: Current Liabilities
Creditors Rs. 1.00 lakh×4 weeks 04.00 04.00
Working Capital Computed 16.50 14.00
Add: 10% for contingencies 01.65 01.40
Net Working Capital Required 18.15 15.40
Note: It has been assumed that the creditors include those for both goods and
expenses and that all such creditors allow one month credit on average.
Interpretation of Results: The amount of working capital fund above is to be
interpreted as the amount to be blocked up in inventory, debtors (minus creditors)
at any time during the period (year) in view, in order that the anticipated activity
(sales primarily) can go on smoothly. The amount is not for a period of time but at
any point of time. It represents the maximum (or the highest) quantum of locking
up at any time during the period.
Illustration - 3
Ramaraj Brothers Private Limited sells goods on a gross profit of 25%.
Depreciation is taken into account as part of cost of production. The following are
the annual figures given to you:
85
Rs.
Sales (two months credit) 18,00,000
Materials consumed (one month’s credit) 4,50,000
Wages paid (one month lag in payment) 3,60,000
Cash manufacturing expenses (one month lag in payment 4,80,000
Administration expenses (one month lag in payment ) 1,20,000
Sales promotion expenses (paid quarterly in advance) 60,000
Income tax payable in 4 installments of which one lies in the next 1,50,000
year
The company keeps one month’s stock each of raw materials and finished
goods. It also keeps Rs.1,00,000 in cash. You are required to estimate the working
capital requirements of the company on cash basis assuming 15% safety margin.
Solutions
Statement of Working Capital Requirements
A. Current Assets: Rs.
Debtors (cash of goods sold, i.e., 14,70,000×2/12) 2,45,000
Prepaid sales expenses 15,000
Inventories:
Raw Materials (4,50,000/12) 37,500
Finished Goods (12,90,000/12) 1.07,500
Cash-in-hand 1,00,000
5,05,000
B. Current Liabilities:
Sundry creditors (4,50,000/12) 37,500
Outstanding Manufacturing expenses (4,80,000/12) 40,000
Outstanding administration expenses (1,20,000/12) 10,000
Provision for taxation (1,50,000/12) 37,500
Outstanding wages (3,60,000/12) 30,000
1,55,000
Working Capital [(A)-(B)] 3,50,000
Add: 15% for contingencies 52,500
Total Working Capital required 4,02,500
86
Working Notes
1. Total Manufacturing Expenses
Rs. Rs.
Sales 18,00,000
Less: Gross Profit 25% of sales 4,50,000
Total Cost 13,50,000
Less: Cost of Materials 4,50,000
Wages 3,60,000 8,10,000
Manufacturing Expenses 5,40,000
2. Depreciation
Rs. Rs.
Total Manufacturing Expenses 5,40,000
Less: Cash Manufacturing Expenses 4,80,000
Depreciation 60,000
3. Total Cash Cost
Total Manufacturing Expenses 13,50,000
Less: Depreciation 60,000
12,90,000
Add: Administration Expenses 1,20,000
Sales Promotion Expenses 60,000
Total Cash Cost 14,70,000
e cost of sales.
Illustration: 1
Following is the summary of Balance Sheets of a firm under the three
approaches:
Policy
Conservative Hedging Aggressive
Liabilities
Current Liabilities: 5,000 15,000 25,000
Long-term loan 25,000 15,000 5,000
Equity 50,000 50,000 50,000
Total 80,000 80,000 80,000
Assets
Current Assets:
(a) Permanent Requirement 20,000 20,000 20,000
87
Hedging
Conservative Aggressive
(matching)
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Cost of Current Liabilities 5% on 5,000= 750 15,000= 750 25,000=1,250
Cost of long term funds 12% 75,000=9,000 65,000=7,800 55,000=6,600
Total Cost 9,250 8,550 7,850
2. Computation of Returns under the three Approaches
Comments
1. Cost of financing is highest being Rs.9,250/- in conservative approach, and
lowest (Rs.7,850/-) in aggressive approach (the total funds being the same,
i.e., Rs.80,000/-).
2. Return on investment (net) is lowest in conservative approach being
Rs.950/- and highest in aggressive approach being Rs.2,350/-.
3. Risk is measured by the amount of net working capital. The larger the net
working capital, the lesser will be the degree of technical insolvency or the
lesser will be the inability to meet obligations on maturity dates. In other
words, larger net working capital means less risk. The net working capital
is comparatively larger in conservative approach and therefore, the degree
of risk is low. The net working capital is comparatively lower in aggressive
approach, and therefore, the degree of risk is high.
Risk is also measured by the degree of liquidity. The larger the degree of
liquidity, the lesser will be the degree of risk. One of the measurements of degree of
liquidity is current ratio; it is also known as ‘Working Capital Ratio: This ratio
signifies the firm’s ability to meet its current obligations. The larger the ratio, the
greater the liquidity, and the lesser the risk. In conservative approach, current ratio
is the highest being 7:1, and in aggressive approach, this ratio is lowest being 1.4:1
Therefore, there is low risk in conservative approach.
The aforementioned analysis leads to the following conclusions:
i) In conservative approach, cost is high, risk is low, and return is low.
ii) In aggressive approach, cost is low, risk is high, and return is high.
iii) Hedging approach has moderate cost, risk and return. It aims at trade-off
between profitability and risk.
4.4 REVISION POINTS
Working capital : The total of current assets or as the
difference between current assets and
current liabilities.
Current assets : The total of inventories, debtors, loans and
advanced, cash and marketable securities.
Current liabilities : The sum of sundry creditors, unclaimed
dividends short term loans, bank credit and
various types of provisions.
Permanent working capital : Minimum level of investment in current
assets required for production.
Variable working capital : Working capital which takes care of
fluctuations in business activity
89
A. Per Units
Rs.
Raw Materials 90
Direct Labour 40
Over Heads 75
205
Profits 60
Selling Price per unit 265
B. Raw materials are in stock on average one month
Materials are in process, on average two weeks
Finished goods are in stock, on average one month
Credit allowed by suppliers one month
Time lag in payment from debtors 2 months
91
20% of the output is sold against cash. Cash in hand and at Bank is expected
to be Rs.60,000/-. It is to be assumed that production is carried on evenly
throughout the year, wages and overheads accrue similarly and a time period of 4
weeks is equivalent to a month.
[Ans: Working Capital Required Rs.74,13,000/-]
Notes: (i) Since wages and overheads accrue evenly on average, half the wages
and over head would be included in working progress. Alternatively if it is assumed
that the direct labour and overhead are introduced at the beginning, full wages and
overhead would be included.
1. A Performa cost sheet of a company provides the following particulars:
Elements of Cost
Raw Materials 40%
Labour 10%
Overheads 30%
The following further particulars are available:
(a) Raw materials are to remain in stores on an average 6 weeks.
(b) Processing time is 4 weeks.
(c) Finished goods are required to be in stock on average period of 8 weeks
(d) Credit period allowed to debtors, on average 10 weeks.
(e) Lag in payment of wages 4 weeks
(f) Credit period allowed by creditors 4 weeks
(g) Selling price is Rs.50 per unit
You are required to prepare an estimate of working capital requirements
adding 10% margin for contingencies for a level of activity of 1,30,000 units of
production.
[Ans: Working Capital Required – Rs.25,25,000/-]
2. From the following information extracted from the books of manufacturing
concern, compute the operating cycle in days –
Period covered: 365 days
Average period of credit allowed by suppliers 16 days.
LESSON – 5
MANAGEMENT OF CASH
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Cash is basic input to start a business unit, Cash in initially invested in fixed
assets like plant and machinery, which enable the firm to produce products and
generate cash by selling them. Cash is also required and invested in working
capital. Investments in working capital are required because firms have to store
certain quantity of raw materials and finished goods and provide credit terms to the
customers. The cash invested in raw materials at the beginning of working capital
cycle goes through several stages (work-in-progress, finished goods and sundry
debtors) and gets released at the end of cycle to the fund fresh investment needs of
raw materials. The firm needs additional cash during its life wherever it needs to
buy more fixed assets, increase the level of operations and any change in working
capital cycle such as extending credit period to the customers. In other words, the
demand for cash is affected by several factors and some of them are within the
control of the managers and others are outside the control of the managers. Cash
management thus, in a broader sense is managing the entire business.
The objective of cash management is to balance the cost associated with
holding cash and benefits derived out of holding the cash. The objective is best
achieved by speeding up the working capital cycle, particularly the collection
process and investing surplus cash in short-term assets in most profitable avenues.
The term ‘cash’ under cash management thus refers to both cash and credit
balance in the bank and short-term investments in marketable securities.
Cash means and includes actual cash (in hand and at bank). Cash is like
blood stream in the human body gives vitality and strength to a business
enterprise. The steady and healthy circulation of cash throughout the entire
business operation is the basis of business solvency.
Nature of Cash: Cash is the common purchasing power or medium or
exchange. Cash forms the method of collecting revenues and paying various costs
and expenses of the business. As such, it forms the mot important component of
working capital. Not only that, it largely upholds, under given conditions, the
quantum of other ingredients of working capital viz., inventories and debtors, that
may be needed for a given scale and type of operation. Approximately 1.5 to 2 per
cent of the average industrial firms’ assets are held in the form of cash. However,
cash balances vary widely not only among industries but also among the firms
within a given industry, depending on the individual firm’s specific conditions and
on their owner’s and managers’ aversion to risk.
Cash as a Liquid Asset: Cash is the most liquid asset that a business owns.
Liquidity refers to commonly accepted medium for acquiring the things, discharging
the liabilities, etc. The main preoccupation of a businessman should be cash, which
are the starting point and the finishing point. It is the sole asset at the
commencement and the termination of a business. It should be remembered that a
want of cash is more likely to cause the demise of a business than any single factor.
94
Credit standing of the firm with sufficient stock as cash is the strengthened. A
strong credit position of the firm helps it to secure from banks and other sources
form banks and other sources generous amount of loans on softer terms and to
procure the supplies on easy terms.
Cash as a Sterile Asset: Cash itself is a barren or sterile asset and in nature
until and unless human beings apply their head and hand. That is cash itself can
to earn any profit or interest or yield unless, it is invested in the form of near-cash
or non-cash assets.
Cash as a Working Asset: While cash is a factor contributing to the liquidity
position of the enterprise, fixed assets are real producer of earnings; on planning it
would be the objective of management to maintain in each asset group the
appropriate amount of resources to easy but on efficient production and to meet the
requirements of the future. Should an excess cash balance be discovered, it would
be non-working asset and should be employed elsewhere to produce some income.
Cash as a Strange Asset: A form seeks to receive it in the shortest possible
time but to hold as little as possible. It is more efficient to maintain good credit
sources than to hold extra cash or low interest bearing market instruments against
unexpected use. Clearly, it is preferable, whenever possible to hold income-earning
marketable investment in lieu of cash and to use short-term borrowing to meet
peak seasonal needs.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After Completing this Lesson you must be able to
Outline the role of cash in the operation of business
Explain different motives behind holding cash
Discuss the objectives of cash management
Prepare cash budget.
Explain cash management Holders
5.3 CONTENT
5.3.1 Motives of holding cash
5.3.2 Objectives of cash management
5.3.3 Cash Management – Basic problems
5.3.4 Cash Management – Planning Aspects
5.3.5 Cash Management Holders
Issues in Cash Management
In a business enterprise, ultimately, a transaction results in either an outflow
or an inflow of cash. Its shortage may degenerate a firm into a state of technical
insolvency and even to liquidation. Though idle cash is sterile, its retention is not
without cost. Holding of cash balance has an implicit cost in the firm of opportunity
95
cost. It varies directly with the quantity of cash held. The higher the amount of idle
cash, the greater is the cost of holding it in the form of loss of interest which could
have been earned either by investing it in some interest bearing securities or by
reducing the burden of interest charges by paying off the past loans, especially in
the present era of ever increasing cost of borrowing. Hence, a finance manager has
to adhere to the five ‘R’s of financial management. Viz (i) the right quality of finance
for liquidity considerations; (ii) the right quantity whether owned or borrowed; (iii)
the right time to preserve solvency, (iv) the right source; and (v) the right cost of
capital the organisation can afford to pay.
In order to resolve the uncertainty about cash flow prediction, lack of
synchronization between cash receipts and payments, the organization should
develop some strategies for cash management. The organization should evolve
strategies regarding the following areas and facets of cash management.
i) Determining the organisation’s objective of keeping cash
ii) Cash planning and forecasting
iii) Determination of optimum level of cash balance in the company
iv) Controlling flow of cash by maximizing the availability of cash i.e.,
economizing cash by accelerating inflows or decelerating cash outflows.
v) Financing of cash shortage and cost of running out of cash
vi) Investing idle or surplus cash
5.3.1 Motives of Holding Cash
According to John Maynard Keynes, the famous economist, there are three
motives that both individuals and businessmen hold cash. They are (i) The
transaction motive, (ii) the precautionary motive and (iii) the speculative motive. Yet
another motive which has been added as the fourth one by the modern writers on
financial management is compensation motive thus, there are altogether four
primary motives for maintaining cash balances.
The basic question is why firms hold cash. Some of the reasons for holding
cash are listed below.
i) Transaction Motive: Money is required to settle customers' bills, pay salary
and wages to workers, pay duties and taxes, etc. Some cash balance is to be
maintained to complete these transactions The amount to be maintained for the
transaction motive depends or. the ..ash inflows and outflows. Often, firm prepare a
cash budget by incorporating the estimates of inflows and outflows to know
whether the cash balance would be adequate to meet the transactions.
ii) Precautionary or Hedging Motive: The transaction motive takes into account
the routine cash needs c the firm. It is also based on the assumption that inflows
are as per estimation. However, the future cash needs for transaction purposes are
uncertain. The uncertainty arises on account of sudden increase in expenditure or
delay in cash collection or inability to source the materials and other supplies on
96
credit basis. The firm has to protect itself from such contingencies by holding
additional cash. This is called as precautionary motive of holding cash balance.
iii) Speculative Motive : if the firm intends to exploit the opportunities that may
arise in the future suddenly, it has to keep some cash balance. This is particularly
relevant, where the prices of material fluctuate widely in different periods and the
firm's success depends on it's ability to source the material at the right time.
iv) Managing uneven supply and demand for cash: Firms generally experience
some seasonality in sales, which leads to exceeds cash flows in certain period of the
year. This is not permanent surplus and cash is required at different points of time.
One possible solution to address this mismatch of cash flows is to pay off bank
loans whenever there is excess cash and negotiate fresh loan to meet the
subsequent demands. Since firms are exposed to some amount of uncertainty in
getting the loan proposal sanctioned in time, the surplus cash is retained and
invested in short-term securities.
In a competitive environment, firms also felt the desire of holding cash to get
flexibility in meeting competition. For instance, when a competitor suddenly resort
to massive advertisement and other product promotion, it forces other firms to
increase advertisement cost or some other sales promotion activities.
v) Compensation Motive: Commercial banks require that in every current
account, there should always be a minimum cash balance. This amount remains as
a permanent balance with the bank so long as the current account is operative.
This minimum balance is generally not allowed by the bank to be used for
transaction purposes and therefore, it becomes a sort of investment by the firm in
the bank. In order to avail the convenience of current account the minimum cash
balance must be maintained by the firm and this provides the compensation motive
for holding cash.
5.3.2 Objectives of Cash Management
There are two basic objectives of cash management:
1. To meet the cash disbursement needs as per the payment schedule
2. To minimize the amount locked up as cash balances.
As a matter of fact both the objectives are mutually contradictory and
therefore, it is a challenging task for the finance manager to reconcile them and to
have the best in this process.
1. Meeting cash disbursement
The first basic objective of cash management is to meet the payments
schedule. In other words, the firm should have sufficient cash to meet the various
requirements of the firm at different periods of times. The business has to make
payment for purchase of raw materials, wage, taxes, purchase of plant, etc. The
business activity may come to a grinding halt if the payment schedule is not
maintained. Cash has, therefore, been aptly described as the “oil to lubricate the
ever-turning wheels of the business, without it the process grinds to a stop”.
97
interest than that on a long-term debt. But considerable saving in interest costs will
be effected because such interest will have to be paid only for shorter period.
Controlling Inflows of cash
Speedier collection of cash can be made possible by adoption of the following
techniques
i) Concentration Banking : Concentration banking is a system of decentralizing
collections of accounts receivable in case of large firms having their business
spread over a large area. According to this system, a large number of collection
centres are established by the firm in different areas selected on geographical basis.
The firm opens its bank accounts in local banks of different areas where it has its
collection centres. The collection centres are required to collect cheques from their
customers and deposit them in the local bank account.
ii) Lock-Box System : Lock-box system is a further step in speeding up
collection of cash. In case of concentration banking cheques are received by
collection centres who, after processing deposit them in the local bank accounts.
Thus, there is time gap between actual receipt of cheques by a collection centre and
its actual depositing in the local bank account. Lock-Box system has been devised
to eliminate delay on account of this time gap. According to this system, the firm
hires a post-office box and instructs its customers to mail their remittances to the
box. The firm’s local bank is given the authority to pick the remittances directly
from the post-office box. – The bank picks up the mail several times a the cheques
in the firm’s account. Standing instructions are given to the local bank to transfer
funds to the Head Office Bank when they exceed a particular limit.
iii) Electronic Funds Transfer and Anywhere Banking: The advent of banking
technology and the spread of internet facilities has changed the face of corporate
cash management The more towards paperless economy reduces many of the
difficulties in dealing with cheques/ drafts. It should be clear from the prior
discussion that the time necessary for transmittal of cash from one firm to another
revolves largely around the passing from one hand to another of a piece of paper,
i.e., the cheque, if we can eliminate this paper there will be a major saving in the
time and cost.
Control over Cash Outflows
An effective control over cash outflows or disbursements also helps a firm In
conserving cash and reducing financial requirements. However, there is a basic
difference between the underlying objective of Exercising control over cash inflows
and cash outflows. In case of the former, the objective is the maximum acceleration
of collector*case of latter, it is to slow down the disbursements as much as possible.
The combination of fast collections and slow disbursements will result in maximum
availability of funds.
A firm can advantageously control, outflows of cash if the following
considerations kept in view.
99
transactions that are affecting the income statements but not the cash balance or
the items which affect the one without affecting the other. This adjusted figure is
taken as cash profit (Joss) during that period. This can be taken as net increase or
decrease in cash balance during that period
ii) Pro-forma Balance Sheet Method: requires the preparation of as many pro-
forma balance sheets as there are interim periods in the cash budget. Each item of
the balance sheet except cash is projected for each period, and the cash balance is
ascertained in accordance wit the accounting equation i.e. Total Assets = Total
Liabilities + Capital. The balancing figure of the preformed balance sheet is taken as
the cash balance.
iii) Receipts and Payments Method of Cash Budget: Cash budget, under this
method, is a statement projecting the cash inflows and outflows (receipts and
disbursements) of the firm over various interim periods of the budget period. For
each period, the expected inflows are put against the expected outflows to find out
if there is going to be any surplus or deficiency in a particular period. Surplus, if
any, during a particular period may be carried forward to the next period or steps
may be taken to make short term investments of this surplus.
Table 1
Pro-forma Cash Budget Monthly Cash Budget for the year 2001
8. Safety level for cash : Minimum cash balance that the firm
must keep to avoid risk or cost of
running out of funds.
105
Present
Policy1 Policy 2
Policy
Average age of debtors increase in sales
percentage of bad debts
1 months 2months 3months
– 20% 30%
1.0 2.5 5.0
If the company requires a return on investment of 20% before tax, evaluate the
proposals.
[Ans: Policy 1 is more profitable as it gives surplus of Rs.2,13,333/- after
meeting the required return on investment at 20% before tax.]
4. Prepare cash budget for the period of July-December 2001 from the
following information
i) The estimated sales and expenses are as follows:
(Figures in Rs. lacs)
LESSON – 6
RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
“Buy now, pay latter” philosophy is increasingly gaining importance in the way
of Irving of the Indian Families. In other words, consumer credit has become a
major selling factor. When consumer expect credit, business units in turn expect
credit form their suppliers to match their investment in credit extended to
consumers. If you ask a practising manager why her/his firm offers credit for the
purchases, the manager is likely to be perplexed. The use of credit for the
purchases, the manager is likely to be perplexed. The use of credit in the purchase
of goods and services is so common that it is taken for granted. The granting of
credit from one business firm to another, for purchase of goods and services
popularly known as trade credit, has been part of the business scene for several
years. Trade credit provided the major means of obtaining debt financing by
businesses before the existence of banks. Though commercial banks provide a
significant part of requirements for working capital, trade credit continues to be a
major sources of funds for firms and accounts receivables that result from granting
trade credit are major investment for the firm.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this Lesson you must be able to
Highlight the importance of offering credit in the operation of business
List out the decisions covering credit policy, credit in the operation of
business
Discuss the different credit evaluation process and credit granting
decisions
Explain the needs for effective collection efforts and incentives such as
cash discount
Street the importance if monitoring and control of receivables.
6.3 CONTENT
6.3.1 Credit Policy
6.3.2 Credit Eligibility
6.3.3 Credit Evaluation
6.3.4 Control of Receivables
6.3.5 Cost of Receivable
6.3.6 Evaluation of Credit Policies
Objective of Credit Management
The main objective of credit management can be enumerated as follows:
a) Increase the volume of credit sales to the optimum level in relation to the
credit period.
109
The credit terms specify how the credit will be the offered, including the length of
the period for which the credit will be the offered, the interest rate on the credit,
and the cost of default. The credit terms may relate to the following:
Credit Period: The credit period is an important aspect of the credit policy. It
refers to the length of time over which the customers are allowed to delay the
payment. The credit period generally varies from three days to 60 days.
Discount Terms : The customers are generally offered cash discount to induce
them to make prompt payments. Different discount rates may be offered for
different periods e.g., 3% discount if payment made within 10 days; 2% discount if
payment made within 20 days etc. Both the discount rate and the period within
which it is available are reflected in the credit terms e.g., 3/10, 2/20, net 30 means
that 3% cash discount if payment made within 10 days; 2% discount if payment
made within 20 days; otherwise full payment by the end of 30 days from the date of
sale. When a firm offers a cash discount, its intention is to accelerate the flow of
cash into the firm to improve its cash position. The length of cash discount affects
the collection period.
6.3.2 Credit Eligibility
Having designed credit period and discount rate, the next logical step is to
define the customers, who are eligible for the credit terms. The credit-granting
decision is critical for the seller since credit-granting has economic value to buyers
and buyers decision on purchase is directly affected by this policy. For instance, if
the credit eligibility terms reject a particular customer and requires the customer to
make cash purchase, the customer may not buy the product from the company and
may look forward to someone who is agreeable to grant credit. Nevertheless, it may
not be desirable to grant credit to all customers. It may instead analyze each
potential buyer before deciding whether to grant credit or not based on the
attributes of that particular buyer. While the earlier two terms of credit policy viz.
credit period and discount rate are not changed frequently in order to maintain
consistency in the policy, credit eligibility is periodically reviewed. For instance, an
entry of new customer would warrant a review of credit eligibility of existing
customers.
The decision whether a particular customer is eligible for credit terms
generally involves a detailed analysis of some of the attributes of the customer.
Credit analysts normally group the attributes in order to assess the credit
worthiness of customers. One traditional way of organizing the information is by
characterizing the applicant along five dimensions namely, Capita!. Character.
Collateral, Capacity and Conditions. These five dimensions are also popularly called
Five Cs of credit analysis.
Capital: The term capital here refers to financial position of the applicant firm.
It requires an analysis of financial strength and weakness of the firm in relation to
other firms in the industry to assess the creditworthiness of the firm. Financial
113
information is normally derived from the financial statements of the firm and
analyzed through ratio analysis.
Character: A prospective customer may have high liquidity but delay payment
to their suppliers. The character thus relates to willingness to pay the debts. Some
relevant questions relating to character are:
What is the applicant's history of payments to the trade?
Has the firm defaulted to other trade suppliers?
Does the applicant's management make a good-faith effort to honor debts
as they become due?
Information on these areas are useful to assess the applicant's character.
Collateral: If a debt is supported by collateral, then the debt enjoys lower risk
because in the event of default, the debt holder can liquidate the collateral to
recover the dues.
Capacity : The capacity has to dimension - management's capacity to run the
business and applicant firm's plant capacity. The future of the firm depends on the
management's ability to meet the challenges. Similarly, the facility should exist to
exploit the opportunity. Since the assessment of capacity is a judgment on the part
of analysis, a lot of care should be taken in assessing this feature.
Conditions: These are the economic conditions in the applicant's industry and
in the economy in general. Scope for failure and default is high when the industry
and economy are in contraction phase. Credit policy is required to be modified
when the conditions are not favourable. The policy changes include liberal discount
for payment within a stipulated period and imposing lower credit limit.
The information collected under five Cs can be analysed in general to decide
whether he customer is eligible for credit or fit into a statistical model to get an
unbiased credit rating of the customer.
If a customer falls within the desired limit of credit worthiness, the next issue
is fixing tie credit amount. This is some thing similar to banks fixing overdraft limit
for the account holders. If a customer is new, normally the credit limit is fixed at
the lowest level initially and expanded over the period based on the performance of
the customer in meeting the liability. Credit limit may undergo a change depending
on the changes in the credit worthiness of he customer and changes in the
performance of customer's industry.
6.3.3 Credit Evaluation
Assessment of the credit worthiness of a customer is subjective matter and a
lot depends upon the experience and judgement of the person taking the decision.
Evaluation of credit worthiness of a customer is a two steps procedure (i) collection
of information, and (ii) analysis of information.
114
Collection of Information
In order to make better decisions, the firm may collect information from
various sources on the prospective credit customers. The following are sources of
information which can provide sufficient data or information about the credit
worthiness of a customer:
a) Bank Reference: Though the banks may be reluctant to give financial
information of its customers,-yet may be asked to comment on the financial
position of a particular customer. The customer may also be required to ask his
bank to provide necessary information in this respect.
b) Credit Agency Report: There are certain rating agencies which provide
independent information on the credit worthiness of different parties. These
agencies gather information on the credit history of different businessmen and sell
it to the firms which want to extend credit. From these agencies, a special report in
respect of a particular customer may also be obtained. In India, however, the credit
agency system is not popular and there is a need to develop such a network which
can provide reliable information.
Analysis of Information
Collection of information in respect of any customer is not going to serve any
purpose in itself. Once all the available credit information about a potential
customer has been gathered, it must be analyzed to reach at some conclusion
regarding the credit worthiness of a customer.
These characteristics can throw light on the credit worthiness or default-risk
of the customer. Step by step analysis of information may be made and assessment
should be made at various point to ascertain whether further analysis is required or
not. This has been presented Figure 1
The Figure -1 shows that a firm should go for further information and analysis
only if required. If it is evident at any stage that the customer has a satisfactory
credit worthiness, then there is no need to go for costly exercise of further analysis.
Where a customer's credit standing is either favorable or far below the pre-
established credit standards, the selection or rejection of a customer is an easy job.
The difficulty arises in case of those customer who are marginally credit worthy. In
such a situation, the financial manager must attempt to balance the potential
profitability against the potential loss from the default. Simply to look at the
immediate future in making a credit decision would be mistake. If extending a
customer credit means that the customer may become regular in the future, it may
be appropriate to take a risk that otherwise may not be prudent. The attempt of the
financial manager should be to ensure that all cash flows.
115
Figure 1
Sequential Credit Analysis
No doubt, that legal actions may have little effect on the ability of the customer to
pay, but it can definitely speed up the legal relief.
The overall collection procedure of the firm should neither be too lenient
(resulting in mounting receivables) nor too strict (resulting sometimes even loss of
customers). A strict collection policy can affect the goodwill and damage the growth
prospects of the sales. If a firm has a lenient credit policy, the customer with a
natural tendency towards slow payments, may become even slower to settle his
accounts Thus, the objective of collection procedure and policies should be to speed
up the slow paying customer and reduce the incidence of bad debts.
Monitoring of Receivables
In order to control the level of receivables, the firm should apply regular
checks and there should be a continuous monitoring system. The financial
managers should keep a watch on the credit worthiness of ail the individual
customers as well as on the total credit policy of the firm. For this, number of
measures are available as follows:
i) A common method to monitor the receivables is the collection period or
number of day's outstanding receivables. The average collection period may be
found by dividing the average receivables by the amount of credit sales per day i.e.,
Average CollectionPeriod Average receivable
Credit Sales per day
Number of days sales outstanding may be calculated, say, on a weekly basis.
For example, every Saturday the firm may divide the total outstanding receivables
with the receivables daily credit sales. The quotient gives an idea as to how many
day's credit sales are uncollected. Such quotient, if ascertained for a number of
weeks, may give an idea about the trend of total receivables.
ii) Another technique available for monitoring the receivables is known as
aging schedule. The quality of the receivables of a firm can be measured by looking
at the age of receivables. The older the receivable, the lower is the quality and
greater the like hood of a default.
Both the ratios should be calculated on a continuous basis to monitor the
receivables. The ratios so calculated for the firms must then be compared with the
standard for that industry or with the past ratios of the same firm. For example, if
the receivable 3 turnover for the firm is 6 against the industry average of 8, then
there is something to /worry about. Similarly, if the average collection period is 40
days against the established credit period of 30 days only, then this is clearly an
indication of deterioration in the collection procedure and the credit evaluation
process. Both the accounting ratios may indicate e need for an immediate attention
towards the entire credit policy.
Lines of Credit
Another control measure for receivables management is the line of credit refers
to the maximum amount a particular customer may have as due to the firm s: any
117
time. Different lines of credit may be allowed to different customers. As long as the
customer's unpaid balance remain within this maximum limit, the account may be
routinely handled. However, if a new order is going to increase the indebtedness of
a customer beyond his line of credit, then the case must be taken for an approval
for a temporary increase in the line of credit. The lines of credit must be reviewed
periodically for all the customers.
6.3.5 Costs of Receivables
The various costs attached with a credit policy is enumerated as follows:
Cost of Financing
The credit sales delays the time of sales realization and therefore the time gap
between incurring the cost and the sales realization is extended. This results in
blocking of funds for a longer period. The firm on the other hand, has to arrange
funds to meet its own obligation towards payment to the supplier, employees etc.
These funds are to be procured at some explicit or implicit cost. This is known as
the cost of financing the receivables.
Administrative Cost
A firm will also be required to incur various costs in order to maintain the
record of credit customers both before the credit sales as weli as after the credit
sales. Before credit sales, costs are incurred on obtaining information regarding
credit worthiness of the customers; while after credit sales, the cost are incurred on
maintaining the record of credit sales and collection thereof.
Delinquency Cost
Over and above the normal administrative cost of maintaining and collection of
receivables, the firm may have to incur additional costs known as delinquency
costs. :.f there is delay in payment by a customer. The firm may have to incur cost
on reminders, phone calls, postage, legal notices etc. Moreover, there is always an
opportunity cost of the funds tied up in the receivables due to delay in payment.
Cost of Default by Customers
If there is a default by a customer and the receivable becomes, partly or
wholly, unrealizable, then this amount, known as bad debt, also becomes a cost to
the firms. This cost does not appear in case of cash sales.
Different cost associated with the receivables have been presented in Figure 2
The above figure 2 shows that the total cost of receivables consists of cost of
financing, which is a factor of time, plus cost of administration plus cost of
delinquency plus cost of default. However, the receivables does not result in
increasing the cost only, rather they bring some benefits also to the firm.
118
Figure 2
Different types of Costs of Receivables
Example - 1
A trader whose current sales are Rs.15 Lakhs per annum and average
collection period is 30 days wants to pursue a more liberal credit policy to improve
sales. A study made by a consultant firm reveals the following information:
Increase is
Credit Policy Increase in Sales
Collection Period
B 30 days 90,000
C 45 days 1,50,000
D 60 days 1,80,000
The selling price per unit is Rs.5. Average cost per unit is Rs.4 and variable
cost per unit is Rs.2.75 paise per unit. The required rate of return on additional
investments is 20 per cent. Assume 360 days a year and also assume that there are
not bad debts. Which of the above policies would you recommend for adoption?
Solution
Evaluation of Different Credit Policies
Credit Policies
Present
Particulars A B C D E
Policy
Credit 30 days 45 day 60 day 75 days 90 days 120 day
Period
The credit policy D (credit period 90 days) is expected to increase the profit to
Rs.3,16.050 and therefore may be adopted.
6.4 REVISION POINTS
Credit Policy : Refers to the decisions regarding how much
credit be extended to a customer and on
what terms.
Credit Term : Refers to the set of stipulations under which
the credit is extended to the customer
122
LESSON – 7
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The success of a business concern largely depends upon efficient purchasing,
storage, consumption and accounting. The uncontrolled in ventures are dangerous
and at times it is called as graveyard of business. Hence, inventory control system
should be designed to ensure the provision of the required quantity of material at
the required time to meet the needs of production and sales, while at the same time
keeping the investment in them at a minimum. Inventories constitute the most
significant part of current assets of a large majority of companies in India. On an
average, inventories are approximately 60 per cent of current assets in public
limited companies in India. Because of the large size of inventories maintained by
firms, a considerable amount of funds are required to be committed in them. It is.
therefore, absolutely imperative to manage inventories efficiently and effectively in
order to avoid unnecessary investments in them. An undertaking neglecting the
management of inventories will be jeopardizing its long-run profitability and may
fail ultimately. It is possible for a company to reduce its levels of inventories to a
considerable degree, e.g., 10 to 20 per cent, without any adverse effect on
production and sales, by using simple inventory planning and control techniques.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson you must be able to
Understand the concept and importance of Inventories
Discuss the objects of Inventory Management
Explain the cost associated with holding Inventory
List the tools of Inventory Management
7.3 CONTENT
7.3.1 Need for Holding Inventory
7.3.2 Management of Inventory
7.3.3 Objective of Inventory
7.3.4 Cost Associated with Holding Inventory
7.3.5 Inventory Control Techniques
7.3.6 Inventory Valuation
Inventories
Inventories are goods held for eventual sale by a firm. Inventories are thus one
of the major elements which help the firm in obtaining the desired level of sales.
Inventories can be classified into three categories.
i) Raw Materials
These are goods which have not yet been committed to production in a
manufacturing firm. They may consist of basic raw materials or finished components.
123
ii) Work-in-Process
This include those materials which have been committed to production
process but have not yet been completed.
iii) Finished Goods
These are completed products awaiting sale. They are the final output of the
production process in a manufacturing firm. In case of wholesalers and retailers,
they are generally referred to as merchandise inventory.
7.3.1 Need for Holding Inventory
The question of managing inventories arises only when the company holds
inventories. Maintaining inventories involves typing up of the company's funds due
to storage and handling costs. If it is expensive to maintain inventories, why do
companies hold inventories? There are three general motives for holding
inventories.
1. The transactions motive which emphasizes the need to maintain inventories
to facilitate smooth production and sales operations.
2. The precautionary motive which necessitates holding of inventories to guard
against the risk of unpredictable changes in demand and supply forces and other
factors.
3. The speculative motive which influences the decision to increase or reduce
inventory levels to take advantage of price fluctuations.
A company should maintain adequate stock of materials for a continuous
supply to the factory for an uninterrupted production. It is not possible for a
company to procure raw materials whenever it is needed. A time lag exists between
demand for materials “and it supply. Also, there exists uncertainty in procuring raw
materials in time at many occasions The procurement of materials may be delayed
because of such factors as strike, transport disruption short supply Therefore, the
firm should maintain sufficient stock of raw materials at a give time to streamline
production Other factors which may necessitate purchasing and hold -g of raw
materials inventories are quantity discounts and anticipated price increase The firm
may purchase large quantities of raw materials than need for desired production
and sales levels to obtain quantity discounts of bulk purchasing At times, the firm
would like to accumulate raw materials in anticipations of price rise.
7.3.2 Management of Inventory
Inventories often constitute a major element of the total Working capital and
hence it has been correctly observed, “good inventory management is good financial
management”.
Inventory management covers a large number of issues including fixation of
minimum and maximum levels; determining the size of the inventory to be carried;
deciding about the "issue Price policy, setting up receipt and inspection procedure.
determine the economy order quantity; providing proper storage facilities, keeping
124
To ensure to this flow of raw materials, the company has to maintain adequate
quantity of inventory. Storing of these components involves many types costs and
uncertainties. As the-value of the materials, increases than the value of a rupee, it
should be maintained judiciously. Some of the costs associated in managing the'
inventories are discussed below:
Financial Cost: It is also known as capital cost. The finance required to
purchase the inventory and the cost the company bears for mobilizing; it is known
as financial cost. Therefore adequate supply of finance at cheaper cost must be
made available to maintain the inventory.
Working Capital Management
Cost of Storage : Inventory are to be stored properly by protecting the quality.
The space required for storing the inventory must be adequately provided. This cost
consists of the rent payable for storing the materials and maintenance of inventory
cast, (Insurance).
Price Fluctuation: Inventories are exposed to vide fluctuation in the prices.
Many at time, the prices of materials may be reduced. If the price paid for procuring
the materials are higher than the price that is prevailing, it is a toss to the business
firm.
Risk of Obsolescence: Due to the increased research and innovative and
creative minds of technologists, new materials and products will enter into the
market. On such circumstances, the product manufactured today becomes
obsolete.
Deterioration in Quality : In a practical situation, most of the materials stored
may not be issued to production department for various reasons. In the process;
such materials looses its quality or deteriorate itself from original value.
Theft, Damage and Accident: The materials are stored in the warehouses. If it is
not properly taken care of, it is exposed to different types of uncertainty viz., theft,
damage and fire accident etc. All these are losses or increases the cost of
production.
Order Placing Cost: Order placing cost is a permanent cost which is incurred
by the business firm to place the order for materials, the salary of clerk, manger
and establishment charges will also be considered into managing the inventory.
Inventory Carrying Cost: It includes the expenses of maintenance of stores,
bins and the salary to the staff who are in-charge of warehouses or storage. Hence
these costs are to be reduced to increase the profitability of the firm.
Cost of Shortage of Stock: Many at times, business firms may be able to
arrange the adequate supply of materials regularly for various reasons. As a result,
production work may be.: stopped. Therefore, sufficient care should be taken not to
have this cost in running the business.
126
2 C.O.
The formula of E.O.Q. is =
I
where, I= interest payment including variable cost of storage per unit per year.
C= Consumption of materials concerned in units.
O= Cost of ordering and receiving per order
Assumptions
i) Inventory is consumed at a constant rate,
ii) Cost do not vary over the period of time,
iii) Lead time is known and constant,
iv) Ordering cost, carrying cost and unit price are constant,
v) Holding or carrying costs are proportional to the value of stocks held,
vi) Ordering or cost varies proportionately with price.
For example, a unit of material ‘x’ costs Rs.50 and the annual consumption is
2,00,000 units. The cost of placing an order and receiving the materials is Rs. 200
and the interest including variable cost of storage per unit per year is 10% per
annum.
2 C.O.
Economic Order Quantity =
I
127
2 2,00,000 200
1,60,00,000 4,000 units
5(i.e.10% of Rs.50)
=
Determination of Stock Levels
The demand and supply method of stock control technique determines
different stock levels viz; Maximum level, Minimum level, Recorder level, Average
level, Danger level etc.
Maximum Stock Level: Represents the quantity of inventory above which
should not be allowed to be kept. This quantity is fixed keeping in view the
disadvantages of over stocking. The disadvantages of over stocking are: (i) working
capital is blocked up unnecessarily in stores and interest may have to be paid
thereon; (ii) more storage space is required so more rent, insurance charges and
other costs of carrying inventory have to incurred; (iii) there is risk of deterioration
in quality, deprecation in quantity due to evaporation, rusting etc., and risks of
obsolescence besides the risk of loss due to breakage, theft, excessive consumption
also, and (iv) possibility of financial loss on account of subsequent fall in prices.
The following are the factors helpful in deciding the limits of inventory to be
stored; (a) amount of capital available and required for purchases, (b) storage
facilities and storage costs, (c) rate of consumption of the material, (d) possibilities
of price fluctuations, (e) seasonal nature of supply of materials, (f) possibility of loss
due to fire, evaporation, moisture, deterioration in quality, etc., (g) insurance costs,
(h) possibility of change in fashion and habit which will outdate the products
manufactured from that material, (i) restrictions imposed by government or local
authority or trade association in regard to materials in which there are inherent
risks e.g. fire and explosion or as to imports or procurement, (j) economic quantity,
and (k) Lead Time.
Lead Time: From the time the requisition for an item is raised; it may take
several weeks or month’s before the supplies are received, inspected, and taken in
stock. This time is called as “Lead Time” or “Procurement Time” and involves the
time for the completion of all or some of the following activities: (i) raising of a
purchase requisition, (ii) inquiries, tenders, quotations, (iii) receiving quotations,
tenders, their scrutiny and approval, (iv) placement of order on a supplier/
suppliers, (v) suppliers time to make the goods ready (may have to be manufactured
or supplied ex-stock). (vi) Transportation and clearing, (vii) receipt of materials at
the company, (viii) inspection and verification of the materials, (ix) taking into stock,
and (x) issuing items and carrying them to the place of work.
This lead time required to procure any item can be divided into two parts
namely internal lead time (also known as Administrative Lead Time) required for
organizational formalities to be completed and external lead time (also known as
Delivery Lead Time) as shown below:
128
It is common belief that external lead time should be controlled and reduced
but it has been found in actual practice that internal lead time constitute a
considerable part of total lead time and offers ample scope for reduction. The
management must make a determined and deliberate effort to reduce lead time by
selectively delegating powers, better paper work procedures, and fixing targets
individually for all activities. Obviously, in order the materials much in advance i.e.,
when the stock available is sufficient to last during the lead time.
Minimum Stock Level: represents the quantity below which stock should not be
allowed to fall. This is known as safety or buffer stock. The main purpose of this
level is to ensure that production is not held up due to shortage of any material.
This level is fixed after considering: (i) average rate of consumption of materials,
and (ii) lead time.
Reorder Levelor order level) is the point at which if stock of the material in
store reaches the store-keeper should initiate the purchase requisition for fresh
supplies of the materials. This level is fixed between maximum and minimum-stock
levels in such a way that the difference of quantity of the materials between the
reorder level and the minimum level will be sufficient to meet the requirement of
production up to the time the fresh supply to the material is received.
Danger Level: Means a point at which issues of the material are stopped and
issues are made only under specific instructions. This level is generally fixed below
the minimum stock level. When stock of materials reaches the danger level the
purchase officer should take special arrangements to get the materials at any cost.
Just-in-Inventory Control: The just-in-time inventory control system, originally
developed by Taiichi Okno of Japan, simply implies that the firm should maintain a
minimal level of inventory and rely on suppliers to provide parts and components
“just-in-time” to meet its assembly requirements. This may be contrasted with the
traditional inventory management system which calls for maintaining a healthy
level of safety stock to provide a reasonable protection against uncertainties of
consumption and supply-the traditional system may be referred to as a “just-in-
case” system.
The just-in-time inventory system, while conceptually very appealing, is
difficult to implement because it involves a significant change in the total
production and management system. It requires inter alias (i) a strong and
dependable relationship with suppliers who are geographically not very remote
from the manufacturing facility, (ii) a reliable transportation system, and (iii) an
easy physical access in the form of enough doors and conveniently located docks
and storage areas to dovetail incoming supplies to the needs of assembly line.
129
Annual
Model No. % Items Consumption % Rank
in value Rs.
A Category 502 10% 42,00,000 48% 1
506 10% 22,00,000 25% 2
Total 20% 64,00,000 73%
132
Disadvantages
1. The issue prices may not reflect current market prices and, therefore, when
price increases the cost of production is unduly low.
2. The cost of consecutive similar jobs may differ simply because the prior job
exhausted the supply of lower priced stock. This renders comparison
between different jobs is difficult.
3. The method may involve cumbersome calculations if the prices fluctuate
quite frequently.
The FIFO method is most successfully used when (a) the size and the cost of
raw material units are large, (b) materials are easily identified as belonging to a
particular purchased lot, and (c) not more than two or three different receipts are
one materials card at one time.
ii) Last in First Out (LIFO) Method: This method operates on the assumption
that the latest receipts of materials are issued first for production and the earlier
receipts are issued last, i.e., in the reverse order to FIFO. It uses the price of the
last batch receives for all the issues until all units from this batch have been issued
after which the price of the previous batch received becomes the issue price.
Usually, a new delivery is receives before the first batch is fully used, in which case
tehnew delivery price becomes the ‘last – in ‘price and is used for pricing issues
until either the batch is exhausted or a new delivery is received.
Example: Assuming the same figures which were taken in FIFO method, the
issue of 600 kgs, the value is shown below:
method however, is difficult to use if purchases and issues are numerous and the
materials issued cannot be identified.
vii) Inflated Price Method: In case of certain materials wastage is unavoidable
on account of their inherent nature, e.g., if a log of timber is issued to various
departments in pieces or if it is kept for seasoning, there will be some loss in its
quantity. In such a case the production should be charged at an inflated price so as
to recover the total cost of materials over the different issues.
viii) Average Cost Method: (a) Simple Average Price: Simple average price is the
average of the prices without any regard to quantities. The calculation of simple
average price involves adding of different prices dividing by the number of different
pieces. The method operates under the principle that when materials are purchased
in lots and are put in store, their identity is lost and, therefore, issues should be
valued at the average price of all the lots in store. Though this method is very easy
to operate, but it is crude and usually produces unsatisfactory results. The value of
closing stock may be quite absurd. Moreover, materials are not changed at actual
cost and, therefore, a profit or loss will usually arise out of pricing.
b)Weighted Average Price: Weighted average price is calculated by dividing the
total cost of material in stock by the total quantity of material in stock. This method
averages prices after weighing (i.e., multiplying) by their quantities. The average
price at any time is simply the balance value divided by the balance units. Issue
prices need to be computed on the receipt of new deliveries and not at the time of
each issue as in the case of FIFO and LIFO. Thus as soon as a fresh lot is received,
an new issue price is calculated and all issues are then taken at this price until the
receipt of the next lot materials, when put in stores, is lost and therefore their cost
should reflect the average of the total supply.
Advantages
1. Since the receipts are much less frequent than issues, the method is not so
cumbersome because the calculation of the new issue price only when fresh
lots are purchased. All subsequent issues are then charged at this price
until the next lot is received.
2. The method even out the effect of widely varying prices of different
consignments comprising the stock.
3. A profit or loss may arise out of pricing.
4. Issue prices may run to a number of decimal points.
c) Periodic Simple Average Price: This method is similar to the simple average
price except that here the issue is calculated at the end of each period (normally a
month) covering the prices at which purchases were made during the period and
not at the occasion of each issue of material.
d) Periodic Weighted Average Price: The periodic weighted average price is the
weighted average price of materials purchased during a period. Is calculated by
dividing the total cost of materials purchased during a period by the total quantity
137
of materials purchased during that period. A new average price is calculated at the
end of each period (normally a month).
e) Moving Simple Average Price: This price is obtained by dividing the total of
the periodic simple average prices of a given number of periods, by the number of
periods, by the number of periods, the last of the period being that for which
material issues are valued. The calculation of moving simple average price requires
to decide upon the number is to be calculated, the periodic simple average prices of
5 periods have to be added and total of these prices divided by 5 would give simple
moving average price…..
f) Moving Weighted Average Price: This is a derivation of the weighted average
method. To obtain the weighted average price, the weighted average price of a given
number of periods (including and preceding the period of accounting) have to be
added and divided by the number of periods.
Selection of a Suitable Method of Printing Issues: No single method can be
appropriate in all circumstances. The selection of a proper method of pricing issues
depends on the following factors : (a) the nature of the business and type of
production, e.g., intermittent such as job or continuous such as process ; (b) the
method of costing used, whether the cost accounts are maintained according to the
standard costing system, if so, method of issuing materials on standard cost should
be used ; (c) the nature of materials e.g., if material are to be kept for some time for
maturing or seasoning, an inflated price will have to be charged ; (d) the frequency
of purchases and issues ; (e) the extent of price fluctuations ; (f) The policy of the
management : if the management wants that the cost accounts should represent
the current posit in and correspond with estimates besides that they should
disclose efficiently in buying. Pricing materials issues at market price may be
suitable issued; (g) relative value of material issued and relative size of batch of
material issued; (h) length of inventory turnover period and quantity of material to
be handled to be handled ; and (1) the necessity for maintaining uniformity within
an industry.
Illustration - 4
XYZ Ltd, has purchased and issued the materials in the following order:
Rs.
January 1 Purchases 300 units 3 per unit
4 Purchases 600 “ 4 “
6 Issue 500 “ -- “
10 purchase 700 “ 4 “
15 Issue 800 “ -- “
20 Purchases 300 “ 5 “
23 Issue 100 “ -- “
138
Ascertain the quantity of closing stock as on 31st January and state what will
be its value(in each case) if issues are made under the following methods
(a) Average cost, (b) First-in –first- out, and (c) Last-in-first out
Solution
a) Average cost method
Rs.
January 6 Issue 500 units 3.67 Peru nit
15 Issue 800 “ 3.88 “
23 Issue 100 “ 4.44 “
31 Balance 500 “ 4.44 “
Value of closing stock Rs.2,220
b) First-in-first out method
January 6 Issue 500 (3oo @ Rs.3+ 200 @ Rs.4)
15 Issue 800 (2 Rs. 4)
23 Issue 100 (@ Rs.$)
31 Balance 500 (200 @ Rs.4 +300 @ Rs.5)
value of closing stock Rs.2,300
c) Last-in-first-out method
January 6 Issue 500 @ Rs.4
15 Issue 800 @ Rs.4
23 Issue 100 @ Rs.5
31 Balance 500 (200 @ Rs.5 + 300 @ Rs.3
value of closing stock Rs.1900
Illustration - 5
The following information is obtained from the records of ABC Ltd ;
On January 31st, the replacement cost was Rs.3.5 per unit. Determine the
closing stock, cost of goods sold and profit for the month using LIFO, FIFO and
replacement cost (use the format of a trading account).
139
Solution
Trading Account
i) Using LIFO Method
Date Particulars Units Amount Date Particulars Units Amount
Jan 1 Opening Stock 100 200 Jan.31 Sales 140 700
“ 10 Purchases 40 100 Jan.31 Closing Stock 100 200
“ 25 Purchases 100 300
“ 31 Profit 300
240 900 240 900
Opening stock + Purchases – Closing stock= cost of goods sold.
[200+400]–200=Rs.400.
2. Using FIFO Method
Date Particulars Units Amount Date Particulars Units Amount
Jan 1 Opening Stock 100 200 Jan.31 Sales 140 700
“ 10 Purchases 40 100 Jan.31 Closing Stock 100 300
“ 25 Purchases 100 300
“ 31 Profit 400
240 1,000 240 1,000
[Ans: E.0.q. = Rs.5,000; the offer should not be accepted because the cost will
increase by Rs. 46; any counter offer of more than 5% discount should
be made].
4. The following are taken from the records of M/s Balaji & Co. Thirupathi for
the year 1994. The valuation of inventory is Re.1 per kg or litters.
.
143
LESSON – 8
risk is the chance of adverse effects resulting from a commitment to make cash
payments, certain in amount and timings under certain future financial
circumstances. These adverse effects may range a Modest increase in emotional
Strain of management to the event of bankruptcy. They include the such
considerations as negative income effects and interference with flexibility in future
financing. It is generally accepted that the primary incentive to use long-term debt
capital in business is the fact that debt is normally a cheaper source than retained
earnings or new equity issues. In view of the debt proportion usually considered by
business and the tax shield of the interest charge it is substantially deeper.
Assuming that the primary objective of business is to maximize net revenue. It
would appear to be highly desirable to use debt as a source of a fund and to use it
as continuously as possible.
Convertible debentures are gaining much popularity in recent times, as a
means of raising finance by the corporate sector and are being issued currently by
a large number of companies. By giving its approval for giving high rate of interest
on the debenture issues, the Government has also contributed to the rise in issue
of debentures by the companies. The factors normally governing the issue are:
i) Avoidance of concentration of share capital in the hands of financial
institutions, in case large sums are taken as term loan, through these
financial institutions, subject to the conversation clause.
ii) Restrictions on funds raised through right issues for working capital
purposes only but not for expansion/project planning, etc.
iii) Dilution of earnings in respect of all shares can be avoided through
convertible debentures.
iv) The placing of conversion option vis-a-vis ordinary helps in deferring the
dilution in earnings and creates a feeling of confidence about the upward
earning and its better performance taking into consideration the expansion
or diversification plan of the company concerned.
v) In a fast expansion programme in any industry, the timings of the
conversion of the debentures are so set that the completion of the expansion
job normally consider with the conversion timings. Thus, up to the
completion of the expansion, only a fixed rate of interest is paid by the
company.
vi) Since the interest payable on these debentures is deductible expenditure the
burden on interest after tax, therefore, is quite low. It is also quite attractive
from the investors point of view. As soon as they become equity shareholders
after the conversion, they are able to share the gains resulting from the
expansion.
vii) Since these debentures are quoted on the stock exchanges they offer
excellent liquidity.
147
includes the lease period, cancellation provisions, rental payments, additional rents
or purchase options, allocation of maintenance and other features of the
agreement. In the leasing procedure, a property is leased by its owner. Ownership is
retained with the Lessor. A clear understanding of the role to be played by the
acquisition is an essential prerequisite. If it is to bring long-term benefits to the
business, each proposal for acquisition must be tested against these requirements,
and a selection made of the projects which maximize the success potential. Leasing
is not a way of avoiding financing. It is financing and it makes no difference
whether you own profitable assets and lease unprofitable assets, or vice versa, so
long as you require both kinds. The important question is the cost of the lease in
relation to other financing alternatives. Lease arrangements lend themselves to a
wide, diversified relationship between the lessee and the Lessor. The financial
impact of a lease transaction upon termination by the lease may be nothing or may
be substantial.
Advantages - To the Lessor
1. High rentals charged on leasing transaction increases the returns to Lessor.
2. Quick decision can be made to sanction leasing.
3. Lessor can enjoy depreciation benefit. The reason behind this is that the
asset will be in the name of banker (Lessor).
4. As the banker charging the depreciation against the profit, he can enjoy tax
benefits.
5. Cost of bad debt will always be less in leasing, in other words, recovery of
lease amount will be comfortable.
6. It is highly secured means of financing.
To the Lessee
1. Leasing provides 100% finance to the Lessee.
2. Lessee can charge entire amount of rental to his profit and loss account and
can reduce his tax liability.
3. The documentation procedure to avail leasing is very simple.
4. It is off the Balance Sheet financing. In other words the leased asset will
appear only in the lessor's balance sheet.
5. D:E ratio of lessee does not affect liability side of the balance Sheet.
6. It releases the burden of excess debt on the capital mix and maintains she
D:E ratio intact.
7. It is the best means of financing high tech machines.
Disadvantages - To the Lessor
1. Though, the Lessor enjoys the benefit of depreciation, he has to treat the
rental as Income. Hence it may not be too advantageous to the Lessor.
151
155
LESSON - 9
4. Growth Prospects: The equity share of a company may also act as 'growth'
share, i.e., with prospects for future growth in case the company over a period of
time has very good scope for quick expansion. Such shares enjoy considerable
prospects of capital appreciation within 5 to 10 years.
5. Protection against Inflation: Equity shares represent the best hedging or
insurance device, fully protecting investors against rising prices and it; (b) Equity
stock also facilitates the company to take benefits of leverage by taking debt capital
which is cheaper; (c) Equity shares do not create any charge on the assets of the
company and the assets may be used as security for further financing. All this
strengthens the credit of the company.
From investor's viewpoint equity ownership gives the shareholders (i) an
opportunity to share in the profits when declared as dividends, (ii) an opportunity
to make money on appreciation in the value of the securities, (iii) to participate in
Right share issue or bonus share issue, and (iv) the opportunity to vote for directors
of the corporation. It is especially important that the motives of investors be
understood by those interested in financial management because the securities
must be made attractive to investors.
The above discussion of equity shares as a method of raising finance clearly
brings out a series of perquisites conferred on the company and shareholders. It
must not, however, be inferred that equity shares are free of limitations. In fact, the
following problems become apparent when one analyses the nature of equity shares
: (a) the issuing of equity capital causes dilution of control by the equity holders, (b)
The exclusive use of equity shares as a fund-raising device by the management
deprives it from trading on equity which results in losing opportunity of using
cheap borrowed capital, (c) Also, the excessive use of equity shares is likely to result
in over-capitalisation with all its attendant consequences, (d) It attracts only those
classes of investors who can take risk. Conservative and cautious investors (both
individual and institutional) find it difficult to subscribe for such issues.
Difference between equity and preference shares
The following are some of the difference between equity shares and preference
shares.
Rate of return is
Dividend at fixed rate may
2. Nature of return fluctuating, depending
be paid or accumulated.
upon the earning
Residual claimant.
6. Right of receiving
Rank next to preference Entitled for first preference
dividend
shares.
7. Right of receiving
Entitled for first
back invested capital Entitled for first preference
preference
during liquidation.
Payment of equity
dividends is optional. It
is dependent on the Payment ofprefetence
8. Financial burden discretion of the Board dividend is a fixed financial
of Directors. Therefore commitment.
there is no fixed
financial commitment.
10. Reduction of
By reorganization By repayment
capital
The above table lists some of the differences between equity & pref shares.
No-par Shares: In the U.S.A. and Canada, many companies issue shares which
have no-par or face value. The total owned capital of the company is divided into a
certain number of shares. The share certificate merely states the number of shares
held by a particular holder and does not mention the face value of the shares. The
dividends on such shares are paid at the rate of given amount per share instead of
a certain percentage of the par value of each share. Such shares cannot be issued
in India, because the law requires every share to have fixed nominal value. In the
U.K., the Gedge Committee recommended that the company law should allow
companies to convert their ordinary shares having nominal value into no par value
shares. The advantages usually claimed for such shares are :
a) The balance sheet presents a realistic picture with such shares because the
capital is equal to the net worth (assets minus external liability) and is not
an imaginary amount as with shares of nominal value.
b) Since the value of such shares is related to the earnings, the shareholders
always know the real value of their holdings.
c) The shareholders are not liable to pay further calls because the total value of
a no-par share is collected in the beginning.
d) The shares need not be marketed at a discount because there is no
minimum par value of these shares. This avoids a lot of legal formality. )
e) Since the value of the shares is automatically adjusted with the earning
capacity, no reduction of capital is necessary.
On the contrary, the no-par value shares suffer from the following drawbacks:
a) The no-par value shares may easily be used to deceive ignorant investors. In
case of such shares there is no standard by which fluctuations in share
values can be ascertained.
b) Such shares make the balance sheet unduly complex and difficult to
understand. This makes the task of investors, creditors and tax authorities
difficult.
c) Unscrupulous management gets an opportunity to manipulate the sale
proceeds of shares and pay dividend out of capital.
d) The creditors lose the additional security of uncalled capital which they get
in case of partly paid shares with par value.
e) Since me capital account remains fluctuating from time to time, the
promoters may snatch unduly high amounts of remuneration for
themselves.
9.3.2 Right Shares
Whenever an existing company wants to issue new equity shares, the existing
shareholders will be potential buyers of these shares. Generally, the Articles or
Memorandum of Association of the company gives the right to existing shareholder
to participate in the new equity issues of the company. This right is known as pre-
159
emptive right and such offered shares are called Right shares or Right Issue or
'Privileged Subscription'. The term simply indicates the fact that such shares will be
first offered to the existing shareholders.
Under Section 81 of the Companies Act, 1956 where at any time after the
expiry of two years from the formation of a company or at any time after the expiry
of one year from the allotment of shares being made for the first time after its
formation, whichever is earlier, it is proposed to increase the subscribed capital of
the company by allotment of further shares, then such further shares shall be
offered to the persons who, at the date of the offer, are holders of the equity shares
of the company, in proportion as nearly as circumstances admit, to the capital paid
on those shares at that date. Thus, the existing shareholders have a pre-emptive
right to subscribe to the new issues made by a company. This right has at its root
in the doctrine that each shareholder is entitled to participate in any further issue
of capital by the company .equally, so that his interest in the company is not
diluted.
Right Issue and Financial Policy: The issue of right shares always affects
financial policy of the company as well as the market. Some of the important ways
in which financial policy is affected are given below.
i) When the right shares at low price available then share market of the
existing shares might be adversely influenced.
ii) When the right shares at low-price are available then the potential
investors might feel tempted to invest money thereby the finances of the
business can become sound.
iii) Financial Policy will be unfavourably influenced in case right shares are
offered to existing shareholders much above their purchasing capacity.
iv) When new shares have been added then less dividend will be paid and
that will adversely affect the business.
Whenever right shares are offered it is essential to review the market trends
and earnings position of the company so as to know how the shares are being
traded in the stock market. While fixing the price of the right shares, the following
facts will have to be taken into consideration: (i) the price what the market can
bear, (ii) state of the capital market, (iii) trends in share market, (iv) profit earning
capacity of the existing shares, (v) the proposed plan of expansion, (vi) dividend
policy of the company, (vii)resource position of the enterprise, (viii) reserves position
of the company, and (xi) the size of the right issue.
Advantages of Right Issue
a) Right issue gives the existing shareholders and opportunity for the
protection of their pro-rata share in the earning and surplus of the company.
b) Existing shareholders can also maintain their proportion in the voting power
as before.
160
c) There is more certainty of the shares being sold to the existing shareholders.
If aright issue is successful it is equal to favourable image and evaluation of
the company's goodwill in the minds of the existing shareholders:
d) The flotation costs of a right issue will be comparatively lower than a public
issue. The expenses to be incurred, otherwise of shares are offered to public,
are avoided.
Illustration - 1
A corporation earns Rs.80 lakhs after tax and has 18 lakh shares of Rs. 10
each outstanding. The market price of a share is 25 times the EPS. The corporation
plans to raise Rs. 180 lakhs of new equity funds through a rights offering and
decides to sell the new stock to shareholders at a subscription price of Rs. 60 per
share. The financial position before the company offers the right shares is as given
below:
Balance Sheet as on … … …
(Rs. in lakhs)
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Debentures @ 10% 800 Total Assets 2,000
Common Stock 200
Retained Earnings 1,000
Total 2,000 2,000
Income Statement
Total Earnings Rs.
Interest on Debt 200
Income Before Taxes 80
Taxes (60%) 160
Earnings After Taxes 96
Earnings Per Share (20 lakh 64
shares) is
Market Price of Stock is 3.20
80
R= Mo - S
N 1
80 - 60
=
6 1
20
Rs.2.86
7
i) The stockholder has the choice of exercising his rights of selling them. If he
has sufficient funds, and if he wants to buy more shares of the company' s stock,
he will exercise the rights. If he does not have the money, or does not want to buy
more stock, he will sell his rights. In either case, the stockholder will neither benefit
nor lose by the rights offering. This can be illustrated further. Suppose, a
shareholder has 12 shares. As each share has a market value of Rs. 80 per share,
the stockholder has a total market value of Rs. 960 in the company's stock. If he
exercises his rights, he will be able to purchase two additional shares (one share for
6 rights) at Rs. 60 each. His new investment will thus amount to:
Rs.960+(60x2)=Rs.l,080.
He now owns 12 shares of his company's stock which, after the rights offering
have a value of:
1,080
Rs.77.14
12 2
The value of his stock is Rs, 1,080, that is to say, exactly what he has invested
in it. Alternatively, if he sold his 12 rights, which have a value of Rs. 2.86 each as
shown in (ii) above, he would receive Rs. 34.32. He would now have his original 12
shares of stock, plus Rs. 34.32 in cash. His original 12 shares of stock now have a
market value of Rs. 77.14 each-Rs.925.68 market value (77.14 x 12 = 925.68) of his
stock plus Rs.34.32 in cash is the same as the original Rs. 960 market value of
stock with which he began (80 X 12 = 960). From a purely mechanical or
arithmetical point, the stockholder neither benefits nor gains from the sale of
additional shares of stock through rights. Of course, if he forgoes to exercise or sell
162
his rights, or if the brokerage costs of selling the rights arc excessive, he may suffer
a loss. But, in general, the issuing corporation would make special efforts to
minimise the brokerage costs; and adequate time is given to enable the stockholder
to take some action so that his losses are minimal.
Illustration - 2
A company plans to issue common stock by privileged subscription. Twenty
four rights are needed to get one additional share of stock. The corporation declares
the subscription price at Rs. 9 against the current market price of Rs. 11 per share.
You are required to find out:
a) The market value of one right when stock is selling rights;
b) The market price of the stock when the stock goes ex-rights;
c) The market value of a right when the stock sells ex-rights; and
d) The value of one share of ex-rights stock, if only 5 rights are needed to get
one additional share of stock.
Solution
a) The market value of one right, when the stock is selling rights on, is
calculated by the following formula:
Me - S
R=
N
(Mo X N) S
Me = = (11 x 24) 9 273 Rs.10.92
N 1 24 1 25
a) The market value of 1 right, when the stock is selling ex-rights, may be
calculated with the following formula:
Mo - S 10.92 - 9
R= =
N 1 24
1.92
= = Re.0.08 = 8 paise
24
a) The market value of one share of ex-rights stock, if it takes only 5 rights to
subscribe to an additional share of stock, will be:
(Me x N) S
Me = (11 x 5) 9 =
64
Me = = Rs. 10.66
N 1 5 1 6
9.3.3 Bonus Shares
Bonus shares are issued to the existing equity shareholders. When the
company has sufficient reserves and surplus but its cash position is weak. it may
think of issuing bonus shares. Issues of bonus shares in lieu of dividend are not
allowed as per section 205 of the Companies Act, 1956. By issue of bonus shares,
the accumulated profits and reserves of the company are converted into share
capital and hence it is also known as Capitalisation of Profits and Reserves.
Bonus shares may be paid to the existing shareholders in the following
manners:
a) Making the partly paid equity shares fully paid up without asking for cash
from shareholders; or
b) Issuing and allotting equity shares to existing shareholders in a definite
proportion out of profits. For example, if a company has 50,00,000 equity
shares of Rs. 10 each fully paid up and reserves of Rs. 8,00,00,000. Now the
company can issue bonus shares in the ratio of 1:1, if desired.
Bonus shares are issued for any one of the following reasons
i) to give some benefit out of the reserves accumulated in excess of present or
future probable needs of the company;
ii) to bring the issued share capital of the company in true relation to (he
capital employed in the business ;
iii) to avoid exceptionally high profits and dividends from attracting competitors
in the line where monopoly has so far been enjoyed;
iv) to prevent unduly high rates of dividends from dissatisfying their own
employees who might feel to have been underpaid and might seek for a
claim to higher wages ;
v) to prevent such excessive profits from disturbing the company's business by
creating dissatisfaction amongst even customers or suppliers.
164
Rs.
Paid-up capital 160
Free reserves 120
Average profits before tax during the last 3 years 80
(i) Residual reserves test
Existing paid-up capital 160
Free reserve 120
Total 280
Let the increased paid-up capital be Rs.100. The residual reserve must be 40
percent, i.e., Rs.40.
Total Rs. 100 + Rs. 40 = Rs. 140.
40
If total is Rs. 280, residual reserve must be × Rs. 280 = Rs. 80
140
Reserve available for capitalisation Rs. (120-80) = Rs. 40
ii) Profitability test
Average profits before tax during the last 3 years Rs. 80
166
30
30 per cent of the average profit = × Rs. 80 = Rs. 24
100
Rs. 24 should give a rate of dividend on the increased capital base at 10%
100
The increased capital base = Rs. 24 × = Rs. 240
10
Existing paid-up capital = Rs. 160
Amount available for capitalisation = Rs. 80 (Rs. 240-Rs.l60)
Therefore, the amount available for capitalisation should be the lower of (i) and
(ii), i.e. Rs. 40
1. The capital reserves appearing in the balance sheet of the company as a
result of revaluation of assets or without accrual of cash resources are
neither capitalised nor taken into account in the computation of the
residual reserves of 40 per cent for the purpose of bonus issues.
2. The declaration of bonus issue, in lieu of dividend is not made.
3. The bonus issue is not made unless the partly-paid shares if any existing,
are made fully paid-up.
4. The company:
i) has not defaulted in payment of interest or principal in respect of
fixed deposits and interest on existing debentures or principal on
redemption thereof, and
ii) has sufficient reason to believe that it has not defaulted in respect of
the payment of statutory dues of the employees such as contribution
to provident fund, gratuity, bonus etc.
5. A company which announces its bonus issue after the approval of the
Board of Directors must implement the proposals within a period of 6
months from the date of such approval and shall not have the option of
changing the decision.
6. There should be a provision in the Articles of Association of the company
for capitalisation of reserves, etc. and if not, the company shall pass a
resolution at its general body meeting making provisions in the Articles of
Association for capitalisation.
7. Consequent to the issue of bonus shares, if the subscribed and paid-up
capital exceeds authorised share capital, a resolution shall be passed by
the company at its general body meeting for increasing the authorised
capital.
8. The company shall-get a resolution passed at its general body meeting for
bonus issue and in the said resolution the management's intention
regarding the rate of dividend to be declared in the year immediately after
the bonus issue should be indicated.
167
9. No bonus issue shall be made which will dilute the value or rights of the
holders of debentures, convertible fully or partly.
Further in respect of the non-residential shareholders, it would be necessary
for the company to obtain the permission of the Reserve Bank under the Foreign
Exchange Regulation Act, 1973.
9.3.4 Preference Shares
'Preference' share as the name implies, have a prior claim on any profits the
company may earn, but they receive only a fixed rate of dividend after the interest
has been paid to the debenture holders. Thus, it may suit the investor who wants a
limited but steady return on his money. The preferential treatment is available on
both the rights-right to receive dividend and also right to receive back the capital in
the event of dissolution or liquidation, if there be any surplus.
Features of Preference Shares
Preference shares have the following features:
1. Return of Income: As the name indicates, they have the first preference to get a
return of income, i.e., to share in the profits among all shareholders.
2. Return of Capital: Similarly, they have also the first preference or prior right to
get back their capital at the time of winding up of the company, among all
shareholders.
3. Fixed Dividend: As per terms of issue and as per Articles of Association, they
shall have a fixed rate of dividend, e.g., a maximum of 15 per cent cumulative
or non-cumulative as the case may be. Hence, they are called fixed-income
securities.
4. Non-participation in Prosperity: On account of fixed dividends, these shares
holders cannot have any chance to share in the prosperity of the company's
business. This drawback can be removed to some extent by granting them an
additional privilege to participate in the surplus profits along with equity
shareholders at a certain ratio, e.g., 2:1.
5. Non-participation in Management: As per the Act, preference shares do not
enjoy normal voting rights and voice in the management of the company's
affairs except when their interests are being directly affected, e.g., change in
their rights and privileges or arrears of dividends for more than two or three
years successively.
6. Voting Right of Preference Shares: From the commencement of the Amendment
Act of 1974, no extra voting right can be enjoyed by preference shares which
were issued prior to April 1,1956. However, private companies which are not
subsidiaries of public companies are not affected by this Section.
9.3.5 Kinds of Preference Shares
Participating Preference Shares: The preference shares which are entitled to
participate in the surplus of profits of the company available for distribution over
and above the fixed dividend are called as participating preference shares. Once the
fixed dividend on preference shares is paid, a part of the surplus profit is utilised
168
for payment of dividend to equity shareholders. The balance again may be shared
by both equity and participating preference shareholders. Thus, the participating
preference shares are entitled to (a) a fixed dividend and (b) a share in the surplus
profits. The preference shares, which do not carry a right to participate in the
surplus profits in addition to a fixed dividend, are called non-participating
preference shares.
Redeemable Preference Shares: The share capital of a company can never be
returned to the shareholders during the life-time of the company. It will be returned
to them only at the time of winding-up of the company, should the proceeds of sale
of assets of the company remain after meeting the claims of its creditors. But sec.
80 of the Companies Act, 1956 permits a company limited by shares to issue
preference shares which may be redeemed after a specified period or at the
discretion of the company, if so authorised by the articles of the company. These
preference shares are called redeemable preference shares. It should also be
remembered that the redemption of redeemable preference shares does not amount
to reduction of capital. However, the issue of redeemable preference shares is
subject to the following conditions:
1. The issue of redeemable preference shares must be duly authorised by the
Articles of Association of the company.
2. Preference shares should be fully paid so that they can be redeemed. It only
means that the partly paid-up shares cannot be redeemed.
3. Redeemable preference shares can be redeemed only out of the profits of the
company or out of the proceeds of fresh issue of shares specifically made for
the purpose of redemption.
4. If the shares are to be redeemed out of the profits of the company a sum
equal to the value of such shares should be transferred out of the net
profits of the company to a special reserve fund called "Capital Redemption
Reserve Account".
5. The premium, if any, payable on redemption of the shares should have
provided for out of the profits of the company before the shares are
redeemed.
6. New shares up to the nominal value of the redeemable preference shares
may be issued for the purpose of redemption either before redemption of old
shares or within one month after the redemption of old shares.
7. Shares already issued cannot be converted into redeemable preference
shares.
The preference shares which are not to be redeemed after a specific period are
called irredeemable preference shares. They become a perpetual liability to the
company and cannot be redeemed during the lifetime of the company.
169
Reasons to issue preference shares are: (a) it is desirable to enlarge the sources
of funds for the business. Certain financial institutions (and even individual
investors) that can buy equity shares cannot invest in preference issues. The yield
premium over debt is attractive to these and other investors who wish to assume
the risk of equity shareholders; (b) the sale of preference shares may be an
economical way of raising funds. If earnings of assets exceed the dividend rate and
the preference shares are non-participating, this economy is obvious; (c) the sale of
preference shares makes it possible to do business with other people's money
without giving them any participation in the affairs of management; (d) Preference
shares can be considered a type of semi-permanent equity financing; (e) Preference
share carries less risk than debt.
From the investor's viewpoint, preference share is safer than equity share
within 'the same company. Because of the priority over equity shares in the receipt
of dividends and repayment of capital, preference shareholders believe themselves
to be in a stronger position than equity shareholders. However, this advantage is
somewhat offset by the fact that preference shareholders can usually receive only a
limited return on their investment. In other words, preference shareholders
sacrifice income in return for expected safety.
The limitations attached with preference shares are quite obvious: (1) those
who doubt the usefulness of preference shares point out that it is too expensive to
use under the present tax structure. While the yield to investor on preference
shares is not much higher than on debt issues, the cost to the company is more
than double. It is so because the company cannot deduct this dividend on its tax
return; this fact is the principal drawback of preference shares as a means of
financing. In view of the fact that interest obligations on debt are deductible for tax
purpose, the company that treats to preference share dividend as a fixed obligation,
finds the explicit cost to be rather high. (2) Critics of preference shares also argue
that while no legal obligations exist to pay dividends, the passing of preference
dividends and accumulation of arrears can have an adverse effect upon the credit of
the company.
9.4 REVISION POINTS
Equity- The word 'equity' means the ownership interest as measured by
capital, reserves-and surplus.
Right share- Whenever an existing company wants to issue new equity shares,
the existing shareholders will be potential buyers of these shares.
Bonus share - Bonus shares are issued to the existing equity shareholders.
When the company has sufficient reserves and surplus but its cash position is
weak. it may think of issuing bonus shares.
Preference share - 'Preference' share as the name implies, have a prior claim
on any profits the company may earn, but they receive only a fixed rate of dividend
after the interest has been paid to the debenture holders.
173
9.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. What are the characteristics of equity shares?
2. Critically evaluate equity shares as a source of finance both from the point
of (i) the company and (ii) the investing public.
3. What do you understand by no-par shares? State the advantages claimed
by such shares.
4. What are Right Shares? What is its significance for financial management?
5. What do you mean by Bonus Shares? State the guidelines for issue of
such shares.
6. Explain essential characteristics of preference shares.
7. State and explain the various kinds of preference shares.
8. State the conditions to which the issues of redeemable preference shares
are subjected to in India.
9. Explain the merits and demerits of preference shares as a source of
industrial finance both from the point of (f) the company and (ii) investing
public.
10. What are the relevant factors, necessary to be kept in mind by a corporate
financial controller in recommending the issue of (i) Bonus shares and
(ii) Cumulative Convertible Preference Shares?
9.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Chandra, Prasanna: “Fundamentals of Financial Management”, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw Hill Co.
2. Kulkami, P.V.,: “Corporate Finance”, Bombay, Himalaya Publishing House.
3. Saravanavel, P.,: “Financial Management,” New Delhi, Dhampat Rai & Sons.
9.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
You are a stock broker. You have decided to create awareness among the
public in your city. How will you attract the public. Suggest a suitable programme.
9.12 KEYWORDS
Equity Shares, Preference shares, Bonus Shares, Right Shares, No-Par Share,
175
LESSON –10
Payment of equity
dividends is optional. It is
dependent on the Payment of interest on
6. Financial burden discretion of the Board of debentures is a fixed
Directors. Therefore there financial commitment.
is no fixed financial
commitment.
the non-convertible (NCD) portion of the PCD will be redeemed as per the term of
the issue after the maturity period. The non-convertible portion of the PCD portion
will carry interest right upto redemption whereas the interest on the convertible
portion will be only upto the date immediately preceding the date of conversion.
Let us look at the Ponni Sugars and Chemicals in greater detail. The company
is offering PCDs worth Rs.2205 lakhs of which Rs.605 lakhs is being offered the
existing shareholders. The issue is for 14,70,000 16% Secured Redeemable PCDs of
Rs.150 each. Out of this, 4.06,630 PCDs are by an off Rights Issue, in the ratio of
one PCD for every ten equity shares held. The balance of 10,66.370 PCDs are
offered to the public. Of the total face value of Rs. 150, the convertible portion will
have a face value of Rs.60 and the non-convertible portion, a face value of Rs.90. A
'tradable warrant' will be issued in the ratio of one warrant for every 5 fully paid
PCDs. Each such warrant will entitle the holder to subscribe to one equity share at
a premium which will not exceed Rs.20 per share within a period of 3 years from
the date of allotment of the PCDs. This is not included in the conversion at the rate
of 1:10. The tradable warrants will also be listed in stock exchanges to ensure
liquidity. Interest at 16% on the paid-up value of the PCD allotted shall accrue from
the date of allotment, but interest on the convertible portion of the PCD will be paid
only upto the date immediately preceding the date of conversion. The non-
convertible portion of the PCD will be redeemed in the stages at the end of the 6th,
7th and 8th year from the allotment of the PCD.
(d) Secured Premium Notes (SPNs): This is a kind of NCD with an attached
warrant that has recently started appearing-in the Indian Capital Market. This was
first introduced by TISCO which issued SPNs aggregating Rs.346.50 crores to
existing shareholders on a right basis. Each SPN is of the face value ofRs.300. No
interest will accrue on the instrument during the first 3 years after allotment.
Subsequently the SPN will be repaid in 4 equal instalments of Rs.75 each from the
end of the fourth year together with an equal amount of Rs.75 with each
instalment. This additional Rs. 75 can be considered either as interest /regular
income) or premium on redemption (capital gain) based on the tax planning of the
investor.
The warrant attached to the SPN gives the holders the right to apply for and
get allotment of one equity share for cash by payment of Rs.100 per share. This
right has to be exercised between one and one-and-half year after allotment, by
which time the SPN will be fully paid up. The instrument was first issued by IDBI,
later on followed by SIDBI. The above bond issued by IDBI has a face value of Rs. 1
lakh but was issued at a 'deep discounted' price ofRs.2700. This bond appreciates
to its face value over the maturity period of 25 years. But a unique advantage of
this bond is that it gives the investor an option of contracting upto maturity or seek
redemption at the end of every 5 years with a given deemed face value. These bonds
can be sold by the investor in the stock exchange and the difference between the
sale price and original cost of acquisition will be treated as capital gain. The bond
181
has been assigned "AAA" rating by CRISIL, indicating the highest safety with regard
to payment of interest and principal.
The face value of SIDBI's Deep Discount Bond is also Rs. 1 lakh but the initial
investment required is only Rs.2,500. These bonds have got ‘AA’ rating from CRISIL
indicating high safety with regard to timely payment of principal and interest.
Nominal Rate
Period
Deemed face value (compounded Effective%
(Years) half yearly) %
After 5 5,700 15.52 16.12
After 10 12,000 15.49 16.09
After 15 25,000 15.40 15.99
After 20 50,000 15.14 15.71
After 25 1,00,000 14.98 5.54
Reasons for Issuing Covertable Bonds
The management inserts conversion feature in bond indenture for four main
reasons, viz., to sweaten the issue, to eliminate debt with unduly restrictive
conditions, to defer the sale of equity stock and prevent dilution of earnings
available to current stockholders and to reduce cost of financing. It is generally
believed that convertible bonds enjoy 'high marketability because of three-fold
benefits available to bondholders. Thus, a convertible bondholder has the
advantage of certainty of income, the priority of claim as to income and assets and
the opportunity of sharing in the profits if the company prospers. Management uses
conversion method to extinguish debt which was unduly restrictive in terms,
hampering the progress of the organization and to get rid of Burden of fixed
obligation. Frequently, when there is a slump in stock market and acquisition of
capital through equity stock possess a great problem or the company has been
caught temporarily in financial trouble or due to poor cash dividend policy it is felt
that the new stock-issue will elicit poor response from investors, the management
may decide to defer the stock issue and float convertible bond with an intention to
convert them in near future when, it is believed, earnings of the company will
improve substantially and market conditions will change. Furthermore, cost
consideration also motivates the management to issue convertible bonds. The
underwriting cost of a convertible bond is lower than common stock or ordinary
bonds because of the fact that the former is more appealing to the investor and
hence easier to sell.
Another factor, which has made convertible bond more popular with the
management, is lower interest rate. Because of conversion privilege investors may
forego higher interest.
182
There are four important features of convertible securities: (i) The conversion
ratio, (ii) The conversion period, (iii) The conversion value, and (iv) The conversion
premium.
(i) The Conversion Ratio: The conversion ratio is the ratio in which the
convertible security can be exchanged for equity stock. The conversion ratio may be
stated by indicating that the security is convertible into a certain number of shares
of equity stock. In this situation, the conversion ratio is given, and in order to find
the conversion price, the face value of the convertible security is divided by the
conversion ratio. An example of this case is given below:
Illustration
A corporation has outstanding a convertible security issue-a debenture with
Rs. 1,000 face value convertible into 25 shares of equity stock. The conversion ratio
for the bond is 1:25. From this, the conversion price for the Bonds is arrived at
Rs.40.
1,000
= 40
25
Sometimes, instead of the conversion ratio, the conversion price is given. In
that case, the conversion ratio can be obtained by dividing the face value of the
convertible by the conversion price. This case can be explained with the following
example.
Illustration
A corporation has outstanding a convertible bond with a face value of Rs.
1,000. The bond is convertible at Rs. 50 per share into equity stock. From this
information, the conversion ratio is arrived at
1:20
1,000
20
50
(ii) The Conversion Period: Convertible bonds arc often convertible only within
or after a certain period of time. Sometimes, conversion is not permitted until a
certain period has passed. In another instance, conversion is permitted only for a
limited number of years after its issuance. Sometimes, bonds may be convertible at
any time during the life of the security. Time limitations on conversion are imposed
by the corporation to suit its long-run financial needs.
(iii) Conversion Value: The conversion value of a convertible bond is the value of
the security measured in terms of the market value of the security into which it
may be converted. Since convertible bonds are convertible into equity stock, the
conversion value can generally be found simply by multiplying the conversion ratio
by the current market price of the corporation' s equity stock.
Illustration
The corporation has outstanding a Rs. 1016 bond which is convertible into Rs.
31.25 a share. The current market price of the equity stock is Rs. 32.50 per share.
The conversion ratio is, therefore, 32.
183
1,000
32
31 .25
The current market price of the equity stock is Rs, 32.50 per share.
5
100 11.11
45
Utility of Conversion Method
The conversion privilege of the bond is very appealing bond to the issuer as
well as to investing community. It enables the issuing company to attract savings of
investors even though the company's current position does not favour issue of
stock.
Furthermore, this provides a convenient and relatively easy way of getting rid
of bonded indebtedness and the fixed interest charges attached thereto. Without
making any cash payment and simply by further dividing the ownership the
company can extinguish indebtedness.
To investors who at the moment are not prepared to invest in stocks but who
are not content to continue indefinitely as creditors, conversion privilege has great
184
value because it would give safety of principal and a certain ratio of income and a
right to convert it for stock in case the company prospered so that its stock paid a
high rate was reasonably secured. Thus, the purchase of convertible bonds gives
investors the opportunity to have their cake and eat it too. Such bonds also appeal
to speculators who are interested more in capital appreciation than income. They
could borrow on their bond to make a large percentage of appreciation on their
investment.
However, convertible bonds may be said to have adversely affected, though to a
limited extent, the investment position of the company's stock. In the event of
depression the consequences may be serious. Further, conversion injures the
market position of the bonds that remain unconverted. The value of such bonds will
be very low.
10.3.3 Advantages of Debenture Finance
Debenture finance has its own importance and significance in company
finances. Some of the points may be discussed as under:
i) The company is able to secure capital without giving any control to the
debenture holders.
ii) In every country and in every section of society there are investors who want
to have secured investment with an attractive rate of interest. But they are
not prepared to expose their money to risk. Debentures very much suit their
investment pattern.
iii) Debentures are less risky securities from the investors' point of view. Hence,
the company is able to raise capital through the issue of debentures at
relatively lesser cost.
iv) Debenture holders pay to the company for a specific period and cannot
withdraw their money before the expiry of that period. In this way there is
certainty about the availability of finance for a specific period and
programmes accordingly.
v) The company has the scope for 'trading on their equity' by raising the bulk of
its capital in the form of debentures with fixed rate of interest. The equity
shareholders are thus enabled to get maximum possible return out of the
residual profits, during boom period.
vi) Since debentures are generally issued on redeemable basis, the company can
avoid dyer-capitalisation by refunding the debt when the financial needs are
no longer left.
vii) Issue of debentures reduces the dependence of the company on uncertain
sources of finance such as deposits, commercial banks etc.
viii) In case the company has already incurred a number of small debts of short
duration, it may be costlier for it to maintain them. Under such
circumstances, they may be converted into a single issue of debentures
which will prove less costly.
185
ix) Debentures, have a great market response during depression or when the
possibilities of inflationary profits are rare.
10.3.4 Limitations of Debentures
In spite of the fact that the debentures offer several advantages mentioned
above, it is found that, in practice they have several limitations.*
i) Debenture interest has to be paid to the debenture holders irrespective of the
fact whether the corporation earns profit or not. It becomes a great burden
on the finances of the corporation.
ii) When assets of the company get tagged to the debenture holders the result is
that the credit of the company in the market comes down arid in some cases
even the banks refuse loans to that company.
iii) If the capital structure is heavily loaded with debentures, the major part of
the company's earnings is absorbed in servicing the debt and little is left for
distribution by way of dividends. This lowers the value of shares of such
company.
iv) If the company has already raised large amount through the issue of
debentures it has to offer higher rates of interest to market its subsequent
issue of debentures.
v) From the investors' point of view, safety of capital is likely to be vitiating by
lack of control over the company's affair. The speculative ventures,
overtrading and mismanagement of the company would harm the interest of
debenture holders and weaken the safety of their capital.
vi) The proportion of fixed assets to total assets is an important determining
factor for the issue of debentures. A corporation with low proportion of fixed
assets to total assets will not find itself under congenial conditions for me
issue of debentures because it has no substantial security to offer to
debenture holders. Mostly the trading enterprises and concerns dealing in
consumer goods belong to such category.
vii) There is a ceiling imposed by financial institutions on the maximum debt-
equity ratio of a company which in turn limits the quantum of funds that
can be mobilised from this source.
viii) Since -financing from this course increases the financial risk of the
company, the equity shareholders tend to demand a higher rate of return to
compensate for the additional risk assumed.
ix) The debenture contract can have several protective covenants which restrict
the financial flexibility of the company.
186
SEBI has given various Guidelines for the issue of debentures. Before we look
deep into the list of guidelines, some of the post on debentures like Rights
debentures for working capital, Importance of debentures in capital structure of a
company, SEBI Guidelines on Fresh capital Share, Primary markets & secondary
markets may be of interest to you.
1. Guidelines will be applicable for the issue of convertible and nonconvertible
debentures by public limited as well as public sector companies.
2. Debentures can be issued for the following purposes:
For starting new undertakings
Expansion or diversification
For modernization
Merger/amalgamation which has been approved by financial institutions
Restructuring of capital
For acquiring assets
For increasing resources of long-term finance.
3. Issue of debentures should not exceed more than 20% of gross current
assets and also loans and advances.
4. Debt-equity ratio in issue of debentures should not exceed 2:1. But this
condition will be relaxed for capital intensive projects.
5. Any redemption of debentures will not commence before 7 years since the
commencement of the company.
6. For small investors for value such as Rs. 5,000, payments should be made
in one installment.
7. With the consent of SEBI, even non-convertible debentures can be
converted into equity.
8. A premium of 5% on the face value is allowed at the time of redemption and
in case of non-convertible debentures only.
187
9. The face value of debenture will be Rs. 100 and it will be listed in one or
more stock exchanges in the country.
10. Secured debentures will be permitted for public subscription.
Law Relating to Issue and Redemption of Debentures
Procedure for the issue of Debentures: A resolution authorising the issue has to
be passed by the Board of Directors of the Company at a meeting of the Board.
There must be a provision in the Article for issue of Debentures. The consent of the
SEBI has to be obtained for the issue of the debentures. The consent of the
shareholders has to be obtained at a meeting of the shareholders if the borrowings
under the debenture, together with any money already borrowed by the company
(apart from temporary loans obtained from the company's bankers in the ordinary
course of business) will exceed the aggregate of the company’s paid up capital plus
free reserves in the case of public and their subsidiaries.
Sanction of the shareholders by ordinary resolution is also necessary if the
whole or substantially the whole of any of the company's undertaking is proposed
to be charged against the debentures by unstatutory mortgage.
The particulars of the charge created by the debentures have to be filed with
the Registrar of companies within thirty days after the execution of the deed
containing the charge. A certificate of registration has to be obtained from the
Registrar and a copy of the certificate has to be endorsed on every debenture
certificate. Particulars of the debentures have also to be entered in the company’s
Register of Charges.
Where the debentures are offered to be public, then a debenture prospectus
has to be filed with the Registrar on the same date on which the said prospectus is
issued. If prospectus is not issued, then, a statement in lieu of prospectus has to be
field with the Registrar at least three days before the first allotment of debentures.
The prospectus shall state the name of the Stock exchange or exchanges if the
prospectus states that application will be made to the stock exchange or stock
exchanges. Before the tenth day after the issues of the prospectus the company
should apply for permission from the stock exchange.
The allotment becomes void if the permission has not been applied for before
the tenth day after the first issue of the prospectus, or where such permission has
been applied for within the specified time often days but has not been granted even
by one of the stock exchanges before the expiry of ten weeks from the date of the
closing of the subscription lists. If the application has not been disposed of within
the time limit stated above, it shall be deemed that the applications have not been
granted.
If the allotment becomes void, the money received from the applicants must be
repaid within eight days the expiry of the tenth day (where permission has not been
applied) or ten weeks (where permission has been refused or the period of ten
weeks has expired) as the case may be. If any such money is not paid within eight
188
days after the company becomes liable to repay it, the directors of the company will
be jointly and severally liable to repay that money with interest at the rate of 12%
per annum from the expiry of the eight day, unless such directors prove that the
default was not because of their misconduct or negligence.
An appeal against the decision of the stock exchange refusing the permission
for the debentures to be dealt in on that stock exchange may be preferred under
section 22 of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act. If such an appeal has been
preferred then such allotment shall not be void, until the dismissal of the appeal.
In case permission has been granted to deal on a recognised stock exchange or
exchanges excess money received on application must be forthwith returned
without interest to the applicants and where the money is not repaid within eight
days from the date of allotment interest at the rate of 12% per annum on the
refundable amount accrues and penal consequences follows for default. All moneys
received from the applications for debentures must be kept in a separate bank
account with a scheduled bank. If a prospectus has been issued, the allotment of
debentures should be made after the fifth day after the date on which the
prospectus was issued.
It is not necessary to file a return of allotment with the registrar after the
allotment of the debentures. However, within three months of the allotment, the
debentures must be completed and made ready for delivery. After the allotment, the
name of the debenture holder together with his address, occupation, number of
debentures held by him, and the date of allotment to him of the debentures, must
be entered in the Register of Debenture holders. In case the number of debenture
holders exceeds fifty, then, the names of the debenture holders should be entered
in the Index of Debenture holders.
Form of Debenture: Its principal contents are as follows, (a) the date when the
principal is to be repaid by the company; (b) the rate of interest; (c) the dates on
which the interest is to be repayable; (d) a statement that the undertaking of the
company is charged with such payments; and (e) a statement that the debenture is
issued subject to "conditions".
Debenture cannot be issued to Foreigner or non-resident Indian without prior
permission of the Reserve Bank of India under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act
and Rules made there under.
Debentures, Stock Certificates must be completed and ready for delivery
within two months after allotment or after Lodging of Transfer unless the conditions
of issue otherwise provide (Section 113 of the Companies Act, 1956). A contract to
take up debenture may be enforced by specific performance (Section 112 of me
Companies Act).
Issue of Debentures at Commission or Discount: S.129 Where any commission,
allowance or discount has been paid or from holders having bonds of not more-
man. Rs. 40,000 face value in each case.
189
over shall be done only in cases where debenture holders have sent their
positive consent and not on the basis of non receipt of their negative reply.
13. Before roll over of any NCDs or non-convertible portion of the PCDs, fresh
credit rating shall be obtained within a period of 6 months prior to the due
date of redemption.
14. Letter of information regarding roll over shall be vetted by SEBI with
regard to the credit rating, debenture-holders' resolution, option for
conversion and such other items which SEBI may prescribe.
15. The disclosures relating of debentures will contain amongst other things,
i) The existing and future equity and long-term debt ratio;
ii) Servicing behaviour on existing debentures;
iii) Payment of due interest on due dates on term loans and debentures;
iv) Certificate from a financial institution or banker about their 'no
objection' for a second or pariahs charge being created in favour of the
trustees to the proposed debenture issues.
10.4 REVISION POINTS
Debentures, Equity Shares and Bonds.
Difference between Equity Shares and Debentures
Advantages of Debentures Finance
Limitations of Debentures
10.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1.What do you mean by debenture?
2. What do you mean by bonds?
3. What do you mean by convertible debenture?
4. What do you mean by equitable debenture?
10.6 SUMMARY
A debenture is a document issued by the company as an evidence of debt. It is
the acknowledgement of the company’s Indebtedness to its holders. Credit
instrument, provision for a trustee, interest at agreed rate, redemption of their
capital, as per agreed terms. Priority in liquidation, No Voting rights are features of
the debenture. The differed kinds of debentures are registered and unregistered,
secured and unsecured, redeemable and irredeemable debenture, convertible and
non-convertible.
10.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. . ……………….. is a document issued by the company as an evidence of
debt.
2. . … ………….are those which are recorded in Register of Debenture holders
with full details about the number, value and types of debentures held by
each of them .
191
3. The debentures which are payable to the bearer are called …………
debentures.
4. ………………………….debentures are those which are secured by deposit of
title deeds of the property with a memorandum in writing creating a
charge.
10.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. www.moneycontrol.com
2. www.quoro.com
3. www.differencebetween.com
10.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define the word 'debenture* and bring out its salient features.
2. What are the different types of debentures that may be issued by a
company?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of debenture finance to
industries?
4. Explain briefly the law relating to issue and redemption of debentures in
India.
5. Summarise the guidelines for issue of debentures by public limited
companies in India.
6. Account for the increasing popularity of convertible debentures with the
investing public and companies in India.
7. Are debentures becoming popular with public sector enterprises in India?
State reasons for your answer.
8. What suggestions, would you offer, to develop further the corporate
debenture market in India?
10.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Chandra, Prasanna: “Fundamentals of Financial Management”, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw Hill Co.
2. Khan, M.Y. and: “Financial Management”, Jain. P. K. New Delhi, Tata
McGraw Hill Co.
3. Pandey, I.M.: “Financial Management”, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House.
4. Saravanavel, P. : “Financial Management”, New Delhi, Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
10.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
You are owing a stock broker office in a city. A individual who approached you
for investing his money in stock market. How will you clarify him the difference
between debenture and bonds .
10.12 KEYWORDS
Bonds, Debentures, Registered Debenture, Equitable Debentures, Legal
Debentures, Bearer Debentures.
192
LESSON – 11
Objectives of Listing
The major objectives of listing are
1. To provide ready marketability and liquidity of a company’s securities.
2. To provide free negotiability to stocks.
3. To protect shareholders and investors interests.
4. To provide a mechanism for effective control and supervision of trading.
Listing requirements
A company which desires to list its shares in a stock exchange has to comply
with the following requirements:
1. Permission for listing should have been provided for in the Memorandum of
Association and Articles of Association.
2. The company should have issued for public subscription at least the
minimum prescribed percentage of its share capital (49 percent).
3. The prospectus should contain necessary information with regard to the
opening of subscription list, receipt of share application etc.
4. Allotment of shares should be done in a fair and reasonable manner. In case
of over subscription, the basis of allotment should be decided by the company in consultation
with the recognized stock exchange where the shares are proposed to be listed.
5. The company must enter into a listing agreement with the stock exchange.
The listing agreement contains the terms and conditions of listing. It also contains
the disclosures that have to be made by the company on a continuous basis.
Minimum Public Offer
A company which desires to list its securities in a stock exchange, should offer
at least sixty percent of its issued capital for public subscription. Out of this sixty
percent, a maximum of eleven percent in the aggregate may be reserved for the
Central government, State government, their investment agencies and public
financial institutions.
The public offer should be made through a prospectus and through newspaper
advertisements. The promoters might choose to take up the remaining forty percent
for themselves, or allot a part of it to their associates.
Fair allotment
Allotment of shares should be made in a fair and transparent manner. In case
of over subscription, allotment should be made in an equitable manner in
consultation with the stock exchange where the shares are proposed to be listed.
In case, the company proposes to list its shares in more than one exchange,
the basis of allotment should be decided in consultation with the stock exchange
which is located in the place in which the company’s registered office is located.
For trading in the stock market, a company has to list its securities in the
stock exchange. It means that the name of the company is registered in the stock
194
10. Receipts for all the securities deposited, whether for registration or split
and no charges will be made for the services.
11. The company will issue consolidation and renewal certificates for split
certificate, letter of allotment, letter of rights and transfer, etc. when
required.
12. The stock exchange should be notified by the company regarding the date
of board meeting, change in the composition of board of directors, and any
new issue of securities, in place of reissue of forfeited shares.
13. Closing the transfer books for the purpose of declaration of dividend,
rights issue or bonus issue. And for this purpose, due notice should be
given to stock exchange.
14. Annual return of the company to be filed soon after the annual general
body meeting.
15. The company will have to comply with conditions imposed by the stock
exchange now and then for 1istmg of security.
Types of Listing
1. Initial listing: Here, the shares of the company are listed for the first time on
a stock exchange.
2. Listing for public Issue: When a company which has listed its shares on a
stock exchange comes out with a public issue.
3. Listing for Rights Issue: When the company which has already listed its
shares.in the stock exchange issues securities to the existing shareholders on
rights basis.
4. Listing of Bonus shares: When a listed company in a stock exchange is
capitalizing its profit by issuing bonus shares to the existing shareholders.
5. Listing for merger or amalgamation: When the amalgamated company issues
new shares to the shareholders of amalgamated company, such shares are listed.
Procedure for listing requirements
For listing the shares in the stock exchange, the public limited company will
have to submit supporting documents. They are:
1. Certified copies of Memorandum, Articles of Association, prospectus and
agreements with Underwriters.
2. All particulars regarding capital structure.
3. Copies of advertisements offering securities for sale during the last 5
years.
4. Copies of Balance sheet, audited accounts and auditors’ report for the last
5 years.
5. Specimen copies of shares and debentures, certificate letter of allotment,
and letter of regret.
196
On amounts On amounts
devolving on the subscribed by the
underwriters public (per cent)
(per cent)
(A) Equity Shares 2.5 2.5
(B) Preference shares/convertible and
non-convertible debentures 2.5 1.5
(a) For amounts upto Rs. 5.lakhs 2 1
(b) For amounts in excess of Rs. 5
lakhs
Note: (i) The above underwriting commission is maximum ceiling rates within
which any company will be free to negotiate the same with the underwriters.
202
(ii) Underwriting commission will not be payable on the amounts taken up by the
promoters group, employees, directors, their friends and business associates,
(iii) The underwriter gets commission at the above rates on shares, debentures
undertaken by him irrespective of the number of shares & debentures subscribed
by the public. Even if the issue is fully subscribed by the public, he will get
commission at the above rates on all shares & debentures paid by him.
11.3.4 SEBI Guidelines for Underwriting
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has issued guidelines for
issue of capital by companies.
The guidelines pertaining to underwriting are enumerated hereunder
a) Underwriting is mandatory for the full issue and minimum requirement of
90% subscription is also mandatory for each issue of capital to public.
Number of underwriters would be decided by the issuers.
b) If the company does not receive 90% of issued amount from public
subscription plus accepted devolvement of underwriters, within 120 days
from the date of opening of the issue, the company shall refund the
amount of subscription. In the case of the disputed devolvement the
company should refund the subscription if the above conditions are not
met.
c) The Lead Managers) must satisfy themselves about the net worth of the
underwriters and the outstanding commitments and disclose the same to
SEBI.
d) The underwriting agreement may be filed with the stock exchanges.
Underwriting should be only for issue to the public which will exclude
reserved/preferential allotment to reserved categories. In other words, underwriting
is mandatory only to the extent of net offer to the public.
Minimum subscription clause is applicable for both the public and right issue
with a right of renunciation.
The intention is that the lead manager should satisfy himself in whatever
manner he deems fit about the ability of the underwrites to discharge their
underwriting obligations. There is no need for lead managers) to furnish any
certificate to SEBI in this behalf. A statement to the effect that in the opinion of the
lead managers, the underwriters' assets are adequate to meet their obligations
should be incorporated in the prospectus.
11.3.5 Government Guidelines for Underwriting
Government has issued guidelines relating to the underwriting of capital
issues to be followed by the stock exchanges, merchant bankers and other agencies
associated with the management of the public issues of capital. These should be
read along with SEBI guidelines:
203
i) The stock exchanges will satisfy themselves that the company's securities
which are being underwritten would be officially quoted on a recognised
stock exchange;
ii) The members of the stock exchange desiring to underwrite will satisfy
themselves that the company has duly complied with the listing regulations;
iii) The Governing Bodies of recognised stock exchanges shall have the
discretion to refuse permission or impose such conditions in respect of the
underwriting of securities by members of stock exchanges as they may deem
necessary in the special circumstances of any given case;
iv) The underwriting of the public issues should be distributed amongst the
members of the stock exchanges as widely as possible;
v) No member should be allowed to undertake an underwriting commitment of
more than 5 per cent of the public issue; and
vi) The stock exchanges should prescribe procedures for advance action to be
taken by the companies, merchant bankers, etc., for making underwriting
arrangement so as to ensure that all the relevant information is furnished in
the draft prospectus which is submitted to the stock exchanges for approval.
11.3.6 Underwriting Agreement
It is an agreement entered into between the company and the underwriters
agreeing to underwrite the proposed issue of the company. The agreement should
provide the amount of the issue agreed to be underwritten by the underwriters in
case of under-subscription and the commission payable for such undertaking. It
should also stipulate that in the event of under-subscription, the underwriters or
their nominees would take up the shares for which they are liable or atleast that
quantity of issue which would make up the minimum subscription, within three to
four weeks of the closing of subscription list. The agreement should provide that
the underwriters would be discharged of their underwriting obligations to the extent
of applications bearing their stamps.
In order to avoid unfair discrimination between the underwriters, the company
should ensure that application forms supplied and distributed among the members
of stock exchanges do not bear the stamp of any underwriter.
11.3.7 Future of Underwriting Business in India
With the introduction of free pricing of securities, underwriting business is
undergoing metamorphic changes. Gone are the days when the underwriting
business was taken less seriously by the parties involved. There are already reports
of under-subscription of quite a few public issues and consequent devolvement on
underwriters. Capital adequacy assumes significance for fulfilling underwriting
obligations in the event of devolvement. Only Financial Institutions and Commercial
Banks have enough capital adequacies to meet such obligations. Merchant
Bankers' foremost task is, therefore, to enhance their capital base.
204
Moreover, companies are also not happy with the situation. Bulk holdings with
underwriters also expose them to a takeover bid. There has, in fact, been a reported
instance of a major underwriter taking over a company whose issue was under
subscribed.
Further, with mega issues coming in large number, it becomes essential to go-
in for syndicate approach. There is already a forceful demand from underwriters'
associations for upward increase in underwriting commission. In the free pricing
scenario, a liberal free market driven fee structure is likely to emerge, sooner or
later. Brokers are also demanding that bank finance be made available to them to
carry on the business of underwriting.
Merchant bankers/underwriters will also have to develop a large investor base
and network throughout India since they would be required to approach the
investor directly and would also have to provide efficient secondary market services.
Lastly the merchant bankers/underwriters will have to be selective in new
floatation’s. The fundamental strengths of the companies will, therefore, come
under sharper focus and there will be increasing demand for more and more
financial information and disclosures about the performance of the companies. The
underwriters will have to develop their own assessment network for critical
appraisal of projects. The market driven forces will, therefore, help the capital
market to attain greater depth and maturity in the coming years.
11.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Listing- Listing means the admission of securities of a company to trading
on a stock exchange
2. Underwriting -Underwriting is an act of undertaking or the guarantee b y an
underwriter of buying the shares placed before the public in the event of non-
subscription of the shares by the public.
11.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by underwriting?
2. Why do we lisit the shares?
3. What is underwriting commission
11.6 Summary
Underwriting is an act of undertaking or the guarantee by an underwriter of
buying the shares placed before the public in the event of non – subscription of the
shares by the public. Public Financial Institutions, Banks, Investments Companies
are an underwriter for underwriting. Government and securities and exchange
board of India have issued guidelines for issues of capital by companies. It is an
agreement entered into between the company and the under writers agreeing to
underwrite the proposed issue of the company.
Listing means the admission of securities of a company to trading on a stock
exchange. Listing is not compulsory under the Companies Act. It becomes
205
206
LESSON – 12
f) Some of the firms might be paying heavy interests on bond issues. Such
loans can go a long way in reducing the bond interest burden. Obviously it
is not a minor relief.
g) A term-loan can also help in rearranging of maturities, elimination of
restrictive provisions of the bond issues and in returning redeemable
preference shares.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you should be able to:
Understand the concept of term loan
Identify the purposes of term-loans
Detail the features of term-loans
Explain the covenants of term-loan agreement
Evaluate term-loan as a source of finance
Know the significance of retained earnings
Understand the factors affecting size of relative earnings
Detail the various kinds of Reserves and surplus
Ascertain the financial significance of depreciation funds/polices
12.3 CONTENT
12.3.1 Distinctive Features of Term-Loans
12.3.2 Appraisal of Term-Loan Proposal: Feasibility Studies
12.3.3 Balancing of various factors
12.3.4 Terms & Conditions of Term-Loan Agreement
12.3.5 Retained Earnings
12.3.6 Features and Significance of Retained Earnings
12.3.7 Factors Affecting Size of Retained Earnings
12.3.8 Reserves
12.3.9 Surplus
12.3.10 Financial Significance of Depreciation Funds/Policies
12.3.11 Factors Complicating Depreciation Policy
12.3.12 Factors that affects Choice of Methods
12.3.1 Distinctive Features of Term-Loans
Term-loans are negotiated directly between borrower and lender. As a result,
the provisions contained in the loan agreements can differ widely. Because the loan
is obtained directly from the lender, term loans can be viewed as a form of private
placement except registration requirements.
208
conditions. The lending banks should employ techno crafts or consultants to study
the projects on their technical aspects.
(ii) Economic (Marketing) Feasibility: This aspect of an appraisal relates to the
earning capacity of the project. Earning of the project depends on the volume of
sales. Therefore, it is highly pertinent to determine how much output of the new
unit or the additional production from an established unit, the market would be
able to absorb at given prices. In other words, it takes in to account the total output
of the product concerned and the existing demand for it with a view to establishing
whether there is an unsatisfied demand for the product. Two general indicators of
the existence of unsatisified demand are the price level and the prevalence of
controls. Then demand is greater than the available supply and there are no
controls, prices would be much higher than the production cost yielding abnormal
profits to producers. On the other hand, where price controls like rationing and
what not are in force in respect of certain products, it is prima facie that the entire
demand is not being met by current production.
Possible future changes in the volume and pattern of supply and demand will
have to be estimated in order to assess the long run prospects of the industry as
well as, earning capacity of the unit. In calculating the future demand, the lending
bank has to take into consideration the potentialities of the export market, the
changes in incomes and prices, the multiple use of the product, the probable
expansion of the industries using such goods and the growth of new industries
requiring them. On the supply side, several factors which go to affect supply
position such as the competitive position of the unit in question, existing and
potential competitors, the extent of capacity utilisation, units cost advantages and
disadvantages, structural changes and technological innovation bringing
substitution into the market should also be scrutinized.
(iii) Commercial Viability: The appraisal of commercial aspects of a project
involves a study of the proposed arrangements for the purchase of raw materials
and sale of finished products etc. The basic question to be asked in this respect are
whether adequate arrangements have been made for buying the materials and
services needed to construct the facility, and when the construction is finished, for
obtaining power, labour and raw materials to operate the plant and market its
product. The problems are much the same for all projects during the construction
phase. The main objective is to see that the proposed arrangements will ensure that
the best value is obtained for the money spent.
In the operating phase, commercial problems vary considerably from sector to
sector. In industry, the likely terms of purchase of the ingredients of production
and of the sale of products need careful examination, since these terms may have
an important bearing on the amount of working capital required. Where the
concern proposes to appoint sole-selling agents, the same should be examined in
the interest of the concern and from the public policy angle.
211
cash accruals shown in cash-flow statement. The cash flow estimates in respect of
a new concern will have to be prepared on the basis of the prospects for the project
under consideration. For an existing concern, however, the estimates would take
into account the cash flow arising from its current business as well as from the
expansion under consideration.
The Balance Sheets and Profit and Loss Accounts for the past three to five
years can be studied as a first step in financial appraisal of existing concerns. The
second step would be the preparation of estimates of the cash flow statements for
the next four to five years. The third step would be the preparation of the projected
balance sheets for a similar period. The figures in the cash-flow statements would
provide a link between the balance sheet of one year and the next. For a new
project all the necessary figures must come from the cash flow estimates. The
proforma will reflect the projected financial position of the concern in the future
years.
As a pre-sanction measure, the lending bank should depute an officer to verify
the correctness of the information furnished by the borrower, and supplement it if
necessary through investigation. The valuation of the assets and the depreciation
policy adopted by the concern has also to be checked. After sanctioning a term loan
and disbursing it, the lending bank has to make post-sanction inspection to ensure
whether the amount borrowed has been actually used for the purpose for which it
was borrowed and whether terms and conditions of the loan have been complied
with; the value of the security, production, sales, position regarding insurance and
defaults in repayment, if any, should be reviewed at regular intervals.
(vi) Social Consideration: The social objectives of the project are also considered
keeping in view the interests of the general public. The projects, which offer large
employment potential, which canalise the income of the agricultural sector for
productive use or project which are located in totally less-developed areas or
projects which will stimulate small industries or the growth of ancillary industries
are given special considerations.
Energy Management and Ecological aspects: Along with economic and social
appraisal, ecological considerations are also kept in view and given due weight. It is
ensured that the applicant concern has made adequate provision for treatment of
effluents so that the environmental pollution remains under control. In the context
of high priority and significant importance being given to the question of conservation
and use of alternative sources of energy. Term financing institutions have been
attaching considerable importance to the 'energy management', while financing
industrial projects. For this purpose, the steps proposed to be taken for the
conservation of energy or uses of alternate sources of energy are now examined in
depth, while appraising a project.
12.3.3 Balancing of Various Factors
While it is necessary to look into all the above aspects of appraisal, the extent
of investigation and the importance to be attached to each aspect depend upon the
213
circumstances of individual projects. Not all term loan proposals may require full-
scale appraisal of all aspects. For instance, in the case of a project, which is
obviously profitable, a general consideration of the unit's position with reference to
its cash-flow should suffice. Again, where the product has an assured market, a
laborious market analysis is needless. In the ultimate analysis, however, the skills
lie in identifying and sorting out strong points and weak points and arriving at a
final view on the project. Weakness located in certain areas may be offset by
strengths in other areas. Possibly, sound management and bright economic outlook
may outweigh mediocre caliber of management and doubtful economic prospects.
In some cases, negative factors may dominate; managerial competence may be so
much below par as to off-set all other considerations. In this way, a large number of
variations and combinations are possible. Thus, the crucial responsibility of me
lending bank lies in balancing judiciously different considerations for arriving at a
proper decision. There cannot be ready-made formulae, by using which a term-loan
proposal can be pronounced as acceptable or otherwise.
Nevertheless, scientific approach helps considerably in arriving at proper
decisions. There is no mechanical substitute for a banker's judgment. Decision-
making in this area calls for full appreciation of all relevant factors and sound
judgment based on experience.
12.3.4 Terms & Conditions of Term-Loan Agreement
Term loans attract several restrictive terms and conditions” other than those
related to creation of charges. Different lending institutions stipulate different kinds
of conditions depending on the nature of the project, the borrower, etc. The
commercial banks stipulate only a minimum number of conditions, whereas the
financial institutions apply a large number of more comprehensive conditions. By
and large the main clauses of a term-loan are as follows:
(a) Government clearance: The loan agreement stipulates the borrowing
company to obtain all relevant government clearances as may be applicable, and
sanctioning of loan must not be construed to be lifting of any other restrictive
barrier by the government such as licensing, MRTP clearance, capital goods
clearance for imported machines, import licence, FERA, RBI clearance, clearance
from the SEBI for security issues, etc.
(b) Consent of other lenders: Usually for a consortium loan, the condition an
institution stipulates is that for other parts of the loan the borrower should be able
to satisfy other lending institutions separately.
(c) Repayment: Repayment of any existing loan or long-term liabilities is to be
made in concurrence with the financial institutions.
(d) Additional loans: Any additional loans to be taken by the Company, the
interest to be paid and repayment of the principal are, usually, subject to the
financial institution's consent.
214
(e) Capital structure: The term-loan agreement may stipulate the equity and/or
preference shares the company must issue in order to support the project. It may
also stipulate changing of proportionate shareholding between the various owner
groups, mainly between the Indian and the overseas entrepreneurs.
(f) Dividend declaration: As long as there is a loan outstanding, and declaration
of dividend beyond certain percentage is made subject to the lender's approval.
(g) Directorship: Usually, a term lending institution may reserve the right to
nominate one or more directors (called Nominee Directors) to the board of the
borrowing company to indicate the institution's views to the management. Any
intervention by the institutions is usually done through the nominee directors.
(h) Commercial agreement: Usually any major commercial agreement such as
any orders for equipment, consultancy, collaboration agreement, selling agency
agreement, agreement with senior management personnel, etc., needs the
concurrence of the term lending institutions if they are entered into after the loan
agreement has been signed.
(i) Restriction to expand: Any further expansion plan would need to be cleared
by the institutions as it may have an adverse impact on the future cash flow of the
company. No expansion plan can be contemplated without the knowledge of the
institutions once the loan agreement has been signed.
(j) Restriction to create further charge: The borrower is usually not allowed to
create any further charge on the assets without the knowledge of the financial
institutions.
(k) Information: The borrower must agree to furnish any information which die
institution may consider to be relevant, as and when they are asked for, within a
reasonable time.
(l) Organisation: Depending on the nature of the project, the financial
institutions may insist on appointing suitable personnel in the organisation to their
satisfaction. This could be in the area of marketing, R & D, design or production,
depending on the nature of project.
(m) Shareholding: The institutions, usually, stipulate that the promoters
cannot dispose of their shareholdings without the consent of the lending
institutions. This is made with a view to keeping the promoters involved as long as
the institutions remain involved.
(n) Convertibility: Any large loans from all-India financial institutions (usually
above Rs. 50 lakhs) attract a convertibility clause, as in debentures. The
institutions normally ask for 20 percent convertibility, and sometimes accept a firm
allotment of shares in lieu of such a convertibility clause, hr an era of liberalisation,
the convertibility condition has been dispensed w.e.f. April 1991.
(o) Additional clause: Usually, the term-loan agreement carries a clause where
by the financial institution can insert any other restrictive clause at a later date at
215
their option. The purpose of this clause is to bolster the security in case any future
unforeseen developments weaken the security.
(p) Project finance: Usually, the term-loan agreement puts one or more clauses
like the borrower will make arrangements to raise the other part of the project
finance to the satisfaction of the particular lending institution. This clause
safeguards an institution against any unforeseen happening by which the other
participating institutions back out, but it is unable to do so just because the
sanction letter has been issued earlier.
(q) Equity Kicker: Lenders also may require so called equity kickers. For
example, a commercial bank lender may require the borrower to pay an agreed
upon percentage of any profits generated from the loan. An insurance company
may use an equity kicker in the form of options, like warrants, that allow the
insurance company to purchase a specified number of equity shares directly-from
borrower at a price that is set below the borrower's current market share price.
12.3.5 Retained Earnings
From the financial viewpoint, the earnings of a business enterprise for any one
year are channelised into three main directions: (i) the Government's share in the
profits through income tax, (ii) the portion to the shareholders as cash dividend;
and (iii) the residual amount retained in the business. Dividend and retained
earnings are 'controlled by the decisions of corporate management. They decide
how much profit should be paid to shareholders in the form of dividend and how
much to be retained in the business. Higher the dividend rate lower would be the
quantum to profit retained in the business. The management has to strike a
balance between the decisions in such a manner that neither the continuous flow of
business operations is interrupted nor the shareholders requirements of steady
dividend payment remain unsatisfied.
12.3.6 Retention of Earnings
Business enterprises try to save a part of their current earnings for meeting
future financial needs of expansions, modernisation, rationalisation and replacement
programmes. The main feature of retained earnings is that it is an internal source of
finance and emanates from profits not distributed to shareholders in the form of
dividend. The other names of retained earnings are ‘internal financing’, 'self-
financing' or 'plaguing back of profits'. The process of creating savings the form of
reserves and surpluses for its utilisation in the business is technically referred to
plaguing back of profits.
12.3.7 Features and Significance of Retained Earnings
(i) The main feature of retained earnings is that it is an internal source of
finance. This method of financing avoids any long-term debt and does not dilute the
ownership.
(ii) Retained earnings for expansion, modernisation etc. is an ideal
arrangement from the point of view of corporate management because there is no
immediate pressure to pay a return on this portion of the funds though it does have
216
a cost which the firm has to bear, also this source can be used without creating
charge against assets of the company.
(iii) Retained earnings augment the capital base of the business. This puts the
company in a better position to borrow more funds.
(iv) Retained earnings can be utilised for purposes of paying off the old debts of
the company and paving a way for greater amount of new funds.
(v) Decision to retain has direct and indirect advantages to shareholders.
Retention of earnings offers the benefit of tax saving to shareholders. With increased
retention of earnings, the shareholder's equity magnifies. Better credit worthiness of
the business results into higher share prices and future growth prosperity.
(vi) Greater reliance on the use of retained earnings also helps reducing the
burden on the financial system of the country.
12.3.8 Factors Affecting Size of Retained Earnings
The amount of earnings that may be retained in the business is affected by
multiplicity of factors such as the characteristics of the industry and company,
level of profits of the company, management policies about depreciation, dividends
policy, and taxation policy.
i) Characteristics of Industry and Company: The policy relating to earnings
retention varies not only from industry but among companies within a given
industry and within a company from time to time. Growth industries and growth
companies are usually characterized with low pay-out and high retention rates. The
reasons are obvious. The more repaid the growth, the greater the demand for
additional funds for expansion. The higher the profitability, the greater the
temptation to retain funds but this is with the basic dividend policy.
ii) Level of Profits of the Company: Not withstanding any thing else, larger the
level of profits, greater the amount of earrings available for retention. However, the
size of profits is a function of factors such as the demand of product, cost of
production and distribution, price, structure of the products, degree of competition
in the market, general price level etc.
(iii) Management policy regarding Depreciation: At the very outset, it may be
categorically specified that depreciation is not a source of funds, however, the
inclusion of depreciation expense in the profit and loss statement reduces the net
income and hence the income tax and to that extent the funds are available with
the business. This is because in the present face of ever-rising prices, larger
amount of depreciation in initial years will have greater time value. This is possible
with the adoption of the accelerated depreciation policy. The straight line method of
depreciation, on the other hand, does not make available larger amounts of funds
with the business in the initial life of the asset but charges it uniformly.
(iv) Dividend Policy: One of the vital factors affecting the magnitude of retained
earnings is the dividend policy followed by the management. There is an inverse
217
relationship between the pay-out ratio and retention of earnings. A liberal dividend
policy would reduce the amount of retained earnings.
(v) Taxation Policy: Higher the rate of corporate tax (corporate tax rate is fixed,
but the rates are different for different companies) smaller the amount of funds
available for retention. The rate of corporate tax is higher in case of a closely held
company and also the rate of distribution of profits. Such companies, therefore, are
in a less privileged position to retain bigger amounts of earnings. At present, there
exists no provision to encourage retention of corporate earnings except the
provision of depreciation being allowed as tax deductable expense.
Advantages of Retained Earnings: The advantage of retention of earnings or
self-financing for the convenience of study can be classified under three groups:
(i) the corporation, (ii) the shareholders, and (iii) the country.
Advantages to the Corporation
a) A cushion to absorb the shocks of business vicissitudes
b) Ease in financing schemes of rationalisation.
c) No dependence on fair-weather friends,
d) Helps in stabilising the dividend policy.
e) Deficiencies of depreciation can be made good.
f) Easy retirement of bonds or debentures.
Advantages to the Shareholders
a) Safety of investment
b) Rise in the market value of securities
c) Profit by retaining the shares
d) Evasion of super-tax
Advantages to the Country
a) Aids in capital formation.
b) Greater, better and cheaper production is facilitated
c) Smooth and continuous functioning of the enterprise
d) Quick financing of rationlisation schemes
Dangers of Excessive Retention of Earnings
The preceding description might give the impression that retention is always
beneficial to shareholders, company and the nation. This is not so. Excessive
retention of earnings and their reckless utilisation is detrimental to the interests of
all.
To Shareholders
(i) The first obvious effect of excessive retention of earnings is that it results
into foregoing dividends for a long period and to a large extent.
218
(ii) The corporate management may enjoy the accumulated earnings to finance
the needs of the company in which they are interested even though shareholders
may have interest in them, thus bringing little or no gain to them. Shareholders are
benefited out of this source only when management invests the amount of retained
earnings in projects contributing to their wealth, i.e., the return on projects is
greater than the cost involved in retained earning.
To the Company
i) If the accumulated earnings are indiscriminately used for the issue of bonus
shares, it may result into over-capitalisation of the company; with its evil
consequences like reduced future dividends, share prices, manipulation etc. The
company's financial stability may be threatened.
ii) Excessive retention of earnings by one company in relation to its
competitors may, over a long period of time, result into occupying monopoly
position in the market. Like over-capitalisation, monopoly position has its own evil
consequences for consumers and society.
iii) Excessive retention of earnings also increases the manipulative powers of
the company management. For instance, the management may manipulate share
prices. By reducing the rate of dividend, in the first instance, it may cause down fall
of prices in the market and using this opportunity to buy shares at reduced prices.
Subsequently, a higher rate of dividend may be declared causing an increase in
share prices and then using the same opportunity to sell them at increased prices.
To the Nation: Excessive retention of earnings may not do any social good also.
Retained earnings will not be used for capital formation and in socially profitable
investments. Use of retained earnings for manipulative purposes will certainly
upset the financial system of the country.
12.3.9 Reserves
Meaning: 'Precaution is better than cure' is a common sense maxim. On the
same principle, 'Provision' should be made in business also for all possible
contingencies. According to Companies Act 1956, the expression 'provision' shall
mean any amount written off or retained by way of providing for depreciation,
renewals or diminution in value of assets, retained by way of providing for any
known liability of which the amount cannot be determined with substantial
accuracy. The term 'Reserves' has not been specifically defined in the Act, but it
refers to that amount which has been provided for any purpose other than those
mentioned above. It has been stated that any amount retained by way of providing
for any known liability, is in excess of the amount which in the opinion of the
directors is reasonably necessary for the purpose, the excess shall be treated for
this purpose as a reserve and not as a provision.
Kinds: Reserves may be general reserve or specific reserve. General Reserve is
that part of the profits of the company which is set aside for meeting any future
emergency. Its various purposes may be: (i) to stabilise the economic condition of
the company, (ii) to meet the increasing demands of the business, (iii) to meet
219
casual losses, or (iv) to conceal the real profits of the company. In the last case they
are known as 'Secret Reserves'. Specific reserves are usually created out of profits
of capital nature. Such reserves cannot be utilised for dividend distribution, their
main objective is to stabilise the economic condition of the company.
Reserve can be classified into three categories: (i) valuation reserves, (ii) liability
reserves, or (iii) proprietary reserves. Valuation reserves are used to restore the
integrity of investment when assets have suffered a loss in value. They are also
known as specific reserves. Proprietary reserves comprise a number of reserve
accounts like reserve for dividends, and general reserve. Liability reserves are
provided to take into account the liabilities arising out of current operations like
reserve for taxes or reserve for pensions, etc." Liability reserve is more in the nature
of valuation reserve than of proprietary reserve. Valuation reserve is a matter of
necessity while proprietary reserve is usually a matter of financial prudence.
Valuation reserve is a charge against profit and loss account while proprietary
reserve is an appropriation of profits. Proprietary reserves help in increasing the
equity of the shareholders in the company.
12.3.10 Surplus
The term 'surplus’ represents the undistributed earnings of the company, i.e.,
the balance of profits which remains after paying the dividend. Surplus is regarded
as a welcome sign by the management. It reflects upon the sound earning capacity
of the company. Surplus can be divided into three main classes:
(a) Earned Surplus: It is created by the net profits from operations after
meeting all the expenses there from. Sometimes, past accumulated profits are also
transferred to earned surplus account. Different revenue reserves are also,
sometimes, transferred to such surplus account.
(b) Capital Surplus: Such surplus are those which are created out of capital
gains and non-recurring receipts. It is also known as 'paid-in-surplus'.
(c) Revaluation Surplus: These surpluses arise from revaluation of assets. The
appreciation in the value of fixed assets can be transferred to surplus account. This
is particularly done in the periods of raising prices or when the outlook for future is
bright.
Uses of Surplus: The accumulated surplus can be utilised by the company for
a variety of uses, e.g., for (i) reducing the value of fixed and working capital,
ii) writing off intangible assets like goodwill, preliminary expenses, reorganization
expenses, etc., (iii) equalising the rate of dividend payment [but it is possible only if
(a) they are actually realised in cash, (b) they are not likely to affect the liquid
position of the company adversely, (c) they remain after revaluation of all assets
and liabilities of a company, and (d) the Articles, of Association of the company
permit such distribution], (iv) absorbing the shocks of business cycles, (v) making
up the deficiencies of loss, (vi) financing schemes of betterment deficiencies fall
short. For instance, obsolescence may be more rapid than anticipated or deteriorated
220
economic conditions may prevent the collection of debts regarded collectible. Under
such circumstances, the deficiency can be made good out of accumulated surplus.
12.3.11 Financial Significance of Depreciation Funds/Policies
The significance of depreciation funds can be discussed with reference to
certain management's decision.
i) Internal Investment Decision: The provision of depreciation in accounting reports
does not in any way affect investment decision implied by the replacement of an
asset. Depreciation is taken into consideration indirectly by comparing the cash
proceeds generated by asset with the cost thereof.
ii) Measuring Performance: As the performance is, generally, measured by
either income or return on investment both of which depend on the method of
depreciation accounting. The straight line depreciation gives reasonably good
measure of income in case of the revenues and maintenance requirements are
constant throughout the life of the asset, but it distorts (he return on investment
which would increase with the decrease in the book value of the asset due to
depreciation.
iii) Fund generation: Generally, it is thought that depreciation is a source of
funds. It is not the function of depreciation accounting to provide funds for
replacement which must come from the revenues of the business and the charge for
depreciation neither increases nor decreases the amount available to purchase
equipment. Even the making of charges to income and setting up of reserves for
depreciation give no assurance regarding the availability of funds for replacement
unless they are in some way ear-marked for the purpose.
iv) Make or Buy Decisions: his a make or buy decision, a relevant cost would be
a cost that could be avoided if the part was not made and it would not be relevant
cost which would be incurred irrespective of the decision taken. The depreciation of
the factory building cannot be avoided by the elimination of one phase of
production and in this would not be relevant in making the decision.
v) Pricing Decisions: A firm is expected to produce at a point where its marginal
cost equals marginal revenue and to fix a price equal to the average revenue that
will sell the appropriate quantum of output. In this context, depreciation is not
taken into account in arriving at decisions regarding price fixation. In spite of the
fact that he may set the price as dedicated by competition, he. is bound to recover
not only the fixed costs but also make a profit if he is skilful in market
manipulations through timely pricing decisions.
12.3.12 Factors Complicating Depreciation Policy
A decision regarding depreciation method becomes complex due to the
following considerations:
a) Tax Implication: In India the Income Tax law prescribes a method of
depreciation i.e., the Diminishing Balance Method. If a company adopts the
221
Straight Line method then it will have to declare a different income for taxation
purposes as opposed to the income reckoned for accounting purposes.
b) Impact on Dividend Distribution: The Company cannot pay dividends except
out of profits: Profit means the surplus left after providing for depreciation under
any of the recognised methods. If the management chooses the straight line method
the distributable surplus in the earlier years would be larger. This would enable the
management to declare dividend more easily than if they follow the diminishing
balance method.
c) The Cash Flow Implication: Cash flow is the difference between sales revenue
and cash cost. If the depreciation figure is less the quantum of profit would be more
and vice versa. Thus the profit plus depreciation followed has its influence on the
quantum of distributable profit and hence on the quantum of dividend. It has
already been stated that the quantum of cash flow from operations is not be
affected by a change in the method of depreciation.
d) Depreciation and Changing Price Levels: Depreciation being the process of
allocation of the historical cost over a period of years. Another object of depreciation
which is building up of a adequate funds to replace the asset at the end of its full
service. If depreciation is calculated on the estimated replacement cost of the asset
then this important objective could be met. But this would lead to arbitrary and
highly volatile depreciation charges in each year.
12.3.13 Factors that Affect the Choice of Method
The most widely used methods of providing for depreciation are the Straight
Line Method and the Reducing Balance Method, but the factors that affect the
choice of methods are as follows:
a) The passage of time-predominantly recognised by the Straight Line Method.
b) The use of the asset-predominantly recognised by the Product Method.
c) The rapid deterioration of assets as, for example, loose tools where the
Revaluation Method may be used.
d) The effect of associated procedures such as costing methods which can aid
the calculation of depreciation by, for example, the Production Method.
e) The possible onset of obsolescence and, therefore, the early written-off of
the major portion of cost by using, for example, the Reducing Balance
Method.
f) Company Connection Influence: The Sum of Years Digits method is rarely
used in Great Britain but widely used in America. A subsidiary in this
country may be required to follow the American practice..
g) The Effect of Maintenance Expenditure: To equalise product costs an
attempt may be made to match low maintenance costs with high
depreciation or vice versa in any one accounting period. An example, this is
the use of the reducing balance method but the point tends to be
222
Reserves has been stated that any amount retained by way of providing for any
known liability, is excess of the amount which in the opinion of the directors is
reasonably necessary for the purpose, the excess shall he treated for this purpose
as a reserve and not as a provision.
Reserves may be general reserve and specific reserve.
The term ‘surplus’ is represents the undistributed earnings of the company.
i.e., the balance of profits which are remain after paying the dividend. Surplus can
be classified as earned surplus, capital surplus and revaluation surplus.
Term loan is a debt instrument that has a longer maturity providing a specific
but large amount of financing, and contains a repayment schedule that requires
the borrower to make regular principle and interest payments.
I.F.C; I.D.B.I; I.C.I.CI; S.F.C; are some of example of financial institutions for
providing term loan.
Installing new plants, expansion of the business, diversification and
modernization of the project are some of the purposes of term loan.
The features of term loan are expansion, modernization, and renovation,
schemes, security, project – oriented approach, repayment, schedule (3 to 10 years)
Interest rate (slightly higher than bank rate), refinance and commitment charges. (1
to 2%).
There are broadly six aspects of appraisal of term landing proposals. They are
technical feasibility, economic feasibility, commercial viability, managerial
competence, financial feasibility and social consideration.
12.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. ………………………………. surplus are those which are created out of capital
gains and non-recurring receipts.
2.. ………………………………. reserves are provided to take into account the
liabilities arising out of current operations like reserve for taxes or reserve for
pensions, etc
12.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. www. investopedia.com
2. www. accountingcoach.com
3. www.accountingtools .com
12.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Why are reserves created and how do they serve in stabilising profits and
value of the firm?
2. State the advantages of retained earnings as a source of finance viz. Self-
financing from the view of a nation, shareholders and the company.
3. What are the dangers inherent in excessive retention of earnings?
4. Explain the financial significance of depreciation policies and methods.
224
225
LESSON – 13
quotient forming the share of I divisible sum payable to the recipient. The director's
power to recommend dividend, if they think it is in the interest of the company even
if there profits. The directors may transfer profits to a depreciation fund or to a
reserve fund and the minority of shareholders cannot object to the majority of the
shareholders agreeing to such funds or to capitalisation of profits Dinshaw M. Petit
(1926). They know the financial position of the company and decide what should be
paid to the shareholders. They make recommendation that such and such amount
may be paid to the shareholders.
13.3.2 Statutory Provisions for Dividends
According to Regulation 85 of Table A, “the company in general meeting may
declare dividends, but no dividend shall exceed the amount recommended by the
Board.” At the annual general meeting the shareholders. consider the
recommendations of the directors regarding the payment of dividend than what has
been recommended by the directors though, they may reduce the amount. They
have no right to get the dividend as recommended by the directors until a resolution
to that effect is passed at the general meeting of the shareholders. Following are the
statutory provisions concerning payment of dividends:
1. Calculated per share: Dividend is usually paid per share though a company
may pay dividend to the shareholders according to the amount paid on each share
if the Articles so provide.
2. Through Cheque or warrant: Sec, 205(3),provides that dividend must be paid
in cash or by means of a cheque or warrant sent through post to the registered
shareholder except when the company decides to capitalize profits or reserves by
the issues fully paid or bonus shares for paying up any amount for the time being
unpaid or any shares held by the shareholders. Thus scrip dividends cannot be
paid now.
3. Given Out of profits: The same section lays down that dividend can be paid
only out of the profits after providing depreciation. It cannot be paid out of capital
except under certain circumstances. In the case, the directors will be jointly and
severally liable to refund that amount to the company. If the directors pay dividend
out of fictitious profits, they along with the auditors will be liable to compensate the
company. ,
4. Profit Transfer to reserve: According to the Companies (Amendment) Act,
1974, before a dividend is paid, a company must transfer profits to reserves not
exceeding ten percent. According to Sec.205(2A) a company may be permitted to
transfer more than ten per cent of its profits to reserves with the prior approval of
the Central Government.
5. Out of Profits of previous year: Dividends may be paid out the accumulated
profits and reserves of the previous years after having provided depreciation for
these years, provided the profits in any years are insufficient.
227
6. Out of Government money: Dividend may be paid out of the moneys provided
by any state or Central Government in pursuance of the guarantee given by that
Government.
7. Without depreciation: The Central Government may, if it thinks necessary to
do so in the interest of the public, permit any company to pay dividend in any
financial year or years without the provision for depreciation in any of the previous
years.
8. To Share holders: The dividend shall be payable only to the registered
shareholders or to their orders or their bankers (sec. 206). In the case of joint
holder the dividend warrant shall be posted to the address of the holder whose
name appears first in the Register of Members or to one as the joint holders may
direct the company in writing.
9. To warrants Holders: According to Sec. 206, in case the company has issued
share warrants, dividend may be paid to the bearer of such warrants or to his
bankers.
10. Paid within 42 days: The company must pay dividend to the shareholders
within 42 days of the declaration of the dividend.
11. Transfer of unpaid dividend: A company must transfer the unpaid dividend
within seven days after the expiry of 42 days of the declaration of the dividend to a
special account called "Unpaid Dividend Account of ...Co. Ltd/Private Co., Ltd." in a
Scheduled bank. If the amount 'is not transferred, the company shall pay interest @
12% per annum. Any dividend which remain unpaid for a period of three years shall
be transferred to the general revenue account of the Central Government. If a
claimant makes an application to the company for the payment of the unclaimed
dividend, the company should forward it to the Central Government which will make
the necessary payment to the shareholder. Default in the above requirements, will
make every officer liable to tbe punished with simple imprisonment up to seven days,
and to be fined up to five hundred rupees per day till the default continues.
12. Punishment on Failure to pay dividend: According to Sec. 207 any party
liable to pay the dividend or issue the dividend warrants, may be punished with
simple imprisonment up to seven days and may also be liable to be fined for failure
to pay the dividend within 42 days.
13. Approval Interim dividend: A company cannot declare or pay in interim
dividend without the previous approval of the Central Government nor is a
company allowed to distribute any assets without such approval.
13.3.3 Dividend Policy
Most of the companies follow certain principles for the declaration of dividend.
But dividend should be declared only out of divisible profit. If the company incure
loss at any particular year it should not distribute dividend in that year. Dividend
policy means it is the policy of the company with regard to quantum of profits to be
distributed as dividend. The basic concept of the dividend policy is that the
228
company desires and take any future action regarding the payment of dividend with
help of the company law board.
According to Weston and Brighan defines dividend policy as "Dividend policy
determines the division of earnings between payment to shareholders and retained
earnings"
13.3.4 Objectives of Dividend Policy
1. To Maximise wealth: The dividend policy of a firm aims at the
maximising the owner's wealth. It is formulated not merely to increase the share
price in the short run, but to maximise the owner's wealth in the long run. The
shareholders may not fully appreciate such a dividend policy and may prefer
immediate dividends to future dividends and capital gains and the share prices may
drop in the market. It is the responsibility of the management to make the owners
aware of the objectives and, implications of dividend policy so that the market
reaction is favourable.
2. To Provide Sufficient Finance: In the absence of adequate finances wealth
maximisation objective would remain a sheer dream. The management has to
decide what shall be the proper ratio between dividends and retained earnings so
that the twin objectives of short term interest of shareholders and long-term gain of
expansion are realised.
14.3.5 Issues Involved in Dividend Policy
The following basic issues are involved in formulating a dividend policy which
affects the financial structure, the flow of funds liquid, stock prices and the
shareholders satisfaction. Therefore, the management exercises a high degree of
judgement in establishing a sound dividend pattern.
1. Cost of Capital: One of the considerations for taking a decision whether to
distribute divided or not is cost of capital. The Board calculates the ratio of rupee
profits, the business expects to earn (Ra) to the rupee profits that the shareholders
can expect to earn outside (Re) i.e., Ra/Rc. If the ratio is less than one, it is a signal
to distribute dividend and if it is more than one, the distribution of dividend will be
discontinued.
2. Realisation of objectives: In formulating the dividend policy the main
objective of the firm, i.e., maximisation of wealth for shareholders including the
current rate of dividend should be aimed at.
3. Shareholders group: A company with low pay – out heavy Reinvestment
attracts share holders interested in capital gains rather than in current income.
On the contrary, a company with high dividend pay – out attracts those who are
interested in a current income.
4. Release of corporate earnings: Dividend distribution is a means of
distributing unused funds. Dividend policy affects the share holder’s wealth by
varying its dividend pay-out ratio. In dividend policy the financial manager decides
whether or not to release corporate earnings.
229
finance profitable projects will increase future earnings per share. On the other
hand, if the firm increases dividend, there may .be a favourable reaction in the
stock market, but the firm may have to forego some investment opportunities for
want of funds. Because of this, the future earnings of share may decrease. In view
of this the management should decide dividend policy carefully, so that the net
earnings are divided between dividends and retained earnings in an optimum way
to achieve the objective of maximising the wealth of shareholders. Shareholders'
wealth includes not only market price of shares quoted in stock market but also
current dividends. Thus, dividends are more than just a means of distributing
unused funds. Dividends policy to a large extent affect the financial structure, the
flow of funds, corporate liquidity, stock prices, growth of the company and
investor's satisfaction. That is why, dividend policy has much significance and the
management has to decide it very carefully.
Dividend Policy and Valuation of the Firm
There has been a difference of opinion on the relationship between the divided
policy and value of the firm. Dividend policy is basically concerned with deciding
whether to pay dividend in cash now, or to pay increased dividends a later stage or
distribution of profits in the form of bonus shares. The current dividend provides
liquidity to the investors but the bonus share will bring capital gains to the
shareholders. The investor's preferences between the current cash dividend and the
future capital gain have been viewed differently. Some are of the opinion that the
future capital gain are more risky than the current dividends while others argue
that the investors are indifferent between the current dividend and the future
capital gains. The basic question to be resolved while framing the dividend policy
may be stated simply. What is sound rationale for dividend payments? In the light
of the objective of maximizing the value of the share, the question may be restated
as: Given the firm's investments and financing decisions, what is the effect of the
firm's dividend policies on the share price? Does a high dividend payment decrease,
increase or does not affect at all the share price? The relationship between the
dividend policy and value of the firm can be examined in terms of different models.
While agreement is not found among the models as to the precise relationship, it is
still worthwhile to examine some of these models to gain insight into the effect
which the dividend policy might have on the market price of the share.
Two schools of thoughts have emerged on the relationship between the
dividend policy and value of the firm. One school associated with Walter, Gordon,
etc., holds that the future capital gains (expected to result from lower current
dividend payout) are more risky and the investors have preference for current
dividends. The investors do have a tilt towards those arms which pay regular
dividend. So, the dividend payment affects the market value of the share and as a
result the dividend policy is relevant for the overall value of the firm. On the other
hand, the other school of thought associated with Modigliani and Miller holds that
the investors are basically indifferent between current cash dividends and future
231
capital gains. These schools of thought on the relationship between dividend policy
and value of the firm have been discussed as relevance and irrelevance of
dividends.
13.3.7 Factors Influencing Dividend Policy
Many factors influence a company in its divided policy. We give here a list of
major factors which influence dividend policy of a concern.
1. Stability of earnings: Stability of earnings is one of the important factors
influencing the dividend policy. If earnings are relatively stable, a firm is in a better
position to predict what its future earnings will be and such companies are more
likely to pay out a higher percentage of its earnings in dividends than a concern
which has fluctuating earnings. Generally, the concerns which deal in necessities
suffer less from fluctuating incomes than those concerns which deal with fancy or
luxurious goods.
2. Financing Policy of the Company: Dividend policy may be affected and
influenced by financing policy of the company. If the company decides to meet its
expenses from its earnings, then it will have to pay less dividend to shareholders.
On the other hand, if the company feels, that outside borrowing is cheaper than
internal financing, then it may decide to pay higher rate of dividend to its
shareholder. Thus, the internal financing policy of the company influences the
dividend policy of the business firm.
3. Liquidity of Funds: The liquidity of funds is an important consideration in
dividend decisions. According to Guthmann and Dougall, "Although it is customary
to speak of paying dividends 'out of profits', a cash dividend only be paid from
money in the bank. “Payment of dividend means, a cash outflow, and hence, the
greater the cash position and liquidity of the firm is determined by the firm's
investment and financing decisions. While the investment decisions determine the
rate of asset expansion and the firm's needs for funds, the financing decisions
determine the manner of financing’.
4. Dividend, Policy of Competitive Concerns: Another factor which influence is
the dividend policy of other competitive concerns in the market. If the competing
concerns are paying higher rate of dividend than this concern, the shareholders
may prefer to invest their money in those concerns rather than in this concern.
Hence, every company will have to decide its dividend policy, by keeping in view the
dividend policy of other competitive concerns in the market.
5. Past Dividend Rates: If the firm already exists, the dividend rate may decide
on the basis of dividends declared in the previous years. It is better for concern to
maintain stability in the rate of dividend and hence, generally the director will have
to keep in mind the rate of dividend declared in the past.
6. Debt Obligations: A firm which has incurred heavy indebtedness is not in a
position to pay higher dividends to shareholders. Earning retention is very
important for such concerns which are following a programme of substantial debt
232
reduction. On the other hand, if the company has no debt obligations, it can afford
to pay higher rate of dividend.
7. Ability to Borrow: Every company requires finance both for expansion
programmes as well as well as for meeting unanticipated expenses. Hence, the
companies have to borrow from the market, well established and large firms have
better access to the capital market than new and small, firms and hence, they can
pay higher rate of dividend. The new companies generally find it difficult to borrow
from the market and hence they cannot afford to pay higher rate of dividend.
8. Growth needs of the Company: Another factor which influences the rate of
dividend is the growth needs of the company. In case the company has already
expanded considerably, it does not require funds for further expansions. On the
other hand, if the company has expansion programmes, it would need more money
for growth and development. Thus when money for expansion is not needed, then it
is easy for the company to declare higher rate of dividend.
9. Profit Rate: Another important consideration for deciding the dividend is the
profit rate of the firm. The internal profitability rate of the firm provides a basis for
comparing the productivity of retained earnings to the alternative return which
could be earned elsewhere. Thus, alternative investment opportunities also play an
important role in dividend decisions.
10. Legal requirements: While declaring dividend, the board of directors will
have to consider the legal restriction. The Indian Companies Act 1956, prescribes
certain guidelines in respect of declaration and payment of dividends and they are
to be strictly observed by the company for declaring dividends.
11. Policy of Control: Policy of control is another important factor which
influences dividend policy. If the company feels that no new shareholders should be
added, then it will have to pay less dividends. Generally, it is felt, that new
shareholders, can dilute the existing control of the management over the concern.
Hence, if maintenance of existing control is an important consideration, the rate of
dividend may be lower so that the company can meet its financial requirements
from its retained earnings without issuing additional shares to the public.
12. Corporate Taxation Policy: Corporate taxes affect the rate of dividends of the
concern. High rates of taxation reduce the residual profits available for distribution
to holders. Hence, the rate of divided is affected. Further, in some circumstances,
government puts dividend tax on distribution of dividends beyond a certain limit.
This may also affect rate of dividend of the concern.
13. Tax Position of Shareholders: The tax position of shareholders is another
influencing factor on dividend decisions. In a company if a large number of
shareholders have already high income from other sources and are bracketed in
high income structure, they will not be interested in high dividends because the
large part of the dividend income will go away by way of income tax. Hence, they
233
prefer capital gains to cash gains, i.e., dividend capital gains here we mean capital
benefit derived by the capitalisation of the reserves or issue of bonus shares.
l4. Effect of Trade Cycle: Trade cycle also influences the dividend policy of the
concern. For example, during the period of inflation, funds generated from
depreciation may not be adequate to replace the assets. Consequently there is a
need for retained earnings in order to preserve the earning power of the firm.
15. Attitude of the Interested Group: A concern may have certain group of
interested and powerful shareholders. These people have certain attitude towards
payment of dividend and have a definite say in policy formulation regarding
dividend payments. If they are not interested in higher rate of dividend,
shareholders are not likely to get that. On the other hand, if they are interested in
higher rate of dividend, they will manage to make company declare higher rate of
dividend even in the face of many odds.
13.3.8 Types of Dividend Policy
The alternative dividend policies are the following :
1. A stable dividend policy.
2. Policy of no immediate dividends.
3. Policy of regular and extra dividends.
4. Policy of regular bonus shares.
5. Policy of regular dividends plus bonus shares.
6. Policy of irregular dividends.
1. STABLE DIVIDEND POLICY
The stable dividend policy maintains regularity in paying dividend even though
its amount fluctuates from year to year and may not be related to earnings. Thus
stability of dividends means regularity of the amount paid out. It can take three
distinct forms:
i) Constant dividend per share.
ii) Constant percentage of net earnings.
iii) Constant dividend per share and extra dividend.
i) Constant Dividend Per Share: Here the management follows the policy or
paying, a fixed amount of dividend per share every year irrespective of the
flucations in the earnings. This does not mean that the rate of dividend will never
be increased. When the earnings of the company increase at a new level of
earnings, it increases the rate of dividend per share.
This dividend policy is easy to follow when company earnings are stable. If
earnings fluctuate widely, the company can follow this policy by maintaining a
dividend flucation fund in surplus years which is invested in marketable securities
so that they may easily be realised in bad years to pay the dividend in those years.
234
ii) Constant Percentage of Net Earning: Some companies follow the policy of
paying a fixed percentage of net profits as dividend every year. This is a policy of
constant pay-but ratio. For example, if a company adopts a 40 pay – out ratio, it
means, 40 percent net earnings of the company will be paid-out to shareholders
every year as dividend. No dividend is paid in the year of loss. Under this policy
internal financing is automatic. In the above case, 60% of the profits are transferred
to reserves. This policy leaves nothing to the management's discretion.
iii) Constant Dividend Per Share Plus Extra Dividend: Here, the management
fixes the minimum rate of dividend per share to reduce the possibility of not paying
a dividend. In the years of prosperity the company pays extra dividend. This policy
commits a fixed rate of dividend per share plus an extra dividend in the periods of
prosperity.
ADVANTAGES OF STABLE DIVIDEND POLICY
The stable dividend policy is considered to be the best, due to the following
advantages
(A) ADVANTAGES TO INVESTORS
1. Confidence Among Shareholders: A regular and stable dividend payment
creates confidence and removes uncertainty from-the minds of the shareholders. It
presents a bright future of the company and gives confidence to the shareholders.
2. Income Conscious Investors: As the investors are generally income conscious
they favour a stable rate of dividend.
3. Stability in Market Price of shares: Other things being equal, the market
prices vary with the rate of dividend the company declares on its equity shares. The
value of shares of a company having a viable dividend policy does not fluctuate
widely even if the earnings of the company are lower than the previous year. Thus,
this policy stabilises the market price of the stock.
4. Encouragement to Institutional Investors: A stable dividend policy attracts
institutional investors who generally prepare a list of securities, mainly
incorporating the securities of the companies having stable dividend policy in which
they invest their surpluses or their long-term funds such as pensions or provident
funds etc.
(B) ADVANTAGES TO COMPANY
1. Increase in Goodwill and Credit: Stability and regularity of dividends affects
the market price of shares and increases the general credit of the company that
pays it in the long run.
2. Better Financial Planning: A company with stable dividend policy may
formulate its financial planning faster and easily because the financial manager can
correctly estimate the future demand and supply of capital in the firm. Timing of
dividend payment can be forecasted easily by preparing cash flow statement.
However, the stable dividend policy is not without any drawbacks. The highest
danger associated with a stable dividend policy is that once it is adopted by the
235
239
LESSON – 14
THEORIES OF DIVIDEND
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The investors basically have two desires viz. (a) high percentage of dividends
and (b) maximum earnings per share or increase in their investments. These two
factors influences the dividend policies. The term dividend refers to the divisible
profits of the company to its equity shareholders. The percentage of dividend is
mainly a decision of the management which is decided on the basis of the present
earnings, growth rate and opportunities for expansion and diversification. If a firm
pays high dividend and maintains less amount of retained earnings, it has to
depend on external finance for their investment opportunities which may at times
give negative reflection on the wealth of the company. If a firm keeps retained
earnings and pays lesser amount of dividend to equity shareholders and finances
such funds for investment opportunities, it increases the wealth of the company.
Subsequently, a company can attain its objective of wealth maximisation.
Therefore, the financial manager has to consider all these issues at the time of
financing the dividend policy.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson you must be able to
Describe the theories of dividend
Explain the relevance and irrelevance of dividend policy
14.3 CONTENT
14.3.1 Theories of Dividend
14.3.2 Walter’s Model
14.3.3 Gordon’s Model
14.3.4 MM Model
14.3.1 Theories of Dividend
There are conflicting opinions regarding the impact of dividend decision and
the value of the firm. The dividend theories can be classified under the following
two groups.
(i) Relevance concept of dividend (Theories of Relevance)
(ii) Irrelevance concept of dividend (Theories of Irrelevance)
i) Relevance concept of dividend
It indicates that there is a relationship between firms dividend policy and the
firms position in the stock market. Myron Gordon, John linter, James Walter,
Richardson and others are associated with the relevance concepts of dividend. If the
company declares higher rate of dividend automatically its value increase in the
stock market. Suppose it declares low dividend rate, immediately its value decrease
in the market. As information about the rate of dividend is immediately
communicated to the investors and also the profitability of the firms.
240
Where,
D = Dividend per share
k = Cost of capital
g = Growth rate = b x r
E = Earnings per share
b = Retention ratio
r = Rate of return. Implications
Implications
(a) The optimal payout ratio for a growth firm is Nil
(b) The payout ratio for a normal firm is irrelevant
(c) The optimal payout ratio for a declining firm is 100%.
Criticisms
(i) Assumption of 100% equity funding defeats the objective of maximization of
wealth, by leveraging against a lower cost of debt capital.
242
(ii) Constant rate of return and current opportunity cost are not in tune with
realities.
Theories of Irrelevance (Irrelevance concept of dividend)
These theories associated with Modigliani and Miller hold that policy has no
effect on the share prices of a firm and is therefore of no co Investors are basically
indifferent between current cash dividends capital gains. They are basically
interested in getting higher return investments. If the firm has adequate investment
opportunities giving rate of return than the cost of retained earnings, the investors
will be satisfied with the firm for retaining the earnings. However, in case, the
expected return on projects is less than what it would cost, the investors would
prefer to receive dividends. So, it is needless to mention that a dividend decision is
nothing but a financing decision. In short, if the firm has profitable investment
opportunities, it will retain the earnings for investment purposes or if not, the said
earnings should be distributed by way of dividend among the investors/shareholders.
2.5 Modigliani-Miller Hypothesis (M.M. Model)
Modigliani-Miller argue that value of a firm is determined by its earnings
potentiality and investment pattern and not by dividend distribution. According to
them, the dividend decision is irrelevant and it does not affect the market value of
equity shares, because the increase in wealth of shareholders resulting from
dividend payments will be offset subsequently when additional share capital is
raised. If the additional capital is raised in order to meet the funds requirement, it
will dilute the existing share capital which will reduce the share value to the
original position.
Assumptions
The above theory is based on the following assumptions:
(i) Capital markets are prefect. Investors are free to buy and sell securities.
They are well informed about the risk and return of all types of securities. There are
no transaction costs. The investors behave rationally. They can borrow without
restrictions on the same terms as the firms do,
(ii) There are no corporate and personal taxes. If taxes exist, the tax rates are
the same for dividend and-capital gains.
(iii) The firm has a fixed investment policy under which at each year end, it
invests a specific amount as capital expenditure.
(iv) Investors are able to predict future dividends and future market prices and
there is only one discount rate for the entire period.
(v) All investments are funded either by equity or by retained earnings.
Determination of Market price of share
Under M.M. Model, the market price of a share at the beginning of the period
(Po) is equal to the present value of dividends received at the end of the period plus
the market price of the share at the end of the period.
243
P0 = Present value of Dividends received + Market price of the share at the end
of the period.
This can be expressed as follows:
D1 P D P
P0 = + 1 1 1
1 Ke 1 Ke 1 Ke
The market price of the share at the end of the period ( P1 ) c as follows:
P1 = P0 (1+Ke)-D1
Where,
P1 = Market price per share at the end of the period.
P0 = Market price per share at the beginning of the period i.e price.
Ke = Cost of equity capital
D1 = Dividend per share at the end of the period.
Determination of No. of New shares
The investment requirements of a firm can be financed by retained earnings or
issue of new shares or both. The number of new shares to b determined as follows:
Investment Proposed xxx
Less: Retained earnings available for investment:
Net income xx
(-) Dividends distributed xx xxx
Amount to be raised by issue of new shares xxx
Amount to be raised by issue of new shares
No. of New Shares =
Issues price per share
Implications
(i) Higher the retention ratio, higher is the capital appreciation enjoyed by the
shareholders. The capital appreciation is equal to the amount retained.
(ii) If the firm distributes earnings by way of dividends, the share dividends
equal to the amount of capital appreciation if the firm had retained the amount of
dividends.
Criticisms
The MM model may be criticized as follows:
(i) The assumption of perfect capital market is theoretical in perfect capital
market is never found in practice.
(ii) Following propositions on dividend are impracticable and unrealistic:
(a) Investors can switch between capital gains and dividends
(b) Dividends are irrelevant, and
(c) Dividends do not determine the firm value.
244
It may be seen from Table 4.1 that for a growth firm (r = 15% and
r > ke), the market price is highest at Rs. 150 when the firm adopts a zero payout
and retains the entire earnings. As the payout increases gradually from 0% to
100%, the market price tends to decrease from Rs. 150 to Rs. 100. For a firm
having r< ke (i.e., r = 8%), the market price is highest when the payout ratio is 100%
and the firm retains no profit. However, if r=ke=10%, then the price is constant at
245
Rs. 100 for different payout ratios. Such a firm have any optimum payout ratio and
every payout ratio is as good as any other.
So, the prepositions of the Walter's Model are testified by the mathematical
formation. It provides a framework which explains the relationship between
dividend policy and the firm. As far as the assumptions underlying the model hold
good, the behaviour market price of the share in response to the dividend policy of
the firm can be explained the help of this model. However, the limitation of this
models is its assumptions. The fresh investments only out of retained earnings and
no external financing is seldom found in real life. The assumption of constant ‘r’
and constant ‘ke’ is also unrealistic and does good. As more and more investments
are made, the risk complexion of the firm will change and consequently the ke may
not remain constant.
Example -2
The EPS of XYZ Ltd. is Rs. 10 and the cost of equity capital, ke
is 10%. Both are expected to remain constant for several years. The rates of return
on fresh investment by the may be 8%, 10% or 15%. Apply Gordon's Model and find
out the market price of the share payout ratios of 0%, 40%, 80% and 100%.
Solutions
The market price of the share as per Gordon's model may be calculated as
follows:
E (1 b)
P=
Ke br
If r = 15 % and payout ratio is 40%, then the retention ratio, b, is .6 (i.e., 1 -
.4) and the growth rate, g = br = .09 (i.e., .6 x .15) and the market price of the share
is
E (1 b)
P=
Ke br
10(1 .6)
P=
.10 .09
Rs.400
If r = 8% and payout ratio is 80%, then the retention ratio, 6, is .2 (i.e., 1 - .8)
and the growth rate, g = br = .016 (i.e., .2 x .08) and the market price of the share is
10(1 .2)
P=
.10 .016
95
The expected market price under different combinations of ‘r’ and dividend
payout ratio have been calculated and placed in Table 2.
246
Table 2.: Market Price under Gordon's Model for Different Combinations of ‘r’ and
Payout ratio
r = 15% r = 10% r = 8%
D/P Ratio 0% 0 0 0
40% Rs. 400 Rs. 100 Rs. 77
80% 114 100 95
100% 100 100 100
On the basis of figures given in Table 2, it can be seen that if the firm adopts a
zero payout then the investor may not be willing to offer any price. For a growth
firm (i.e r>Ke>br), the market price decreases when the payout ratio is increased.
For a firm having r<Ke, the market price increases when the payout ratio is
increased.
If r = kc, the dividend policy is irrelevant and the market price remains con Rs.
100 only. However, Gordon has argued that even if r = ke, the dividend payout ratio
matters and the investors being risk averse prefer current dividends which are
certain, to future capital gains which are uncertain. The investors will apply a
higher capitalization rate i.e., ke to discount the future capital gains. This will
compensate them for the uncertain capital gain and thus the market price of the
share of a firm which retain will be adversely affected.
Gordon's conclusions about the relationship between the dividend policy and
the value of the firm are similar to that of Walter's model. The similarity is due to
the reason that the underlying assumptions of both the models are same. Both
models suggest that a firm adopt a suitable dividend policy depending upon the
relationship between the rate of or its investment and capitalisation rate of the
equity shareholders.
Example - 3
Details regarding three companies are given below :
Nel Ltd. Mel Ltd Gel Ltd
r=18% r = 20% r=8%
k=15% k-20% k=10%
E = Rs.30 E = Rs.40 E = 20
By using Walter's model, you are required to
(i) Calculate the value of an equity share of each of these companies dividend
payout is (a) 30%, (b) 60%, (c) 100%;
(ii) Comment on the results drawn.
Solution
I. Nel Ltd
(a) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 30%
247
D
r (E - D)
Value of an equity share
k
k
D = Dividend per share = EPS x Payout ratio
= 30 x 30% = Rs. 9
r = Rate of return = 18%
k = Cost of capital = 15%
E = Earnings per share = Rs. 30
9
0.18 (30 - 9)
Value of an Equity Share
0.15
0.15
18
0.18 (30 - 30)
Value of an Equity Share
0.15
0.15
30
Rs.200
0.15
Analysis: Nel Ltd. is a growth firm (r>k). If payout increases, share price
declines. It is better to retain the entire profit with the firm. So, the ideal payout is
0%.
II. Mel Ltd.
(a) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 30%
D
r (E - D)
Value of an equity share
k
k
D = Dividend per share = EPS x Payout ratio
= 40 x 30% = Rs.12
r = Rate of return = 20%
k = Cost of capital = 20%
248
12
0.20 (40 - 12)
Valueof an Equity Share
0.20
0.20
40
Rs.200
0.20
(b) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 60%
D = Dividend per share = 40 x 60% = Rs. 24
24
0.20 (40 - 24)
Valueof an Equity Share
0.20
0.20
40
Rs.200
0.20
(c) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 100%
D = Dividend per share = 40 x 100% = Rs. 40
40
0.20 (40 - 40)
Valueof an Equity Share
0.20
0.20
40
Rs.200
0.20
Analysis : Mel Ltd. is a growth firm (r=k). Dividend payout does not affect the
value of equity share of the firm.
III. Gel Ltd.
(a) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 30%
D
r (E - D)
Value of an equity share
k
k
D = Dividend per share = EPS x Payout ratio
= 20 x 30% = Rs.6
r = Rate of return = 8%
k = Cost of capital = 10%
E = Earnings per share = Rs. 20.
40
0.08 (20 - 6)
Value of an Equity Share
0.10
0.10
17.2
Rs.172
0.10
249
12
0.08 (20 - 12)
Value of an Equity Share
0.10
0.10
18.4
Rs.184
0.10
(c) Computation of value of an equity share when payout is 100%
D = Dividend per share = 20 x 100% = Rs. 20
20
0.08 (20 - 12)
Value of an Equity Share
0.10
0.10
20
Rs.200
0.10
Analysis: Gel Ltd. is a declining firm (r<k). If payout ratio increases, the value
of an equity increases. It is better to distribute all the profits to the shareholders of
the firm. Hence, the ideal payout is 100%
Problem 4: The following information is available in respect of ABCD Ltd. Cap
rate =10%; Earning per share Rs. 40.
Assumed rate of return on investments: (i) 12% (ii) 10% (iii) 8%.
Show the effect of dividend policy on market price of shares applying Walter's
formula dividend payout ratio is (a) 0% (b) 50% (c) 100%
Solution
According to the Walter's model,
R
D ( E - D)
P= k
Market price per share, k
D = Dividend per share r = Return on investments
K = Cost of capital E = Earning per share
(a) Market price per share if payout is 0%
Dividend = 0% EPS = Rs. 40.
Answer the following questions based on Modigliani and Miller Model and
assumption of no taxes.
(i) What will be the price of the shares at the end of the year if dividend is not
declared?
(ii) What will be the price if dividend is declared?
(iii) Assuming that the company pays dividends, has a net income of Rs.10
lakhs and plans.
New investments of Rs.20 lakhs during the period, how many new sham us be
issued (iv) Is the MM Model realistic? What factors might mar its validity?
Solution
Price at the end of the year P1 = P0 + (1 + Ke) – D1
i) If dividend is not declared
P0 = Current market price = Rs.100
Ke = Cost of equity capital = 10% or 0.10
D1 = Dividend to be paid at the end of the period = 0
P1 = 100 (1 +0.10) -0; P1 = 100 (1.10)-0 = Rs. 110
ii) Price of the share if dividend is declared
P1 = .P0 + (1 + Ke) - D1
P0 = Rs. 100
Ke = 10% or 0.10
D1 = Dividend = Rs.6
P1 - 100 (1 + 1.10)-6 = 100 (1.10)-6 = Rs. 110-6 = Rs. 104
iii) Computation of No .of shares to be issued:
Rs. Rs.
Investment period 20,00,000
8 (0.15/10 (8 - 8)
P
0.10
8 (1.5) (0)
0.10
80
Rs.8
0.10
Results & Comments
Rate of return of Excellent Ltd. is higher than the cost of capital (r=15%
k=10%) Hence it is a growth firm.
The market price at different payouts are :
0% - Rs. 12 0 25% - Rs. 110 50% = Rs. 100
75% - Rs. 90 100% = Rs. 80
The market price is the highest when the payout is 0%. As payout increase,
market price comes down. Hence, the ideal payout is 0%
Problem 7
ABC has a total investment of Rs. 5,00,000 in assets and 50,000 outstanding
ordinary shares at Rs. 10 per share (par value). It earns a rate of 15% on its
investment and has a policy of retaining 50% of the earnings. If the appropriate
discount rate of the firm is 10%, determine the price of its share using Gordon's
model. What shall happen to the price of the share if the company has a payout of
80% or 20%.
Solution
Earnings
Earnings @ 15% on assets of Rs. 5,00,000 = Rs.75,000
No. of shares = 50,000
EPS : 15% or Rs. 1.5
Current Growth rate = br
15% of 50% = 7.5% when payout is 50%
E = EPS (1.6125)
b = Retained Earnings in 50%
Ke = Cost of capital
r = actual rate of capitalization or IRR
br = growth rate or IRR
Applying Gordon’s Model PO would be
Note: Current earning per share is Rd. 1.5 and the EPS at period 1 with grow
rate of 7.5% would be 1.5 x 0.75 = Rs. 1.6125.
14.4 REVISION POINTS
Walter’s Model – Dividend policy is an active variable that influences share
price and also value of firm.
Gordon’s Model – Dividend decisions are relevant and it affects the value of
firm.
MM Hypothesis – The value of a firm is determined by the earnings
potentially and investment pattern and not by dividend distribution.
14.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define Walters Model
2. Define Gordons Model
3. Define M.M Model
14.6 SUMMARY
There are two schools of thought on the relationship between dividend policy
and the value of the firm. Relevance of Dividends and irrelevance of dividends.
According to relevance of dividends, the decision is an active variable influencing
the valve of the firm. The choice of dividend policy always offers the value of
enterprise. The irrelevance of dividends policy advocates that the dividend paid by a
firm should be viewed as a residual i.e. the amount left over after all acceptable
investment opportunities have been undertaken. Walter’s model and Gordon’s
Model supports the theory that dividends are relevant. The choice of dividend
policies affects the valve of enterprise because it maximise the wealth of
shareholders. According to Modigliani and Miller dividends are irrelevant to the
valve of shares and firm because it does not affect the wealth of share holders.
14.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1 …………………….. argue that value of a firm is determined by its earnings
potentiality and investment pattern and not by dividend distribution.
2. ………………………….. put forth a model arguing for relevance of dividend
decision to valuation of firm.
3. According to the …………………… Model , dividend policy of the firm
depends on the internal rate of return (r) and cost of capital (k) of the firm.
14.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. chttp://flash.lakeheadu.ca/
2. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/theories/theories-of-dividend.
3. http://makemynote.weebly.com/
14.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss Walter Model of share valuation.
2. Explain the assumptions and implications of Gordon’s dividend model.
255
256
LESSON – 15
4. Control: The dividend payout reduces the funds position and results in
lower internal accruals. The firm may then have to raise funds externally. If the
funds are to be raise issuing equity share capital (either because of market
conditions or because of debt-equity ratio considerations), then the issue of fresh
equity share capital may result in dilution management control. The present
shareholders in general and the management of the firm in particular, may not
favour higher DP ratio which may ultimately force the firm to raise the funds
externally by issuing additional share capital. Even if the fresh funds are raise by
issue of debt securities, the lenders may have their representation on the Board.
The control of the firm will not be endangered; however, there will be an outsider on
the Board. The present management look into this aspect also before deciding for
the DP ratio.
5. Shareholders' Discontent: The firm need not annoyed the present
shareholders. Although, the ultimate dividend policy depends upon numerous
factors, the avoidance of shareholder's discontent is important. If the present
shareholders become dissatisfied with the existing dividend policy, they may sell
their holdings to some other group and thereby increasing the possibility of dilution
of control. The takeover of a firm is more likely when the shareholders are
dissatisfied with the dividend policy of the firm. The firm should find out the
expectation of the shareholders in deciding the DP ratio.
The factors identified above show that deciding the DP ratio for a firm is a
critical decision. On one hand, paying too much in dividends create several
problems. The firm may find itself short of funds for new investment and may have
to incur the cost associated with new issues of securities or capital rationing. On
the other hand, paying too little in dividends can also create problems. For one, the
firm will find itself with a cash balance that increases over time, which can lead to
investments in 'bad' projects, especially when the interest of the management in the
firm are different from those of the shareholders. However, a firm while designing
the dividend policy must attempt to answer two questions namely:
1. How much cash is available to be paid out as dividend after meeting capital
expenditures and working capital requirements needed to sustain future growth?
2. How good are the proposals that are available before the firm? In general,
the firms that have good proposal will have an easy time with dividend policy, since
the share holders will expect that the cash accumulated in the firm will be invested
in these projects and eventually earn high returns. On the other hand, the firms
that do not have good proposals may find themselves under pressure to pay out all
cash profits (of course, subject to legal restrictions) to the shareholders.
DP Ratio and Cash Profits: Dividends are paid in cash. However, the amount of
dividends may be more or less than the cash profits generated by operation.
Different repercussions may follow:
If a firm pays lesser than what is available as cash profits, it may give rise to
different consequences as follows:
260
(a) When a firm pays out less than it can afford, it accumulates cash. If a firm
does not have good proposals (now or in future) to invest this cash, then it may face
several possibilities. In the most benign case, such cash gets invested in financial
assets.
(b) As the cash accumulates, the financial manager may be tempted to take on
projects that do not meet the minimum rate of return requirements. These actions
will clearly lower the value of the firm.
(c) Another possibility is that the management may decide to use the cash to
finance an acquisition which may result in the transfer of wealth of the
shareholders of the acquired firm.
However, the result of low payout may be more positive for firms that have a
better selection of projects and whose management has a history of earning good
returns for the shareholders. The long-term effects of cash accumulations for such
firms are generally positive for the following reasons:
(i) The presence of projects that earn returns greater than the hurdle rate
increases the likelihood that the cash will be productively invested in the long run.
(ii) The high returns earned on internal projects reduces both the pressure and
the incentive to invest to poor projects.
On the other hand, if a firm pays more than what is available as cash profits,
it may give rise to different consequences as follows:
(a) When a firm pays out more in dividends than it has available as cash
profits, it is creating a cash deficit which has to funded by drawing on the firm's
own cash balance or borrowing money or issuing securities.
(b) The cash that is paid out as dividends could have been used to invest in
some of good projects, leading to a much higher return and much higher price to
shareholders. So, it can be argued that the firm is paying a hefty price for dividend
policy.
15.3.2 Importance of Payout Ratio
Dividend payout ratio (D/P ratio) maybe defined as the percentage share of net
earning distributed to the shareholders as dividends. Dividend policy involves the
decision to payout earnings or to retain them for reinvestment in the firm. The
retained earnings constitute a source, of financing. The payment of dividends result
in the reduction of cash, and in total assets. The dividend policy of the firm affects
both the shareholder's wealth and the long-term growth of the firm. The D/P ratio
should be determined with reference to maximising the wealth of the firm's owners
and providing sufficient funds to finance growth. The firm's dividend policy (D/P
Ratio) should be one which can maximise the wealth of its owners in the long run.
A low D/P ratio may cause a decline in share prices.
Generally, companies adopt the policy of a target dividend payout ratio in the
long run. According to Lintner, dividends are adjusted to changes in earnings but
only with a lag. The authorities in financial management establish relationship
261
between cash flow and dividend payouts. Cash flows are earnings plus depreciation
and depletion charges. When dividends are related to cash-flows rather than to
earnings, the payout pattern shows the following changes:
(i) The payout percentages drop to lower levels.
(ii) It appears to be more stable when dividends are related to cash flow rather
than to earnings.
Based on cash flows, payout percentage is more stable and lower in
comparison to earning payout. While taking final decision about cash dividend, the
study of cash flow payout can help the management in following a sound policy of
management of income.
15.3.3 Types of D/P Ratio Policies
1. Constant Dividend Per Share: Here a company follows a policy of paying a
certain fixed amount per share as dividend. For example, on a share of face value of
Rs. 10, a firm may pay a fixed amount of, say, Rs. 2.50 as dividend year after year
irrespective of the level of earnings even when it suffers losses. When the company
reaches new levels of earnings and expects to maintain it, the annual dividend per
share may be increased. While the earnings may fluctuate from year to year, the
dividend per share is constant. In order to pursue such a policy, a firm whose
earnings are not stable would have to make provisions in years when earnings are
higher for payment of dividends in lean years. Such firms usually create a "reserve
for dividend equalisation. The balance standing in this fund is normally invested in
such assets as can be readily converted into cash.
2. Constant Payout Ratio Policy: The term payout ratio refers to the ratio of
dividend to earnings or the percentage share of earning used to pay dividend. In
constant payout ratio policies a firm pays a constant percentage of net earnings as
dividend to the shareholders. A stable dividend payout ratio implies that the
percentage of earnings paid out each year is fixed. Dividends would fluctuate in
proportion to the earnings of the company. When the earnings of a firm decline
substantially or there are a loss in a given period, the dividends, according to the
target payout ratios, would be low or nil. For example, if a firm has a policy of 50%
target payout ratios, its dividends will range between Rs. 5 and zero per share on
the assumption that the earnings, per share are Rs. 10 per share and zero (or less)
per share respectively.
3. A Regular and Extra-dividend Policy: Some firms establish a policy of a
constant rupee dividend (or a fixed percentage) referred to as a regular dividend. If
earnings are higher than normal in any year, the firm may pay an additional or
extra dividend. By designing the amount by which the dividend exceeds the normal
payments as an extra dividend, the firm avoids giving false hopes of increases
dividends in coming periods to existing and prospective shareholders. The use of
the regular extra dividend pattern is particularly common among companies that
experience cyclical shifts in earnings.
262
By establishing a regular dividend which is paid each year the firm gives
investors a stable dividend income necessary to build their confidence in the firm.
The extra dividend permits them to share in the spoils if the firm experiences an
especially good period. Firms using this policy may also raise the rate of regular
dividend after increase in earnings has been achieved. However, is extra dividend
should not be allowed to become a regular event. The use of target payout ratio in
establishing the regular dividend level is advisable.
15.3.4 Non-Cash Dividends
a) Scrip Dividends: Bonus Shares: Dividend payment is an important way
through which the market price of the share and hence the wealth of the
shareholders can be maximized. Dividend payment affects the liquidity position of
the firm. There is another way of utilization of profits to reward the shareholders,
without however, affecting the current liquidity position of the firm. This is known
as script dividend or issue of bonus shares by capitalization of profits. Bonus
shares are the shares issued by the company (free of cost) by capitalization of
profits and revenues.
In order to issue bonus shares, the company has to pass a resolution for
creating of new shares out of reserves and profits. These shares are then
distributed among the shareholders in proportion to their holding. The bonus
shares do not alter the proportional ownership of the firm as far as the existing
shareholders are concerned. As the bonus issue does not affect the cash flows or
the operational efficiencies of the firm, there should not be any change in the total
value of the firm. The issue of bonus shares results in Tease in number of shares
and increases the paid-up capital of the company without involving any monetary
transaction. The number of shares increases as a result of bonus shares,
consequently the book value and the earnings per share of the company will
decrease (other things remaining same). The market price per share would decrease
but the shareholders are no worse off after the bonus, notwithstanding such
decrease, because they receive a compensatory increase in the number of shares.
b) Motives for Issue of Bonus Shares: Issue of bonus shares is, in fact, a nor
transaction. It does not affect the total value of the firm. Now if the effect of bonus
shares on the shareholders wealth is nil, then why do firms issue bonus shares? It
may be found that profitable companies have been making regular bonus issues,
some shareholders may consider the bonus issue as the substitute of cash
dividend. Other firms may view bonus shares as a supplement to cash dividend and
use them in periods in which they have posted good results. The announcement of
the bonus issue conveys information to the capital market about the future
prospects of the firm. In fact, the use of bonus shares as sig bright future may
increase the firm's value.
Companies have a common tendency to issue bonus shares to their
shareholders. Many companies have issued bonus shares once a while, whereas
some other companies have issued bonus shares on a regular basis. Companies
263
such as Colgate-Palmolive Ltd., Bajaj Auto Ltd., Hindustan Lever Ltd., Infosys Ltd.,
Ingersoll-Rand Ltd. have issued bonus shares on a regular basis. During 2004,
Infosys Ltd. declared a bonus in the ratio of 3 : 1. There are many companies whose
95% or more of the total paid-up capital has been issued as shares. The companies
may prefer issue of bonus shares as against the payment of cash dividend for
several reasons as follows :
1. Issue of Bonus shares utilises a part of the profit of the company and also
rewards the shareholders but without affecting the liquidity of the company. By
issuing bonus shares, a company in fact, shares the growth of the company with
the shareholders who are rewarded not in terms of cash but in terms of capital
receipt, i.e., bonus shares. Therefore, the company, on the one hand, is able to
satisfy the expectations of the shareholders (to get returns on their investments),
and also simultaneously, on the other, is able to preserve the liquidity of the
company.
2. Bonus issue helps a company to streamline its capital structure and to bring
its paid up share capital in line with the capital employed in the business. After
bonus issue, the paid up capital increases and approaches the capital employed.
3. Bonus issue increases the number of shares. If a company issues bonus
shares in the ratio of 1:1, then the market price of the share after bonus issue will
tend to be 50% of the market price before issue of such bonus shares. Thus, the
company may be in a position to keep the market price of the share within the
reach of the common investors. Bringing the price down, increases the number of
potential buyers for the shares, leading to a higher share price.
4. Bonus shares is capital receipt and it is not taxable in the hands of the
issuing company as well as the shareholders. In India, however, in case of
dividends paid in cash, the paying company has to pay a corporate dividend tax,
while the issue of bonus shares does not require any tax payment immediately.
5. Issue of bonus shares increases the goodwill of the company in the capital
market and build a confidence among the investors and thus helps raising
additional funds in future. In fact, the issue of bonus shares is always taken and
evaluated positively by the capital market.
The issue of bonus shares by companies in India is regulated by legal
provisions. There is not much in the Companies Act, 1956 however, Guidelines
have been issued from time to time regulating the issue of bonus shares. The
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has issued the guidelines for issue
of bonus shares on June 11, 1992 and later modified these guidelines in 2000. The
guidelines for the issue of bonus shares can be summarised as follows:
(i) These guidelines are applicable to existing listed companies.
(ii) Issue of bonus shares after any public/rights issue is subject to the
condition that no bonus issue shall be made which will dilute the value or right of
the holders of debentures, convertible fully or partly. In other words, no company
264
shall, pending conversion of FCDs/PCDs, issue any shares by way of bonus unless
similar benefit is extended to the holders of such FCDs/ PCDs, through reservation
of shares in proportion to such convertible part of FCDs/ or PCDs.
(iii) The bonus issue is made out of free reserves built out of the genuine
profits or share premium collected in cash only.
(iv) Reserves created by revaluation of fixed assets are not capitalised.
(v) The declaration of bonus issue, in lieu of dividend, is not made.
(vi) The bonus issue is not made unless the partly-paid shares, if any existing,
are made fully paid-up.
(vii) The company has not defaulted in payment of interest or principal in
respect of fixed deposits and interest on existing debentures or principal on
redemption thereof, and has sufficient reason to believe that it has not defaulted in
respect of the payment of statutory dues of the employees such as contribution to
provident fund, gratuity, bonus, etc.
(viii) A company which announces its bonus issue after the approval of the
Board of Directors must implement the proposals within a period of six months
from the date of such approval and shall not have the option of changing the
decision.
(ix) There should be a provision in the Articles of Association of the company
for capitalization of reserves, etc., and if not, the company shall pass a Resolution
at its General Body Meeting making provisions in the Articles of Association for
capitalization.
(x) Consequent to the issue of bonus shares if the subscribed and paid-up
capital exceed the authorized share capital, a Resolution shall be passed by the
company at General
c) Bonus Debentures: Hindustan Lever Ltd. has been consistently paying
regular dividends to shareholders. It has rewarded them with bonus shares also
from time to time. It has come out with a novel idea (first time in India) of
distributing the profits among the shareholders in the from of debentures.
The company issued bonus debentures (face value Rs. 6 per debenture) in the
ratio of 1:1 to the existing shareholders. The tenure of the debentures was 18
months from the date issues and carried a coupon rate of 9%. These debentures
were issued by capitalization of General Reserve A/c, which tantamount to payment
of dividend for the purpose of corporate dividend tax. The company paid the
amount of corporate dividend tax at the applicable rate, to the Government. During
the life of the debentures, the debenture holders. (i.e., the shareholders) got the
interest and on maturity, they got the redemption cash. The crux of the situation is
that the company paid a dividend, and for t period, it paid the interest.
Instead of issuing the bonus debentures, the company could have issued
bonus shares but it would have merely implied conversion of general reserve into
265
equity shares without any underlying outflow of cash. The bonus issue would also
involve permanent increase in the equity share capital of the company. The
company would have continued to and capital in excess of needs. The motive for
issue of bonus debentures can be substantiated as follows :
HLL has been a cash rich company and in a way to profitably use these funds
is to make one or more major acquisition in the area of interest to the company. In
view of the fresh investment opportunities before the company, HLL believed that it
would still have cash and capital in excess of its needs. The restructuring of the
General Reserve by issue of bonus debenture ensured the company of the cash so
that any fresh investment opportunity, if occur during the tenure of the debentures,
could be availed. If no such opportunity is there, cash would be returned to
debenture holders. The shareholders had access to cash represented by debentures
as the debentures were listed. In all, the scheme was beneficial to shareholders.
d) Buyback of Shares: The buyback of shares is a situation when a company
uses its accumulated profits (represented by sufficient liquid assets) to cancel or
retire a part of its outstanding shares by purchasing from the market or directly
from the shareholders. This is particularly relevant when the shares are available in
the market at a price below the book value. When shares are repurchased for
cancellation, the underlying motive is to distribute excess cash among the
shareholders. The cancellation of shares means that the present shareholders will
receive cash for their shares. The general rationale for the repurchase is that as
long as the earnings remain constant, the repurchase of shares reduces the
number of shares outstanding and thus, raising the earning per share and the
market price of the share. The repurchase of shares for cancellation can be viewed
as a type of reverse and the EPS and the market price are increased by reducing
the number of outstanding shares. Whenever a company wants to repurchase its
shares, it must disclose it to the shareholders. The company may have different
methods of shares repurchase. 1 three widely used approaches to shares
repurchase as follows:
1. Repurchase Tender Offer: In a repurchase tender offer, a firm specifies a
price it will buy back the shares, the number of shares it intends to repurchase and
the period of time for which it will keep the offer open and invites the shareholders
to submit their shares for the repurchase. The firm may also retain the flexibility to
withdraw the offer if insufficient number of shares are submitted for repurchase.
During 1996, Indian Rayon Industries Ltd. repurchased its shares as per tender
offer.
2. Open Market Repurchase: In the case of open market repurchase, the firm
buys the shares in the market at the prevailing market price. The open market
repurchase can be spread out over longer time periods than tender offers. In terms
of flexibility, the open market repurchase provides the firm more freedom in
deciding when to repurchase and how many shares to be repurchased.
266
3. Negotiated Repurchase: In this case, the firm may buy shares from a large
shareholder at a negotiated price. This form of repurchase can be adopted only
when a large shareholder, generally one of the promoter groups, is willing to sell the
shares.
The rationale for repurchase of shares is basically in the form of increased EPS
for the remaining shares and the increased market priced of the shares. For
example, a company has 1,00,000 equity shares of Rs. 10 each fully paid up. The
EPS of the company is Rs. 2.50 and the market price is Rs. 50 giving a price
earnings ratio of 20. Presently, the company has a net profit (after tax) of Rs.
2,50,000 (i.e., 1,00,000 x Rs. 2.50) and it expects to maintain the same level of
earnings in the coming years.
The company has been contemplating to pay a dividend of Rs. 2 per share (i.e.,
total dividends of Rs. 2,00,000) which will raise the market price from Rs. 50 to Rs.
52 (cum-dividend). However, if instead of distributing cash dividend of Rs.
2,00,000, the company decides to repurchase the shares, it can repurchase 3,846
shares (i.e., Rs. 2,00,000/- Rs. 52) and then the remaining outstanding shares
would be 96,154 (i.e., 1,00,000 - 3,846) only. The EPS for the next near (assuming
same earning for the next year) would be Rs.2,50,000/96,154= Rs. 2.60 and the
market price of the share is expected to be Rs. 52 (i.e., Rs. 2.60 x 20).
So, if the dividends were paid to the shareholders, they would have received
Rs. 2 in cash and the market price would have been Rs. 50 (ex-dividend), giving a
gain of Rs.2 to the shareholders. However, if repurchase takes place, the remaining
shareholders (after repurchase of 3,846 shares) would have gained by Rs. 2 in the
form of market price from Rs. 50 to Rs. 52 (as a result of increase in EPS from Rs.
2.50 to Rs. 2.60). It may be noted that the above calculations are based on the
assumption that the shares could be purchased at a net price of Rs. 52 and the PE
ratio remains same at 20. If the shares could be purchased at a price less than Rs.
52, then the gain to shareholders would be higher and vice-versa.
Although, the reduction in number of shares might increase earning per share,
the effect is usually a consequence of higher leverage and not of share buyback.
Furthermore, the increase in leverage would increase the riskiness of the shares
and lower the price earnings ratio. Whether this will increase or decrease the price
of the share will depend upon whether the firm is moving to its optimal position by
repurchasing, in which case the price will increase, or moving away from it, in
which case the price will fall. There are several advantages of using share
repurchase as an alternative to payment of cash dividend to the shareholders.
These may be enumerated as follows:
1. The cash dividend imply a commitment to continue payment in future
periods, whereas shares repurchase is a one-time return of cash. Consequently,
firms having excess cash flows, which are uncertain about their ability to continue
generating these cash flows in future periods, should repurchase the shares instead
of paying cash dividend.
267
2. The decision to repurchase shares affords the firm with more flexibility to
reverse the decision and/or to spread the repurchase over a longer period than
does the decision to pay a dividend.
3. Shares repurchases are more focused in terms of paying out cash only to
those shareholders who need it. Only those who need the cash can tender their
shares for buy-back, whereas those who do not want the cash can continue to hold.
4. Shares repurchase may provide a way of increasing insiders control in the
firm as it reduces the number of shares with the outsiders. If the insiders do not
tender their shares for buyback, they will end up holding a larger proportion of the
firm a having greater control.
Thus, the shares repurchase allows firms to return cash to the shareholders
and still maintaining flexibility in terms of future periods. In general, however, the
net benefit of shares repurchase, relative to dividend, will depend upon the
following considerations:
(a) Stability of cash flow: If the excess cash flows are temporary or unstable,
the firms should repurchase the shares; if the cash flows are stable, then the firm
may dividends.
(b) Predictability of future investment needs: Firms that are uncertain about the
magnitude of future investment opportunities are more likely to use shares
repurchase as a means of returning cash to the shareholders.
(c) Undervaluation of the shares: The shares repurchase is more relevant when
the shares are found to be undervalued. In such a case, the firm can accomplish
two objectives: First, if the shares remain undervalued, the remaining shareholders
will benefit if the firm buyback the shares at a price less than the true value, and
second, the shares repurchase may send a signal to the capital market that the
share is undervalued and then the market will react accordingly pushing up the
price of the share.
Though, the shares repurchase decision is a dividend decision, it may also be
view an investment decision or a financing decision. As an investment decision the
share repurchase may be thought of as an investment of investible surplus in own
shares which the long run would help to maximize the shareholders wealth.
However, it must be noted that no firm can survive by investing only in its shares.
As a financing decision, the share repurchase may help a firm to increase the
financial leverage. The debt financing remaining same, the shares buyback will
result in reducing the paid-up capital and hence the financial leverage would
increase. By issuing debt and then repurchasing the shares, a firm can immediately
alter its capital mix towards a higher proportion of debt. Rather than choosing how
to distribute cash to the shareholders, the firm is using a shares repurchase as a
means to change the capital structure or the leverage. So, the share repurchase
may seem to be a financing decision.
268
271
LESSON – 16
COST OF CAPITAL
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The cost of capital is the minimum rate of return a firm can earn on its
investment. The sources of capital of a firm must be in the form of preference
shares, equity shares, debt and retained earnings. In modern financial world the
concept of cost of capital is very important in the Seas of financial management.
Simply cost of capital of a firm is the weighted average cost of their different
sources of financing. The cost of capital of firm or the minimum rate of return
expected by its investors has a direct relation with risk involved in the organization.
Generally the firm involved heavy risk; it is the indication of higher rate of cost of
capital.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you must be able to
Define the term cost of capital
Explain the assumptions of cost of capital
16.3 CONTENT
16.3.1 Definition of cost of capital
16.3.2 Contents of cost of capital
16.3.3 Importance of cost of capital
16.3.4 Assumption of cost of capital
16.3.1 Definitions of cost of capital
(i) James C. Van Home defines cost of capital as "a cut - off rate for the
allocation of capital to investments of projects. It is the rate of return on a project
that will leave unchanged the market price of the stock".
(ii) "Cost of capital is the minimum required rate of earnings or the cut - off
rate of capital expenditures"-Solomon Ezra.
(iii) "The rate of return the firm requires from investment in order to increase
the value of the firm in the market place" - Hampton, John J.
(iv) "The rate that must be earned on the net proceeds to provide the cost
elements of the burden at the time they are due" - Hunt, William and Donaldson.
Based upon the above definition it express that the cost of capital is otherwise
called as minimum rate of return or cut off rate which a firm must expect to earn
on its investment
16.3.2 Contents of Cost of Capital
1. Return at Zero Risk: This includes the projected rate of return on investment
when the project does not involve any business or financial risk.
2. Premium for Business Risk: The cost of capital includes premium for
business risk. Business risk refers to the changes in operating profit on account of
changes in sales. The projects involving higher risk than the average risk can be
272
financed at a higher rate of return than the normal rate. The suppliers of funds for
such projects will expect a premium for increased business risk. Business risk is
generally determined while taking capital budgeting decisions.
3. Premium for Financial Risk: The cost of capital includes premium for
financial risk arising on account of higher debt content in capital structure
requiring higher operating profit to cover periodic payment of interest and
repayment of principal amount on maturity. As the chances of cash insolvency of a
firm with higher debt content in its capital structure increase, the suppliers of
funds would expect a higher rate of return as a premium for higher risk.
The above three components of cost of capital may be expressed by the
following equation :
K = Co + b + f
Where, K = cost of capital; Co - the riskless cost of financing; b = business risk
premium; f = financial risk premium.
16.3.3 Importance of Cost of Capital Concept
The concept of the cost of capital is important in the following managerial
decisions:
1. Capital Budgeting Decision: Cost of capital may be used as the measuring
rod for adopting an investment proposal. The firm will choose the project which
gives a satisfactory return on investment not less than the cost of capital incurred
for its financing. Cost or capital is the key factor in deciding the project out of
various proposals pending before the management. It measures the financial
performance and determines the acceptability of investment opportunities by
discounting cash flow under present value method. Net Present Value (NPV) or
profitability index or benefit cost of ratio uses the cost of capital to discount the
future cash inflows. Under Internal Rate of Return method (IRR). It is compared
with the cost of capital. Thus, the cost of capital provides the criterion of accepting
or rejecting the proposals in capital budgeting.
2. Designing the Corporate Financial Structure: In this the cost of capital is a
significant factor. It is influenced by the changes in capital structure. An efficient
financial executive keeps an eye on capital market fluctuations. He seeks to achieve
a sound and economical capital structure for the firm. Keeping in view, objective of
financial management to maximise the shareholder's wealth, the financial executive
logically follows that he should try to substitute the various method of financial in
an attempt to minimise the cost of capital so as to increase the market price and
earning per share.
3. Decision about the Method of Financing: An efficient financial executive
must have the knowledge of the fluctuations in the capital market. He should
analyse the rate of interest on loans and normal dividend rates in the market from
time to time. He may have a better choice of the source of finance which bears the
minimum cost of capital, whenever the company requires additional finance.
273
a mix of different sources. This overall cost of capital is an acceptable criterion for
various investment proposals.
5. Normalised Cost: These are the long-term costs obtained by some averaging
process from which cyclical element is removed and normally used in taking over
all investment decisions.
6. Opportunity Costs: The opportunity cost of a decision means the sacrifice of
alternatives required by that decision. It is the rate of return the shareholders
foregoes by not putting his fund elsewhere because they have been retained by the
management.
7. Historical Cost and Future Cost: Historical costs are those which are
calculated on the basis of existing capital structure. Future cost relate to the cost of
funds intended to finance the expected project. In financial decision - making, the
future costs and not the historical costs are the relevant costs. Historical costs are
useful for analysing the existing capital structure. Future costs are widely used in
capital budgeting and capital structure designing decisions.
8. Explicit Cost and Implicit Cost: The explicit cost is the discount rate that
equates the present value of the cash inflows which in increment; to the taking of
the financing opportunity with present value of it incremental cash outflows. It is
the "internal rate of return of cash flows c financing opportunities." All sources of
funds have implicit costs but they arise only when the funds are used. It is
generally said that cost of retained earnings is an opportunity cost or implicit costs
in the sense that it is the rate of return at which the shareholders could have
invested these funds had these been distributed among them. The implicit cost of
capital is opportunity cost. It is the rate of return associated with the best
investment opportunity for the firm and its shareholders that will be foregone if the
project present under consideration by the firm were accepted.
16.4 REVISION POINTS
Cost of Capital: The cost of capital is the minimum rate of return a firm can
earn on its investment.
Importance of cost of Capital: Capital Budgeting Decision, Designing the
corporate financial Structure, Decision about the method of financing, Optimum
resource Mobilization.
Assumption of cost of capital Theory: Business risk is unaffected, Financial
risk is also unaffected, inclusive cost, Normalized cost, opportunity cost, Historical
Cost, Explicit cost, implicit cost.
16.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define cost of Capital
2. What are the Content of cost of capital?
3. What are the important of cost of capital?
16.6 SUMMARY
The cost of capital is the minimum rate of return a firm can earn on its
investment. The sources of capital of a firm must be in the form of preference
275
shares, equity shares, debt and retained earnings. Cost of Capital: It may be
recalled that the cost of capital is usually taken to be the cut-off rate for
determining whether an investment opportunity should be rejected (or) accepted.
Expected return is compared with the required return. The principle of cost of
capital is applicable equally to the public sector under taking also. The concept of
cost of capital based on cut-off rate, lending/ Borrowing Rate, opportunity cost,
explicit cost and implicit cost composite cost, average cost, and specific cost etc.
marginal cost of capital. Assumptions of the cost of capital are two types one is
business risk is unaffected and another one is financial risk is also unaffected.
16.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. The ………………………………..is the minimum rate of return a firm can earn
on its investment.
2. The …………………………includes premium for financial risk arising on
account of higher debt content in capital structure requiring higher operating profit
to cover periodic payment of interest and repayment of principal amount on
maturity.
3. ………………………….may be used as the measuring rod for adopting an
investment proposal.
16.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. http://www.utdallas.edu/
2. http://www.docsity.com/
16.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. What is the relevance cost of capital in corporate investment and finance
for a profit making firm?
2. How debt is regarded as the cheapest source of finance for a profit making
firm?
16.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Chakraborthi, S.K.: “Corporate capital Structure and Cost of Capital,” New
Delhi, Vikas publishing House.
2. Chandra, Prasanna : “Fundamentals of Financial Management,” New Delhi,
Tata McGraw Hill Co.
3. Khan, M.Y. and Jain, P.K. : “Financial Management,” New Delhi, Tata
McGraw Hill Co
4. Pandey, I.M.: “Capital structure and cost of capital”, New Delhi, Vikas
Publishing House.
16.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Correlate the assumption of capital theory with the present capital market
situation and give your views with suitable examples.
16.12 KEYWORDS
Cost of Capital, Inclusive Cost , Normalisied Cost, Opportunity Cost, Historical
Cost.
276
LESSON – 17
Irredeemable debt are those which is not redeemable during the entire life
time of the company.
I
Cost of debt (Kd) NP
Kd= Cost of debt
I = Interest NP = Net Proceeds,
i) When debt is issued at par
NP = Face value - Issue expenses
ii) When debt's issued at premium
NP = Face value + Premium - Issue expenses
iii) When debt is issued at discount:
NP = Face value - Discount - Issue expenses
After tax cost of debt:
(1 T)
Kd
NP
Cost of redeemable debt:- (Before tax)
Redeemable debt refers to the debt which is to be redeemed or repayable after
the expiry of a fixed period of time. Formula for computing the cost of redeemable
debt is as follows.
I ( P _ NP ) / n
Kd (Beforetax )
( P NP ) / 2
I = Annual Interest Payment
P - Par Value of debentures
NP = Net proceeds of debentures
n — Number of years to maturity.
Cost of redeemable debt: (after tax)
Kd (after tax) = Kd (Before tax) x (1 - T)
Cost of Existing Debt
Formula for computing cost of existing debt are as follows.
Annualcost before tax
Cost of Existingdebt (Beforetax)
Average value of debt (Av)
FaceValue Realizableprice
i.e., XX
No of years
Annual cost before tax
Average value of debt
Average value of debt can be calculated with help of the following formula.
NP RV
AV
2
1 Normal cost of capital
Real cost of debt
1 Inflationrate
AV = Average value
NP=Net proceeds
RV=Redemption value
Cost of Zero Coupon Bonds
The rate of interest is not specified in the zero coupon bonds. The cost of zero
coupon is calculated by the trail and error method using present value tables, i.e.,
which rate equalizes, the sent value of outflow to the present value of inflows.
Inflation Adjusted Cost of Debt
Formula for calculating inflation adjusted cost of debt as under.
1 Normal cost of capital
Real cost of debt
1 inflation rate
Note: In actual practice the real cost of debt is adjusted for inflation. So we can
calculate the real cost of debt. cost of debt.
17.3.3 Cost of preference share capital
Normally a fixed rate of dividend is payable on preference shares. But in the
practical sense preference dividend is regularly paid by the companies when they
earn sufficient amount of profit.
1. Cost of irredeemable preference capital
The cost of preference capital which is calculated by applying the following
formula.
DP
KP
NP
KP = Cost of preference Share Capital
DP = Fixed preference dividend
NP = Net proceeds of preference shares
i.e., Net amount realized from the issue of preference shares.
279
EPS EPS
Ke or
NP MP
Ke : Cost of equity capital
EPS : Earnings per share
NP : Net proceeds (in case of new issue)
MP : Market price (in case of existing shares)
4. Realised yield method
According to this method the cost of equity capital is calculated on the basis of
return actually realised to the shareholders from the company. The dividends, and
the capital gains are only the return to the shareholders. The cost of equity capital
is the determined rate at which present value of inflows is equal to the present
value of outflows. The exact rate is found out by trial and error method.
15.3.5 Cost of Retained Earnings
Retained earnings are the accumulated amount of undistributed profits
belonging to the equity shareholders, provide a major source of financing
expansion and diversification projects. Their cost is the opportunity cost of these
funds. If these were distributed to the shareholders, they would have reinvested
them in the same company by purchasing its equity and earned on these additional
shares the same rate of return as they are earning on their existing shares. Thus,
the cost of retained earnings is the same as the cost of equity capital. By the same
logic the cost of depreciation funds/reserves are also reinvested in income
generating assets of the company in the same way as equity funds and retained
281
earnings, and have the same cost as that of cost equity capital. However, as the
retained earnings do not involve the payment of personal income-tax as well as any
flotation cost, their cost is slightly lower than the cost of equity capital. The cost of
retained earnings may be calculated as per the following formula:
DPSX100
Kr = MP G(1 T)(1 B)
or Kr = Ke (1-T) (1-B)
Where, DPS =. dividend per share;
MP = current price per share;
T = Shareholders' personal tax rate;
B= percentage brokerage cost;
Ke = equity holders' required rate of return;
G = percentage growth in expected dividends.
Problem 1— Calculate the Cost of Retained Earnings from the following
information:
Current Market Price of a Share Rs. 140.
Cost of Floation/Brokerage per Share 3% on Market Price.
Growth in Expected Dividends 5%.\
Expected Dividend Per Share on New Shares Rs. 14. Shareholders' Marginal/
Personal Tax Rate 30%/.
SOLUTION
K
DPSX100 G (1 - T)(1 - B)
1 MP
Rs.14 X 100 5% (1 - 30) (1 - 03)
Rs. 140
(10% 5%) (.7) (.97)
15% X.7X.97 - 10.19% approx
Problem 2 -XYZ company is earning a Net Profit of Rs. 25,00,000 per annum.
The shareholders expected Rate of Return (K) is 15% . The Marginal Tax Rate is
30%. Investment of the retained earnings in new shares involves brokerage cost of
3% . Assuming that the entire earnings are distributed to the shareholders,
determine the Cost of Retained Earnings.
SOLUTION
Kr = Ke (1-T) (1-B)
= 15% (1-30) (1-.03)
= 15% x 7 x .97 - 10.19% approx
282
In the above illustration the logic of the-calculation of the K,. is that the
company must earn a rate of retained earnings equal to their expected rate of
return on new equity share’s. If the earnings are distributed to the shareholders for
reinvestment in new shares, the net amount available to them this purpose would
be as follows :
If the entire earnings of Rs. 25,00,000 are paid to the shareholders after
paying taxes and brokerage cost of Rs. 7,0,000 and Rs. 52,500 respectively, the
shareholders can reinvest Rs. 16,97,500 on which they can earn Rs. 2,54,625. The
rate of return required by the equity holders is 15%. However if the company
retains the entire earnings', no personal income-tax and brokerage -cost will be
payable and the entire earnings, amount of Rs. 25,00,000 will be available for
reinvestment on which Rs. 2,54,625 must be earned. The rate of return expected by
the shareholders 'on the retained earnings representing the cost of retained
earnings would come to 10.19 % calculated as follows:
Rs. 2,54,625
Kr 100 10.19 approx
Rs. 25,00,00
The following is the capital structure and the explicit after tax-costs for each
component:
If the above current capital structure is used as weights, the weighted average
cost of capital will be as follows:
Debt .3 .4 1.2
Preference Shares .1 .8 .8
Equity Shares .2 11 2.2
Retained Earnings .4 10 4.0
Weighted average cost of 8.2%
capital
UTILITY OF WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL
1. In financial decision making the after-tax cost of capital is more relevant:
The weighted average cost of capital can be computed on after tax basis. In its
calculation, each source of capital funds gets the weightage according to its
contribution in the, total capital. In practice, different sources of funds are used in
different proportions. Thus, the relative importance of the various sources of funds
is recognised in the computation of the weighted average cost of capital.
2. The average cost of capital-provides one single figure —This may be used as
discount factor is computing the discounted cash inflows of the future stream of
earnings.
LIMITATIONS OF WEIGHTED-AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL
1. Cost of funds is not independent to value of funds: In calculation weighted
average cost of capital, it is as assumed that the cost of raising funds is
independent to the value of funds raised. This presumption does not hold good in
practice.
2. Fluctuation of cost of various sources of funds: It is presumed that the
present cost of the various sources of funds would remain the same in future also.
Which is not true in actual practical life.
3. Fluctuation in Weighted Average cost: The specific costs are based upon the
existing capital structure. These will change when additional funds have been
285
raised. Thus the weighted average cost of capital once calculated may not hold true
for a long time particularly beyond one accounting year due to the impact of
retained earnings.
4. Useless in some circumstances: The weighted cost of capital cannot be used
in the following circumstances.
(i) If the company is trying to bring about radical changes in its debt policy.
(ii) If the dividend policy of the company is being changed with the objective of
readjustment of the proportion of retained earnings.
(iii) If the growth objectives of the company are being changed.
(iv) If there is a change in capital structure involving a change in debt- equity
mix.
MODIGLIANl - MILLER APPROACH OR INDEPENDENT APPROACH
Modigliani-Miller suggest that the cost of capital of the firm is an independent
factor and has no concern with the capital structure. Any change in the capital
structure of the concern does not affect the cost of capital. This approach denies
the basic fact that leverage influences the price of equity sharps. It explains that
irrespective of the proportion of debt included in the capital structure the value of
firm arid cost of capital is the same for all the firms because of the arbitrate in the
capital market. Arbitrate precludes substitutes from selling at different prices in the
same market.
ASSUMPTIONS
There are no taxes (corporation or individual).
1. NOI: The average expected future Net Operating Income (NOI) is represented
by a subjective random variable and that all investors agree on the expected value
of this probability distribution.
2. Same Risk Class: All the firms can be classified into equivalent risk class
and the firms in a class termed as ' homogeneous '. Thus, all firms within a risk
class have equal business, risk with similar operating environment. All firms
within an industry are assumed to be within the same risk class.
3. Capital market are perfect: (i) All investors are rational and have full
information of the capital market, (ii) Investors can sell or but securities freely,
(iii) Investors can borrow without any restriction on the same terms and conditions
as the firm can, and (iv) there is not transaction costs and information costs.
4. Shift by Individual Investor: Individual investor neutralises any change in the
leverage oh corporate account by an equivalent and balancing change in his
leverage on personal accounts. It is, therefore, assumed that the individual investor
can easily shift the proportions of equity shares to bonds or highly geared shares to
low-geared shares.
5. Dividend: The dividend payout ratio is 100%.
6. Taxes: There are no taxes (corporation or individual).
286
Where,
Pr is the premium for risk
= Beta value, a measure of risk
Rm = Market return
Rf = Risk free return
Rs.
Equity share capital 1,00,000 shares of Rs.10 10,00,000
Profit after tax 9,00,000
Current market price of equity share 75
(a) Calculate the cost of equity.
(b) What is the cost of retained earnings if the average personal tax rate of
shareholder's is 30% and the brokerage cost for making new investment is 2%.
Solution
EPS
(a) Cost of equ Ke
MP
Profitaftertax Rs.90,00,000
EPS Rs.9
No.ofequityshares 10,00,000
MP Marketprice Rs.75
9
Cost of equitycapitalK 0.12 or 12%
75
287
5
X 29.257 1.98
73.787
Internal Rate of Return = 10 + 1.98 = 11.98 %
At this rate, total present value of inflows will be Rs. 317
@ Cost of equity capital = IRR = 11.98% 10.
Problem - 3: 1-1-2015 Mr ‘X’ Ltd. Offers for public subscription of equity
shares of Rs.10 each at a premium of 10%. The company pays an underwriting
commission of 5% on the issue price. The equity shareholders expect a dividend of
15%.
(a) Calculate the cost of equity capital.
(b) Calculate the cost of equity capital, if the market price of the share is
Rs.20.
Solution
D1
(a) Cost of equity capital Cost of equitycapitalKe
NP
D1 = Expected dividend per share = 15% of Rs.10 = 1.50
NP = Net Proceeds:
Issue price = Face value + Premium 10% (10+1) = 11.00
Less: Underwriting commission 5% = 0.55
Net proceeds per share = 10.45
1.50
Cost of equity capital K = .1435 or 14.35%
10.45
b) If the market price is Rs.20
D1
Cost of equity capital Ke
MP
D1 = Expected dividend per share = Rs. 1.50
MP = Market Price per share = Rs. 20
1.50
Cost of equity capital Ke 20 = .075 or 7.5%
Problem - 4: Mr. ‘X’ is a shareholder in India Polyester Ltd. The earnings of the
company have varied considerably. Mr X feels that the long run average dividend
would be Rs. 3 per share. He expects that the same pattern would continue in
future. Mr. X expects a minimum rate of earning of 15%.
289
3 3
Marketprice i.e. Rs. 20
15% 15
It would be advisable to purchase the share at Rs.20
Problem – 5: The market price of an equity share of G Ltd. Is Rs.80. The
dividend expected a year hence is Rs. 1.60 per share. The shareholders anticipate
a growth of 7% in dividends.
Calculate the cost of equity capital.
Solution
D1
Cost of equity capital, Ke g
MP
D1 Expected dividend per share Rs.1.60
Mp Market price per share Rs.80
g Growth rate individend 7%
1.60
Cost of equity capital Ke 7 % 0.05 0.07 0.12 or12%
80
Cost of equity capital 12%
The after - tax cost of different sources of finance is as follows: Equity Share
Capital: 14%, Retained Earnings : 13%, Preference Share Capital 10%, Debentures:
5%
290
Solution
a) Computation of Weighted Average Cost of Capital
(Book value weights)
Total after tax
Amount (2) After tax
Source of funds (1) Rs. Cost (4) = (2)
Rs. cost (3)
x(3)
Equity share capital 45,000 14% 6,300
Retained Earnings 15,000 13% 1,950
Preference share capital 10,000 10% 1,000
Debentures 30,000 5% 1,500
1,00,000 10,750
10,750
Weighted Average cost of capital = x100 10.75%
1,00,000
b) Computation of weighted Average cost of capital
(Market value weights)
15,100
Weighted average cost of capital = x 100 11.61%
1,30,000
17.4 REVISION POINTS
Cost of capital: The minimum rate of return a firm must earn on its
investments to maintain the market value of its equity shares
Average cost of capital : It is the weighted average cost based on cost of each
component of funds employed by a firm.
Combined cost: It is the composite cost of capital from all sources
Specific cost: It is cost of a specific sources of finance
17.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by cost of debt?
2. What do you mean by cost of preference share capital?
3. What doy you mean by cost of equity Capital?
4. Define Cost of retained earnings?
291
LESSON – 18
CAPITAL STRUCTURE
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘Financial Structure’ refers to total liabilities While ‘Assets structure’
Refers to total assets. Having determined the finance required for a project to be
Undertaken, the question arises what shall be the proportion of various securities.
Deciding the proportion of securities is deciding capital structure. Thus, capital
structure refers to the proportion of equity capital, preference Capital, reserves,
debentures, and other long term depts. To the total capitalization. Capital structure
decision is not taken only when starting an enterprise. In the beginning the
entrepreneur may decide a ‘target capital structure’. But the capital structure
decisions are made whenever additional finances are to be raised. Capital structure
planning, is a very important part of the financial planning, as it plays an
important role in minimizing the cost of funds.
According to Gerestenberg, “capital structure of a company refers to the make-
up of its capitalization and it includes all long term capital resources Viz.Shares,
Loans, reserves, and bonds. While drafting a capital structure, care must be taken
to see that it is flexible i.e., it should be able to incorporate any future changes, if
necessary. It is often suggested that a capital structure should be such which can
maximize the long run value per ordinary share in the market; for an individual
company, there is necessity for attaining a proper balance among dept and equity
sources in its capital structure.
18.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you must be able to
Explain the meaning of capital structure
Distinguish between capitalisation and capital structure
Discuss the importance of sound capital structure
Describe the factors determining capital structure
18.3 CONTENT
18.3.1 Meaning of capital structure
18.3.2 Definitions of capital structure
18.3.3 Distinctions between capitalisation and capital structure
18.3.4 Characteristics of optimal structure
18.3.5 Importance of sound capital structure
18.3.6 Factors determining capital structure
18.3.7 Technique of planning of the capital structure
18.3.1 Meaning of Capital Structure
Capital structure of a company cannot be the composition of long-term
sources of funds, such as-ordinary shares, preference shares, debentures, bonds,
long-term funds. It implies the determination of form or make-up of a company's
capitalisation.
294
at keeping the expenses of issue and fixed annual payments at a minimum in order
to maximise the return to equity shareholders.
3. Maximum Return: A balanced capital structure is devised in such a way so
as to maximise the profits of the corporation through a proper policy of trading on
equity so as to minimise the cost of capital.
4. Minimum Risk: A idea capital structure possesses the quality of minimum
risk. Risks, such as increase in taxes, rates of interests, costs, etc., and decrease in
prices and value of shares as well as natural calamities adversely affect the
company’s earning. Therefore, the capital structure devised in such a way as to
enable it to afford the burden of these risks easily.
5. Maximum Control: A sound capital structure retains the ultimate control of
a company with the equality shareholders who have the right to elect directors. Due
consideration is given to the question of control in management while deciding the
issue of securities. The existing shareholders may not be able to retain control. If a
large number of equity shares are issued the company issues preference shares or
debentures instead of equity shares to the public because preference shares carry
limited voting rights and debentures do not have any voting rights. The capital
structure of a company is changed in such a way which would favourably affect the
voting structure of the existing shareholders and increase their control on the
company's affairs.
6. Flexible: A flexible capital structure enables the company to make the
necessary changes in it according to the changing conditions and make it possible
to procure more capital whenever required or redeem the surplus capital.
7. Liquid: In order to achieve proper liquidity for the solvency of a corporation,
all such debts are avoided which threaten the solvency of the company. A proper
balance between fixed assets and current assets is maintained according to the
nature and size of business.
8. Conservative: In division of the capital structure a company follows the
policy of conservatism. It helps in maintaining the debt capacity of the company
even in unfavourable circumstances.
9. Balanced Capital: A balance is necessary for the optimum capital structure
of a company. As both, under capitalisation and over-capitalisation are injurious to
the financial interests or a company, there is a proper co-ordination between the
quantum of capital and the financial needs of the corporation. A fair capitalisation
enables a company to make full utilisation of the available capital at minimum cost.
10. Balanced Leverage: A sound capital structure attempts to secure a balanced
leverage by issuing both types of securities, i.e., ownership securities and
creditorship securities. Shares are issued when the rate of capitalisation is high,
while debentures are issued when rate of interest is low.
18.3.5 Importance of Sound Capital Structure
1. Minimised Cost: The primary objective of a company is to maximise the
shareholders’ wealth through minimization of cost. A well-advised capital structure
296
enables a company to raise the requisite funds from various sources at the lowest
possible cost in terms of market rate of interest, rate expected by prospective
investors, expense of issue etc. This maximise the return to the equity shareholders
as well as the market value of shares held by them.
2. Maximised Return: The primary objective of every corporation is to promote
the shareholders interest. A balanced capital structure enables company to provide
maximum return to the equity shareholders of the company by raising the
requesting capital funds at the minimum cost.
3. Minimised Risks: A sound capital structure serves as an insurance against
various business risks, such as-increase in costs, interests rates, taxes and
reduction in prices. These risks are minimised by making suitable adjustments in
the components of capital structure. A balanced capital structure enables the
company to meet the business risks by employing its retained earning for the smooth
business operations.
4. Controlled: Though the management of a company is apparently in the
hands of directors, indirectly, a company is controlled by equality shareholders who
have the right to elect directors. As preference share holders carry limited voting
rights and debentures holders do not have any voting rights, a well-devised capital
structure ensures the retention of control over the affairs of the company with in
the hands of the existing equity shareholders by maintaining a proper balance
between voting right and non-moving right capital.
5. Liquid: An object of a balanced capital structure is to maintain proper
liquidity which is necessary for the solvency of the company. A sound capital
structure enables a company to maintain a proper balance between fixed and liquid
assets and avoid the various financial and managerial difficulties.
6. Optimum Utilisation: Optimum utilisation of the available financial resources
is an important objective of a balanced financial structure. An ideal financial
structure enables the company to make full utilisation of available capitally
establishing a proper co-ordination between the quantum of capital and the
financial requirements of the business. A balanced capital structure helps a
company to elimate both the states of overcapitalization and under capitalisation
which are harmful to financial interests of the company.
7. Simple: A balanced capital structure is aimed at limiting the number of
issues and types of securities, thus, making the capital structure as simple as
possible.
8. Flexible: Flexibility of capital structure enables the company to raise
additional capital at the time of need^ or redeem the surplus capital. It not only
helps in fuller utilisation of the available capital but also eliminates the two
undesirable states of over-capitalisation and under capitalisation.
18.3.6 Factors Determining Capital Structure
The factor determining capital structure of a company may be internal or
external.
297
A. INTERNAL FACTORS
1. Nature of Business: Companies having stable earnings can afford to raise
funds through sources involving fixed charges, while other companies have to rely
heavily in equity share-capital. Public utilities, extractive, financing and
merchandising enterprises are more stable in their earnings and enjoy greater degree
of freedom from competition than industrial concerns.
2. Regularity of Income: Capital structure is affected by the regularity of income.
If a company expects regular income in future, debentures and bonds should be
issued. Preference shares may be issued if a company does not expect regular income
but it is hopeful that its average earnings for a few years may be equal to or in excess
or the amount of dividend to be paid on such preference shares.
3. Certainty of Income: If a company is not certain about any regular income in
future, it should never issue any type of securities other than equity shares.
4. Desire to control the Business: If the control of the company is to be retained
within few hands, a large proportion of funds is raised by issuance of non-voting
right securities, such as-debentures and preference shares, a majority of voting right
securities, i.e., equity shares are held by the promoters or their relatives to control
the affairs of the business. Thus, majority of funds are raised from public retaining
the control of the company with the promoters or the existing shareholders.
5. Development and Expansion Plans: Capital structure of a company is affected
by its development and expansion programmes in future. The amount of authorised
capital is kept higher so that the requisite amount may be raised at the time of need.
In the beginning the company collects capital by issuing shares. Thereafter, capital
structure is devised in accordance with the future development and expansion
programmes. The requisite capital is raised preference shares and debentures.
6. Purpose of Finance: An important factor determining the type of capital to be
raised is the purpose for which it is required. If funds are needed for some productive
activity directly adding to the profitability of the company, capital may be raised by
issuing securities bearing fixed charges like preference shares and debentures. On
the other hand, if funds are needed for such purposes as betterment, maintenance,
etc., which do not directly add to the earnings of the company retained earnings;
equity share capital will be the better source of financing.
7. Characteristics of Management: Varying in skill, judge experience, temperament
and motivation management evaluates the risks differently and its willingness to
employ debt-capital also differ capital structure is influenced by the age, experience,
ambition, confidence conservativeness and attitude of the management.
8. Trading on Equity: Trading on equity means the regular borrowed capital as
well as equity capital in the conduct of a company’s business. If a company
employs borrowed capital including preference capital to increase the rate of return
on equity shares, it is said to be trading on equity.
298
9. Debt Capacity and Risk: After a certain extent the use of borrowed capital
become risky for the company because it leads to increase in the liability of interest
payment adversely affecting the company's income reducing its liquidity. Excessive
use of borrowed funds endanger solvency of the company in the long-run.
10. Cost of Capital: Cost of capital is an important determinant of capital
structure of a company. It influences the profitability and general rate of earnings,
a company must raise capital funds by borrowing when rate of interest is low, and
by issuing equity shares when rate of earnings and share prices are high.
11. Capital Gearing Ratio: The ratio of equity share capital to the total capital is
called ‘Capital Gearing’. When the ratio of equity shares is low in the total capital
structure, it is called ‘High Gearing’. On the contrary when the ratio of equity
shares in the total capital structure of a company is high, it is called ‘Low Gearing’
12. Flexibility: The capital structure must have flexibility as to increase or
decrease the funds as-per requirements of the enterprise. Excessive dependence on
fixed cost securities make the capital structure rigid due to fixed payment of
interest or dividend, these sources should be kept in reserve for emergency and
expansion purposes.
13. Simplicity: The capital structure must have simplicity, so t financial crisis
may be avoided.
B. EXTERNAL FACTORS
1. Tastes and Preferences of Investors: An ideal capital structure is one which
suits the needs of different types of customers. Its success largely depends upon
the psychological conditions of different types of investors. While some investors
prefer security of investment and stability of income others prefer higher income
and capital appreciation. Hence, shares and debentures should be issued in
accordance with the tastes and preferences of all types of customers.
2. Conditions of Capital Market: Conditions of capital market have a direct
bearing on the capital structure. In times of depression the possibilities of profit are
the least and rate of dividend on equity shares comes down. Hence the investors
would prefer to invest in debentures and not in equity shares.
3. Cost of Capital: As the cost of capital issue affects the capital structure of a
company. The capital structure should be designed to minimise the commission
payable to brokers, middlemen and underwriters or the discount payable on issue
of debentures and bonds. A company should raise funds by issuing different types
of securities in such a way as would minimise the cost of capital issue.
4. Present Statutes and Rule: Capital structure is influenced by the statures
and rules prevailing in the country. In India Banking Companies act restricts a
banking company from issuing any type of securities other than equity shares.
5. Possible Changes in Law: Besides complying the legal restrictions, a
company's capital structure is also influenced by possible changes in the law of the
country. For example, if a company's income is taxed at a higher rate then the
299
LESSON – 19
a) There are only two sources of funds Viz., Debt and Equity (No preference
share capital).
b) The total assets of the firm and its capital employed are constant. (No
change in capital employed). However, Debt-Equity mix can be changed.
This can be done by
i) Either by borrowing debt to repurchase (redeem) equity shares or
ii) By raising equity capital to retire (repay) debt.
c) All residual earnings are distributed to equity shareholders (No retained
earnings)
d) The firm earns operating profit and it is expected to grow. (No losses).
e) The business risk is assumed to be constant and is not affected by the
financing mix decision (No change in fixed cost or operating risks).
19.3.3 Net Income (NI) Approach
This approach has been suggested by Durand According to this approach, a
firm can increase its value or lower the overall cost of capital by increasing the
proportion of debt in the capital structure. In other words, if the degree of financial
leverage increases, the weighted average cost of capital will decline with every
increase in the debt content in total capital employed, while the value of firm will
increase. Reverse will happen in a converse situation.
The NI Approach is based on the following three assumptions:
a) There are no corporate taxes.
b) The cost of debt (Kd) is less than cost of equity (Ke).
c) The use of debt content does not change the risk perception of investors. As
a result both the K. and K remain constant.
The total market value of the firm (V) under the NI approach is determined
with the help of the following formula:
V=S+D
Where, V = Total market value of the firm
S = Market value of equity shares
D = Market value of Debt
Net Income
Market value of equity share (S)
Equity capitalisation rate
The over all cost of capital (K0) or weighed average cost of capital is ascertained
EBIT
as follows: K o
Value of firm (V)
303
The company's expected earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) are Rs.10
lakhs. Deter-mine the earnings per share in each alternative assuming a corporate
tax rate of 50 per cent. Which alternative is best and why?
Solution
EPS under Different Financial Plans
Plan I Plan II Plan III
Equity Debt Preference
Financing Financing Share
Rs. Rs. Rs.
(i) Earnings before interest and 10,00,000 10,00,000 10,00,000
taxes (EBIT)
(ii) Less : Interest on debentures - 2,40,000 -
8% on
(iii) Earnings before tax 10,00,000 7,60,000 10,00,000
(iv) Less : Tax at 50% 5,00,000 3,80,000 5,00,000
(v) Earnings after Tax 5,00,000 3,80,000 5,00,000
(vi) Less : Preference dividend - - 2,40,000
8% on 30,00,000
(vii) Earnings available to equity 5,00,000 3,80,000 2,60,000
share holders
(viii) No. of equity shares (v) 50,000 20,000 20,000
(ix) Earnings per share Rs. (vii) 10 19 13
(viii)
Calculate the earnings per share under the three plans. Which plan would you
recommended and why?
Solution
EPS under Different Plans
Plan I Plan II Plan III
Equity Equity & Equity &
Financing Debt Preference
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Profit Before interest and Taxes 1,50,000 1,50,000 1,50,000
Less : Interest 8% on 3,00,000 - 24,000 -
Profit Before Tax 1,50,000 1,26,000 1,50,000
Less : Tax at 50% 75,000 63,000 75,000
Profit after tax 75,000 63,000 75,000
Less : Preference divided
8% on 3,00,000 - - 24,000
Profit available to equity
Share holders - (i) 75,000 63,000 51,000
No. of equity shares (ii) 60,000 30,000 30,000
Earnings per share (i) (ii) 1.25 2.10 1.70
Earnings per share are the highest under plan 2. Hence plan 2 is
recommended.
Problem – 3: Zavier of equity Ltd. wants to implement a project for which Rs.60
lakhs is to be raised. The followed financial plan is under evaluation.
Plan A : Issue of 6 lakh equity shares of Rs. 10 each
Plan B : Issue of 30,000 10% non-convertible debentures of Rs.100
each and issue of 3 lakhs equity shares of Rs.10 each.
Assuming a corporate tax of 55%, calculate the indifference point. Also
calculate the EPS under Plan A and Plan B.
Solution
The indifference level refers to the level of EBIT at which the EPS under plan A
and plan B are equal.
Plan A Plan B
Equity Financing Equity + Debt Financing
( X I1 ) ( I T ) P.D ( X I 2 ) ( I T ) P.E
S2 S2
Where
308
Rs.
Earnings before interest & Taxes (EBIT) 2,00,000
Less : Interest (2,00,000 x 10%) 20,000
Earnings available to equity shareholders 1,80,000
309
Rs.
EBIT 2,00,000
Less : Interest (4,00,000 x 10%) 40,000
Earnings available to equity shareholders 1,60,000
1,60,000
Marketvalueof equity Rs.13,33,33
12%
ii) Calculation of value of firm
Value of firm = Market value of equity + Market value of debt
= 13,33,333 + 4,00,000
= Rs. 17,33,333.
iii) Calculation of overall cost of capital (k0)
EBIT
k 100
o Valueof firm
2,00,000
17,33,333
11.54%
310
Compute the market value of the firm, market value of equity and the overall
cost of capital.
Solution
Statement showing Market value of firm, equity and overall cost of capital
30% Debt 50% Debt
0% Debt
Particulars (Rs.12 lakhs) (Rs.20 lakh)
Rs.
Rs. Rs.
EBIT 6,00,000 6,00,000 6,00,000
Less: Interest - 1,20,000 2,40,000
(12 lakh x 10%) (20 lakh x
12%)
Earnings available to equity 6,00,000 4,80,000 3,60,000
share holders
Equity capital rate (ke) 16% 17% 20%
Market value of equity 37,50,000 28,23,529 18,00,000
6,00,000 4,80,000 3,60,000
16% 17% 20%
Add: Market value of debt Nil 12,00,000 20,00,000
Market value of firm 37,50,000 40,23,529 38,00,000
Overall cost of capital (K0)
Analysis
If debt of Rs.12 lakh is used, the value of firm increases and the overall cost of
capital declines. However, if the level of debt is increased to Rs.20 lakh, the value of
firm declines and the overall cost of capital increase. Thus, debt is beneficial only
upto a point.
Modigliani Miller Approach
Problem - 7
Two firms R and S are identical except in the method of financing. Firm R has
no debt, while firm S has Rs.3,00,000 8% Debentures in financing. Both the firms
have a Net operating income (EBIT) of Rs.1,20,000 and equity capitalization rate of
12%. The corporate tax rate is 35%. Calculate the value of the firm using MM
approach.
Solution
(i) Computation of value of Firm R which does not use any debt (unlevered)
312
Rs.
EBIT 1,20,000
Less : Interest Nil
EBT 1,20,000
Less : Income Tax @ 35% 42,000
EAT 78,000
78,000
Value of firm Rs. 6,50,000
12%
ii) Computation of value of Firm S which uses debt (levered)
Value of Firm S = Value of unlevered firm + (Tax rate x Debt) (Levered)
= 6,50,000 + (0.35 x 3,00,000)
= Rs. 7,55,000
Illustration – 1
(a) A company expects a net income of Rs. 80,000. It has Rs. 2,00,000, 8%
Debentures. The equity capitalisation rate of the company is 10%. Calculate the
value of the firm and overall capitalisation rate according to the Net Income
Approach (ignoring income-tax).
(b) If the debenture debt is increased to Rs. 3,00,000, what shall be the value
of the firm and the overall capitalisation rate?
Solution
a) Calculation of the value of the firm Rs.
Net Income 80000
Less: Interest on 8% Debentures of Rs. 2,00,000 16000
Earnings available to equity shareholders 64000
Equity Capitalization Rate 10%
100
Market Value of Equity = 64.000 x
10
= Rs. 6,40,000
Market Value of Debentures = Rs. 2,00,000
Value of the Firm Rs.6,40,000 + Rs.2,00,000 = Rs. 8,40,000
Calculation of overall capitalisation rate
Earnings EBIT
Overall Cost of Capital (Ke) =
Value of the firm V
313
80,000
x100 9.52%
= ,40,000
8
100
= 1,00,000 × = Rs. 10,00,000
10
Market value of firm Rs. 10,00,000
Less : Market Value of Debentures Rs. 5,00,000
Total Market Value of Equity Rs. 5,00,000
Equity Capitalisation Rate or Cost of equity (ke)
314
It is clear from the above that if debt of Rs. 4,00,000 is used the value of the
firm increases and the overall cost of capital decreases. But if more debt is used to
finance in the place of equity, i.e., Rs. 6,00,000 debentures, the value of the firm
decreases and the overall cost of capital increases.
Illustration - 4
A company has earnings before interest and taxes of Rs.1,00,000. It expects a
return on its investment at a rate of 12.5%. You are required to find out the total
value of the firm according to the Modigliani-Miller theory.
Solution
According to the M.M. theory, total value of the firm remains constant. It does
not change with the change in capital structure.
EarningsBefore Int.and Tax
Total value of firm
Overall Cost of Capital
EBIT
or V =
Ke
1,00,000
=
12.5
100
100
= 1,00,000 x = Rs.8,00,000
12.5
Illustration - 5
There are two firms X and Y which are exactly identical except that X-does not
use any debt in its financing, while Y has Rs. 1,00,000 at 5% debentures in its
financing. Both the firms have earnings before interest and tax of Rs. 25,000 and
equity capitalization rate is 10%. Assuming the corporation tax of 50%, calculate
the value of the firm.
316
Solution
The market values of firm X which does not use any debt
EBIT
V=
KO
25,000
100
= 10 = 25000x
100 10
= Rs. 2,50.000.
The market value of Firm Y which uses debt financing of Rs. 1,00,000
Vt = Uu + td
= Rs.2,50,000+5x10.000
= Rs.2,50,000 + 50.000
= Rs.3,00,000.
EXERCISE
I. EBIT ANALYSIS
1. A firm requires total capital funds of Rs.50 lacs and has two options; All
equity; and Half equity and Half 15% debt. The equity shares can be currently
issued at Rs.100 per share. The expected EBIT of the company is Rs.5,00,000 with
tax rate at 40%. Find out the EPS under both the financial mix.
2. ABC Ltd has an EBIT of Rs. 1,60,000. Its capital structure consists of the
following securities
10% Debentures Rs. 5,00,000
12% Preference Shares Rs. 1,00,000
Equity shares of Rs.100 Rs. 4,00,000
The company is in the 55% tax bracket. You are required to determine :
a) The company’s EPS
b) The percentage change in EPS associated with 30% increase and 30%
decrease in EBIT.
II. INDIFFERENCE POINT
1. Universal Ltd. wants to implement a project for which Rs.60 lakh is to be
raised. The following financial plans are under evaluation :
Plan A : Issue of 6 lakhs equity shares of Rs.10 each,
Plan B : Issue of 30,000 10% of non-convertible debentures of Rs.100 each
and issue of 3 lakhs equity shares of Rs.10 each.
Assuming a corporate tax of 55%, calculate the indifference point.
2. A new project under consideration by your company requires a capital
investment of Rs.150 lakh. The required funds can be raised either through the sale
317
19.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Explain "Net Income approach" to the problem of capital structure.
2. Explain "Net Operating Income Approach" as suggested by Durand to
capital structure planning.
3. Explain briefly the view of traditional writers on the relationship between
capital structure and the value of the firm.
4. How can the effect of profitability on designing an appropriate capital
structure be analyzed? Illustrate your answer with the help of EBIT-EPS
analysis.
5. "The total value of a firm remains unchanged regardless of variations in its
financing mix". Discuss this statement and point out the role of arbitraging
and home made leverage.
19.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Jain, Khan, Financial Management: Text, Problems and Cases 7th Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill Publishers.
2. Vishwanthan. R., Industrial Finance, Macmillian
3. Vyuptakesh Sharan Fundamentals of Financial Management, Dorling
publishers
19.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Give a critical appraisal of the traditional approach and the Modigliani-
Miller Approach to the problem of capital structure.
2. Is the M.M. thesis realistic with respect to capital structure and the value
of a firm? If not, what are their main weaknesses?
19.12 KEYWORDS
Net Income Approach, Net Operating Income Approach, Traditional Approach,
Modigliani and Miller Approach,EBIT, EBT,
320
LESSON – 20
LEVERAGES
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Cost structure, capital structure and asset structure are very important
factors in maximizing earnings per share (EPS) or return on Equity (ROE) of a
company. Cost structure in terms of fixed and variable costs, gives rise to ‘operating
leverage’ and the (optimal) capital structure, in terms of fixed cost and variable cost
securities, to financial leverage. The optimal capital structure is the one that strikes
a balance between these risks and returns and thus maximizes the price of the
stock. The capital structure decision is significant managerial decision which
influences the shareholders return and risk and ultimately the value of firm.
Before, discussing operating and financial leverages let us consider the concept of
leverage first.
Meaning of Leverage: The term ‘leverage’ has been borrowed from physical
science where it refers to s device (lever) by which heavy objects (Weights) is lifted
with a small force. In business parlance, it refers to the relationship between
percentage changes in fixed cost and in earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT)
Viz. operating profit. Thus, leverage may be defined as the employment of assets
out of funds for which the firm pays a fixed cost or fixed return. The fixed cost or
fixed return may be thought of as the fulcrum of a lever. When the revenues less
variable costs (or earnings before results. When the operating income is less than
the fixed cost or fixed return, the result is negative or unfavourable leverage.
Leverage belongs to the category of capital-gearing. This is an American term
which has appropriately the same meaning as “gearing”. It is one of the most
important tools in the hands of corporate financial managers. If used judiciously it
can maximize the return to equity shareholders
20.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson you must be able to
Explain the meaning of leverage
Define the term leverage
List out the types of leverages
Discuss the importance of leverages
Distinguish operating and financial leverage
20.3 CONTENT
20.3.1 Meaning of Leverage
20.3.2 Definition of Leverage
20.3.3 Operating Leverage
20.3.4 Financial Leverage
20.3.5 Composite Leverage
321
Contribution C
OperatingLeverage or
OperatingProfit OP
(Total sale - Total Variable Costs
or
(Total sale Total Variable Costs) - Fixed Costs
N(SP - VC)
or
N (SP - VC) - FC
where, N is the number of units sold, SP is the selling price per unit, VC is
variable cost per unit, FC is the total fixed cost.
The operating leverage maybe favourable or unfavourable. Where the
contribution exceeds the fixed costs, the operating leverage is termed as favourable,
and vice verse.
Degree of operating leverage is the percentage change in profits resulting from
a percentage change in sales. It may be put in the form of the following formula:
Percentagechanges in Profits
Degree of Operating Leverage
Percentagechange in sales
Operating profit means “Earnings before Interest and Tax” (EBIT). The
operating leverage shows the impact of change in sales on the operating profits. If a
company has a high degree of operating leverage, a small change in sales will bring
a large change in operating profits. Thus, the operating profits of a company having
a high degree of operating leverage increase at a faster rate than the increase in
sales. Likewise, the operating profits of such a company also fall at a faster rate
than the decrease in its sales.
Most companies do not like operative leverage. It is a very risky situation
because a small decrease in sales can excessively damage the company's efforts to
increase its profits.
Illustration – 1: The installed capacity of ABC company’s factory is 500 units.
Actual capacity used in 300 units. Selling price per unit is Rs.15. Variable cost per
unit is Rs.77 per unit. Calculate the operating leverage in each of the following
three situations:
i) When fixed costs are Rs.500
ii) When fixed cost are Rs.1,000
iii) When fixed cost are Rs.1,500
SOLUTION
COMPUTATION OF OPERATING LEVERAGE
Situation Situation Situation
(i) (ii) (iii)
Total sales (300 units @ Rs.15) 4,500 4,500 4,500
Less: Total Variable Cost (300 x 7) 2,100 2,100 2,100
323
Thus the degree of operating leverage increases with every increased in fixed
cost in the total structure of the company. If sales volume increases by one percent,
the operating profit would increase by 2.7 percent. This involves a greater amount
of risk because if sales happen to decrease by one percent the operating profit will
come down by 2.7 percent. Therefore higher the operating leverage, the higher
would be the operating profit and higher would be the risk.
20.3.4 Financial Leverage
It is also known as 'trading on equity* It is the ratio of long-term debt to total
funds employed. It is defined as the tendency of the residual net income to change
disproportionately with operating profit. It signifies the presence of fixed cost capital
(dentures and preference shares) in the total capital structure of the company. It
uses fixed interest bearing debts and fixed dividend bearing preference share
capital along with the equity share capital structure of the company Higher the
amount of fixed interest/dividend bearing securities, higher is the financial leverage
and vice versa. From the shareholders point-of view, financial leverage may be
favourable or unfavourable.
a) Favourable Leverage: The leverage is favourable so long as the company
earns more on the assets purchased the funds as compared to the fixed cost paid
for their use.
b) Unfavourable Leverage: The leverage is unfavourable when the company
does not earn as much as the funds cost.
Financial leverage may have favourable or unfavourable effect on the
company's total earnings before interested and taxes (EBIT) as well as on earnings
per shares (EPS). It proves a blessing when company's earnings increase. It is a
curse when company's earnings are insufficient to meet the debt obligations. It
indicates the change in taxable income (profit before tax) as a result of change in
the operating income or profit (earning before interest and taxes). It can be
computed according to the following formula :
Operating Profits or EBIT
FinancialLeverage
(EBIT - Interest)or PBT
EBIT = Earning Before Interest and Taxes
PBT = Profit Before Taxes.
324
Although the total amount of capital in all three choices is the same, the
capital structure is different. Similarly, though the EBIT in all the three case is the
same, still financial leverage is varying. Financial leverage in case o Plan I is 2. It
means that every : 1% change in operating profit will result in 2% change in the
taxable profits, or every 1% change in operating profit will result in 200% change in
the taxable profit (PBT). A high financial leverage means high fixed financial cost
and high financial risk. In financial plan II, the degree of financial leverage is much
higher Iie., 400 % than i the financial risk to the company. Increase in fixed
financial cost require necessary increase in EBIT level. If a company fails to do so, it
may b technically forced into liquidation. Although the financial plan III has lower
financial leverage, but it may put the company into financial trouble if it EBIT fall
down.
325
10,000
326
The composite leverage of '3' indicates that with a change of Rs. in sales
revenue, the taxable income will change by Rs.3. In other words, 10% change is
sales revenue will result in 30 % changes in taxable income. This can be verified by
the following calculations when the salt
Rs.
Increased Sales 52,500
Less : Variable Costs (40% of Sales) 21,000
Contribution 31,500
Less : Fixed Operating Costs 15,000
EBIT or Operating Profit (OP) Less : Interest 16,500
5,000
Taxable Income or Profit Before Tax (PBIT) 11,500
a company should strive to have balance -of these leverages as they have
tremendous acceleration and declaration effect on its operating profit (EBIT) and
earning per share (EPS).
A high degree of operating leverage accompanied by a high degree of financial
leverage makes the position of the company very risky. This is the result of the
employment of excessive assets by the company for which has to use a large sum*of
debt capital and incur high fixed costs. The risk arising due to the fixed costs of
using assets and fixed interest charges further intensified in case of fall in the
company's earnings. Greater fluctuations in earnings may be the result of a high
degree operating leverage. A high degree of financial leverage will lead to wide
fluctuations in shareholders earnings. It will result in more than proportionate
change in earnings per share (i,e., EPS) even on account of a minor change in
operating profits (i.e., EBIT) The company will untimely face the problem of
inadequate liquidity or insolvency. This does not suggest that a company should
opt for a low degree of operating or financial leverage, which is an indication of the
cautious policy followed by the management, as the company will be losing many
profits earning opportunities. Thus, a company should make all possible efforts to
combine the operating and financial leverages in such a way as would suit its risk
bearing capacity.
A company with high operating leverage should have a low financial leverage
instead of a high financial leverage. Likewise, a firm with low operating leverage
should have a high financial leverage provided it has sample opportunities for the
profitable employment of the borrowed funds. Nevertheless, a low operating
leverage followed by a high financial leverage is considered to be in ideal situations
for the maximisation of the company's profits with minimum risk.
20.3.7 Readjustment in Capital Structure
Readjustment in capital structure is inevitable due to changes in economic
trend. It means of easing tension and giving corporation a better opportunity to
pursue its purposes. Following are the important reasons responsible for
readjustment in the capital structure of a business corporation:
1. Legal Requirements: Changes in the statues in force make it obligatory on
the part of corporation to effect the requisite changes in their existing capital
structure. For example, the Indian Companies Act, 1956 abolished the deferred
shares and asked the companies to have only equity preference shares. The
companies were forced to make the necessary changes in their capital structure by
convening deferred shares into equity shares.
2. Attracting Investors: The company may split its shares of high face- value
into low-face value. In order to make them more attractive and popular among
investors, especially when the company's shares have very limited market due to
high face-value subject to wide price fluctuations. Generally investors prefer to
invest in low face-values shares. Therefore, a company has to make the necessary
changes in the face-value of its shares for rising substantial share capital.
3. Capitalisation of Retained Earnings: With the progress of a company its
earnings also increase creating the state of under capitalisation. The company has
328
to capitalise its reserves and surplus by issuing bonus shares to the existing
shareholders. This require changes in capital structure.
4. Combination and Amalgamation: To simplify the merger and amalgamation,
the concerned companies are required to readjust their capital structure. The
intrinsic value of shares of the concerned corporation is equalised. This leads to
change in the capital structure of a companies.
5. Writing-off Assets: Sometimes, current assets of a company are de-arranged
due to continuous heavy losses. The value of fixed assets come down due to heavy
reduction in their values. The company's balance sheet displays, a deficit requiring
adjustment of liabilities to offset the deficit c assets. This requires an adjustment in
the company's capital structure by the reducing the value of shares to the real
worth of the company's assets.
6. Simplifying the Capital Structure: Corporations issue a variety o securities to
accommodate their development programmes. When market conditions are
favourable, the corporation consolidate such securities ij order to simplify the
capital structure resulting in change in capital structure
7. Restoration of Balance in the Financial Plan: If a company ha excessively
issued fixed cost structure i.e., debentures and preference share which have
strained financial positions, the management may redeem the securities out of the
proceeds of issue of equity shares as and when the market conditions are
favourable. These readjustments may reset the balance in the financial position of
the company. This may also serve as means of easing tension and giving a better
opportunity to the corporation to pursue its purpose.
8. Avoidance of Default on Debentures: Unable to pay-off interest on debentures
or principal amount on due dates a company may make certain arrangements with
its bankers or debentures holders to avoid dissolution the company resulting from
the default on debentures. Here, change in capital structure has been sought as a
means of avoidance of default on debentures which may lead to the dissolution of
the company.
9. Funding the Accumulated Dividend: If a company has large accumulated
dividend on preference shares, it may enter into arrangements with the preference
shareholders either to accept bonds against their claim in the accumulated balance
of dividend. In favourable market conditions many companies reduce the rate of
dividend. In favourable market conditions many companies reduce the rate of
dividend on preference shares, either calling the old shares or issuing new shares
for cash to redeem the old ones.
20.3.8 Difference between Operating and Financial Leverage
Operating Leverage Financial Leverage
1. Operating leverage is related to 1. Financial leverage is more concerned
the investment activities (capital with financial matters(Mixing of debt
expenditure decision) Equity in Capital structure)
329
2. The fluctuation in the EBIT can 2. The changes of EPS due to D: E Mix
be predicated with the help of is predicted by financial leverage.
operating leverage.
3. Financial Manager uses the 3. The uses financial leverage to make
operating leverage to identify the decisions in the liability side of the
items of assets side of the Balance Sheet.
Balance Sheet.
4. Operating leverage is used to 4. Financial leverage is used to
predict Business risk. analyse the financial risk.
Illustrations
Example 1: From the following calculate financial, operating and Combined
Leverage.
Sale 10,000 units Rs. 25 per unit as the selling price
Variable Cost Rs. 5 per unit
Fixed Cost Rs. 30,000 and Interest Cost Rs. 15,000
Solution
Rs.
Sales (10,000 x Rs. 25 per unit) = 2,50,000
Less: Variable Cost (10,000 x Rs. 5 per unit) = 50,000
Contribution = 2,00,000
Less: Fixed cost = 30,000
Operating profit (EBIT) = 1,70,000
Less: Interest = 15,000
Earning before Tax = 1,55,000
(Contribution)
(b) OperatingLeverage
EBT (OpertingProfit)
2,00,000
1.17 times
1,70,000
(Contribution) EBIT
(b) CombinedLeverage
EBIT EBT
2,00,000 1,70,000
1,70,000 1,55,000
330
2,00,000
1.29 times
1,70,000
Example - 2: From the following data, Calculate Operating, Financial and
Combined Leverage.
Interest Rs. 10,000; Sales 15,000 units @ Rs. 10 per unit and variable Cost
Rs. 4 per unit; Fixed Cost Rs. 20,000.
Solution
Master Table
Rs.
Sales (15,000 x Rs. 10 per unit) = 1,50,000
Less: Variable Cost (15, 000 x Rs. 4 per unit) = 60,000
Contribution = 90,000
Less: Fixed cost = 20,000
Operating profit (EBIT) = 1,70,000
Less: Interest = 10,000
Earning before Tax = 60,000
Example - 3 : Calculate two companies in terms of its financial and operating
leverages.
EBIT (OperatingProfit)
(a) FinancialLeverage
EBT (Earningsbefore tax)
70,000
1.16 times
60,000
(Contribution)
(b) OperatingLeverage
EBIT (OperatingProfit)
90,000
1.28 times
70,000
(c) Combined Leverage = F.L. x O.L.
= 1.166 x1.28 = 1.49 times
Firm A Firm B
Sales Rs. 20,00,000 Rs. 30,00,000
Variable cost 40% Sales 30% Sales
Fixed cost Rs. 5,00,000 Rs. 70,00,000
Interest Rs.1,00,000 Rs. 1,25,000
Master Table
Firm A Firm B
Rs. Rs.
Sales 20,00,000 30,00,000
A : 40/100 x 20,00,000 8,00,000
331
measure the return to the owners and market price of equity shares. A company
should try to have a balance of the two leverages because they have got tremendous
accelerations or declaration effect as EBIT and EPS.
20.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. ………………………… leverage is the tendency of the operating profit to
change disproportionately with sales.
2…………………………. leverage is defined as the tendency of the residual net
income to change disproportionately with operating profit.
3. ………………………………. measures percentage change in operating profit as
result of percentage change in sales, and financial leverage measures percentage
change in taxable profits or earnings per share.
20.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. http://ocw.mit.edu/
2. http://www.morldtechgossips.com/
3. http://wps.aw.com/
4. http://www.docsity.com/
20.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define Leverage. Explain its types and its significance.
2. “Operating leverage is determined by firm’s cost structure and financial
leverage by the mix of debt equity funds used to finance the term’s fixed assets.
These two leverage combined provide a risk profile of the firm” Explain.
3. Explain the concept of operating leverage and financial leverage.
4. Does financial leverage always increase the EPS? Explain.
5. Calculate the degree of (i) operating leverage (ii) financial leverage (iii)
combined leverage from the following data :
Sales 100000 units @ Rs. 2 per unit = Rs.200000
Variable cost per unit @ Rs.0.70
Fixed cost Rs.1,00,000 Interest charge Rs.3,668
20.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
Maheswari S.N. Financial Management, Sultan chand & Sons, New Delhi
(2010).
Agarwal, Financial Management, Sanjeev Publications, Mercot (1998).
20.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Why must the financial manager keep in mind the firm’s degree of financial
leverage in evaluating various financial plans? When does financial leverage become
favourable?
20.12 KEYWORDS
Operating leverage, Financial Leverage, Composite Leverage, Contribution,
Operating Profit, Variable costs,, Fixed Operating Costs,
333
LESSON – 21
A firm may grow internally or externally. A firm is said to grow internally when
it expands its area of operation. The firm may expand its activities in the same
product or different lines of product etc.
A firm may grow externally through combining or joining with other firms, or
acquiring other firms. Combination of firms is probably the fastest way to grow.
There are various forms of business combinations, which can result in external
growth. Three forms of combination which are usually applied with the objective of
expansion are: (i) Mergers; (ii) Amalgamations or Consolidations; and (iii)
Acquisitions or take Overs.
3. Collaboration: It refers to the process where an organisation joins hands
with another organisation which is technically or financially superior and
resourceful. This form of restructuring has becoming quite popular in developing
countries since collaboration brings both funds and advanced technology.
4. Spinning Off/Demergers: It refers to the process where a business division or
a product line of a company is separately reorganised into a different entity. The
entity so formed may either be in the form of a subsidiary company or altogether a
separate company.
5. Hive-off: It refers to sale of a loss making division or a product line by a
multi-product company. This serves a dual purpose. The buyer is benefitted
because of low acquisition cost of a completely established product line which he
can conveniently combine with his existing business and thus increase his profit
and market share.
6. Mergers, Amalgamations and Acquisitions: As stated earlier, [mergers,
amalgamations and acquisitions help in having a faster growth of the firm. As a
matter of fact, Indian industrialists today feel that merger is now the best route to
achieve a size for their company which is comparable with global companies for
giving effective competition to them.
21.3.4 Mergers Amalgamations & Acquisitions
Meaning of Merger The term merger refers to a situation where a company
acquires the whole of the assets and liabilities or a part thereof constituting an
undertaking of another company (or companies) and the latter is (are) dissolved.
The acquired company pays the shareholders of the merged company (or
companies) cash or securities and continues to operate with the resources of the
merged company (or companies) together with its own resources. It is thus,
synonymous with the term 'absorption'.
Meaning of Amalgamation. The term "amalgamation" or "consolidation" refers
to a situation where two or more existing companies are companies are combined
into a new company formed for the purpose. The old companies cease to exist and
their shareholders are paid by the new company in cash or in its shares or
debentures.
337
According to Section 2 (1A) of the Income Tax Act 1961, the term
amalgamation means the merger of one or more companies with another company
or merger of two or more companies to form one company in such a manner that-
(i) all the property of the amalgamating company or companies immediately
before the amalgamation becomes the property of the amalgamated company by
virtue of the amalgamation,
(ii) all the liabilities of the amalgamating company or companies immediately
before the amalgamation become the liabilities of the amalgamated company by
virtue of the amalgamation,
(iii) shareholders holding not less than nine-tenths in value of the shares in
the amalgamating company or companies (other than shares already held therein
immediately before the amalgamation or by a nominee for, the amalgamated
company or its subsidiary) become shareholders of the amalgamated company by
virtue of the amalgamation).
Meaning of Acquisition: The term "acquisition" or "takeover" refers to acquiring
of effective working control by one company over another. The control may be
acquired either through purchase of majority of shares carrying voting rights
exercisable at a general meeting, or controlling the composition of the Board of
Directors of the other company. The company acquiring controlling shares or voting
power is termed as the holding company, while-the company in which the shares
are acquired as the-holding company, while the company in which the shares are
acquired is termed as the subsidiary company. It may be noted that for acquiring
effective control over another company it is not necessary to own 51% of the share
capital of another company. For a widely held company ownership of 20% or as
Utile as 10% of the share capital out-standing may constitute: effective working
control. The advantage of acquisition is that it allows a company to acquire control
over another company by investing much less than what would be necessary for a
merger.
21.3.5 Reasons for Mergers or Acquisition
The following are the important reasons for mergers amalgamations or
acquisitions of firms.
1. Increase in effective value
The principal reason for these external combinations is that the value of the
company so formed by combining resources is greater than the sum of the
independent values of the merged companies. For example, if A Ltd. and B Ltd.,
merge and form a company C Ltd., the effective value of C Ltd. is expected to be
greater than the sum of the independent values of A Ltd. and B Ltd.
Similar is the case with acquisition. By acquiring the assets of Larsen and
Tubro, Reliance Industries has now highest value of assets under its umbrella. This
take-over changed the Indian Corporate scene to a great extent.
338
2. Operating Economics
Combination of two or more companies results in a number of 'operating
economics. Duplicate facilities can be eliminated.
3. Economies of scale
The amalgamated company can have larger volume of operations as compared
to the combined individual operations of the amalgamating companies. It can, thus,
have economies of scale by having intensive utilisation of production plants,
distribution network, engineering services, researches and development facilities,
etc. However, such an advantage accrues only when the companies in the same line
of business are combined, Le„ there is a horizontal merger.
4. Tax Implications
In several amalgamation schemes, tax implications play a crucial role. A
company with heavy cumulative losses may have little prospects of taking
advantage of carrying forward the losses and meeting them out of future profits and
thus taking advantage of the tax benefits.
5. Elimination of Competition
The combining of two or more companies under the same name, would result
in elimination of competition between them. They would save in terms of
advertising cost. This may probably benefit the consumer, in terms of goods being
available at lower price.
6. Better Financial Planning
Merger results in better financial planning and control. For example, a
company having a long gestation period may merge itself with another company
having short gestation period. As a result of this merger, the profits coming from
the company with short gestation period can be used to improve the financial
requirements of the company with long gestation period. Later, when the company
with long gestation period starts giving profits, it will benefit the amalgamated
company as a whole. Similarly, the surplus funds of acquiring company may be
more effectively utilised in the acquired company.
7. Growth
As mentioned earlier, the desired rate of growth may not be achieved through
internal expansion. A company may find that through external combination faster
and balanced growth can be achieved.
8. Stabilisation through diversification
External combinations like merger, amalgamation or acquisition, helps a
company in achieving stabilisation in its earning by diversifying its scope of
operations. A company experiencing wide economic fluctuations and cyclical phases
in its earning due to nature of its product or business may merge with another
company, whose business cycle is different from its own. This merger of companies
different business cycles, will bring consistent earnings to the business as a whole.
339
may get itself merged with a company engaged in insurance business. The two
businesses are totally different and, therefore, such merger is termed as
conglomerate merger.
4. Reverse Merger
In case of an ordinary merger, a profit making company takes over another
company which may or may not be making a profit. The objective is to expand or
diversify the business. However, in case of; reverse merger, a healthy company
merges into a financially weal company and the former company is dissolved. The
basic philosophy c reverse merger is to take advantage of the provisions of Income
Tax Act, 1961 which permits a company to carry forward its losses to se off against
its future profits.
5. Cross Border Merger and Acquisitions
The term cross border merger and acquisitions involves mergers and
acquisitions of firms belonging to different countries of the world, recent years,
there has been a substantial increase in the quantum such acquisitions and
takeover in Europe and USA. The UK has be the most important foreign investor in
USA in recent years with British companies making large acquisitions.
21.3.7 Synergy of Mergers and Acquisitions
The term synergy refers to benefits resulting from mergers and acquisitions
because of coordinated action. The synergy may be of three types:
1. Operating synergy: It is mostly in the form of cost reductions which are the
result of economies of scale or economies of scope. Economies of scale decrease the
average cost through technological economies, which affect the minimum size of the
plant in an industry, or managerial economies, which result in lower production
and distribution costs. Economies of scope result from increase in the number of
products offered. A company will be able to utilize one set of input to provide a
broader range of products and services. Operating synergy is most likely to accure
from horizontal merger between two companies in the same line of business.
2. Financial synergy: It refers to the impact of a merger on the cost of capital
for the merging entities. One of the financial benefits of diversification is termed as
the "coinsurance effect". The acquisition of a company which is less responsive to
fluctuations in the economy would give the acquiring company a steady stream of
earnings.
3. Managerial synergy: This is in the form of availability of highly trained
managerial personnel at the least cost and the benefit of the latest technology.
21.3.8 Dangers of Mergers
Mergers involve the following dangers:
1. Elimination of healthy competition
Merger may involve absorption of small, efficient and growing units into a
larger unit. Thus, it eliminates individual undertakings: competent to offer stiff
competition necessary for healthy growth industrial units.
341
In order to find out the asset value per share, the preference share capital, if
any, is deducted from the net assets and the balance is divided by the number of
equity shares. It may be noted that the values of all tangible and intangible assets
are incorporated here. The value of goodwill may be calculated if not given in the
balance sheet, and included. However, the fictitious assets are not included in the
above valuation.
a) Book value of the assets: In this case, the values of various assets given in
the late e sheet of the firm are taken as worth of the assets. From the total of the
book values of all the assets, the amount of external liabilities is deducted to find
out the net worth of the firm. The net worth may be divided by the number of equity
shares to find out the value per share of the target firm.
b) Realisable value of the assets: In this case, the current market prices or the
realisable values of all the tangible and intangible assets of the target firm are
estimated and from this the expected external liabilities are deducted to find out the
net worth of the target firm. The realisable value may be estimated on the basis of
the valuation of the appraisal agencies. The valuation based on realizable values,
definitely, has an edge over the valuation based c book values, as the former gives a
current and close approximation to the worth of the target firm while the latter may
give an outdated worth of the target firm.
2. Valuation based on Earnings: The target firm may be valued on the basis of
its ear lags capacity. With reference to the capital funds invested in the target firm,
the firms value will have a positive correlations with the profits of the firm. Here,
the profits of the firm CE either be past profits or future expected profits.
In the earnings based valuation, the PAT (Profit After Taxes) is multiplied by
the Price Earnings Ratio to find out the value.
Market Price Per Share = EPS x PE ratio.
The earnings based valuation can also be made in terms of earnings yield as
follows :
EPS
Earnings Yield 100
MPS
The earnings yield gives an idea of earnings as a percentage of market value of
a share. It may be noted that for this valuation, the historical earnings or expected
future earning may be considered.
Earnings valuation may also be found by capitalising the total earnings of the
firm as follows :
Earnings
Value 100
Capitalisation rate
3. Dividend-based Valuation: In the cost of capital calculation, the cost of equity
capital, ke is defined (under constant growth model) as :
343
D (1 g) D
k o g 1 g
c P P
o o
This can be used to find out the P0 as follows :
D (1 g) D
P o 1
o K -g K -g
c c
4. CAPM-based Share Valuation: Capital Assets Pricing Model is discussed in
detail in Chapter 12. The CAPM is used to find out the expected rate of return, R S,
as follows:
Rs = IRF + (RM-IRF)
where, RS = Expected rate of return
IRF = Risk free rate of return
RM = Rate of Return on market portfolio
= Sensitivity of a share to market
5. Valuation based on Cash Flows: Valuation of a target firm can also be made
on the basis of firm's cash flows. In this case, the value of the target firm may be
arrived at by discounting the cash flows, as in the case of NPV method of capital
budgeting as follows:
(i) Estimate the future cash inflows (i.e., Profit after tax + Non-cash expenses).
(ii) Find out the total present value of these cash flows by discounting at an
appropriate rate with reference to the risk class and other factors.
(iii) If the acquiring firm is agreeing to takeover the liabilities of the target firm,
then these liabilities are treated as cash outflows at time zero and hence deducted
form the present value of future cash inflows [as calculated in step (ii) above].
(iv) The balancing figure is the NPV of the firm and may be considered as the
maximum purchase price, which the acquiring firm should be ready to pay. The
procedure for finding out the valuation based on cash flows may be summarized as
follows:
n C
MPP i -L
i - i (l k)i
where, MPP = Maximum Purchase Price,
Ci = Cash inflows over different years,
L = Current value of liabilities, and
k = Appropriate discount rate
However, in this valuation model, the main problem is to estimate the future
cash flows and the determinations of the appropriate discount rate. More over,
expected cash flows may be calculated either from the point of view of the total firm
or from the point of view of the equity shareholders.
344
347
LESSON – 22
According to Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 the sick
industrial undertaking means “an industrial company (being a company registered
for not less than five years) which has at the end of any financial year accumulated
losses equal to or exceeding its entire net worth”. In other words, according to the
Act, a company may be taken as a sick company if
a) It has been, in existence for the last five years.
b) It has completely lost its net worth i.e. the sum total of the paid up capita
and free reserves.
Weak Unit
The Reserve Bank of India has given the following definition of a weak unit: "A
unit which has at the end of any accounting year:
a) Accumulated losses equal to or exceeding 50% of its peak net worth: for
the immediately preceding four accounting years;
b) A current ratio of less than 1:1; and
c) Suffered a cash loss in the immediately preceding accounting year.
Thus, a weak unit is a potential sick unit. Hence, adequate measures should
be taken in time by the concerned authorities to prevent the weak unit from
becoming sick.
22.3.2 Causes of Sickness
The causes of sickness of an industrial unit can be classified into three
categories:
i) Environmental factors e.g. power cut, dearth of raw materials, change in
Government policies etc.
ii) Internal factors e.g. mismanagement, family feuds, labour unrest, faulty
production/marketing programme.
iii) Commitment of premeditated frauds or dishonest attitude of management
e.g. unscrupulous sales/purchase practices, diversion of funds etc.
According to a study conducted by RBI the share of various causes in
industrial sickness has been found as follows:
Cause Percentage share in sickness
Management 52%
Faulty Planning 14%
Market Recession 23%
Shortage of inputs 9%
Labour Trouble/Unrest 2%
100%
Signals of Sickness
A unit does not become sick overnight. Before becoming finally sick a unit
starts giving signals of sickness. A prudent banker will take measures to safeguard
349
his interest before the unit becomes finally sick. We are giving below a list of the
symbols or signals which taken together tell about the possibility of the industrial
unit becoming sick.
1. Continuous cash losses
2. Manipulation on stock statements, accumulation of finished goods stock
3. Unexplained delay in submission of periodical statements to the banker
4. Frequent issue of post-dated cheques
5. Continued failure to meet fixed and current liabilities on due dates
6. Lay-off or retrenchment of workers
7. Extravagance in the personal life of the proprietor or directors.
8. Resignation or transfer of key managerial personnel
9. Closure of the factory
10. Raising of money against all assets of the undertaking
11. Borrowings from markets at excessive rate
12. Loss of major production or-distribution lines
13. Plant or product obsolescence
14. Non-payment of statutory dues-such as provident funds, taxes etc.
15. Unsatisfactory operations of the accounts; and
16. Incapacity of death of the key persons.
Stages of Sickness
An industrial unit passes through the following stages before becoming a sick
unit:
1. Healthy stage: This is a stage when a unit's all functional areas viz.,
production, marketing, finance, personnel, are working efficiently. The unit is
making profit, its debt equity ratio is satisfactory, its net worth is positive and the
current ratio is more than 1.
2. Tilt towards sickness: The unit is said to have a tilt towards sickness when
its profit starts declining and losses are projected in the years to come.
3. Incipient sickness: This is a stage when the unit has incurred a cash loss in
the previous year and expected to suffer a cash loss in the current year also. Its
current ratio and debt equity ratio will deteriorate.
4. Sickness: This is a stage when all functional areas of the unit become
inefficient. The unit has completely lost its net worth.
22.3.3 Rehabilitation of Sick Unit
The rehabilitation of a sick unit is undertaken in those cases where the
concerned banks/financial institutions are of the opinion that the unit is viable.
According to the decision taken on September 15, 1980 by the Standing Coordination
350
ii) Considerable debt burden: A sick unit usually has a considerable debt
burden which hangs like a milestone round its neck. Because of this, the break-
even point would have gone up. To undertake a nursing programme in such
circumstances would require the unit to operate at higher levels than before so that
a surplus is generated.
iii) Additional finance: A nursing programme, which involves operating at a
higher level of activity, will require additional input of finance and, in most eases,
the source of finance will be the bank, as the borrower’s resources would have been
exhausted. However, the input of additional funds must be adequate to achieve the
increased level of activity. Moreover, steps must betaken to monitor the use of these
funds and the results obtained.
iv) Gradual liquidation of irregularity: The irregularity in the account can be
liquidated only gradually out of the internal generation of surplus. The repayment
programme, therefore, has to be carefully worked out; enough funds should be
available in the business to operate at the desired level, with a view to ensuring
continued internal generation of surplus. This process would be helped if penal
interest rate is not levied and, where possible, recovery of interest is rescheduled,
v) No delay: A nursing programme can bear no delay. The longer a decision
takes, the greater becomes the magnitude of the problem.
22.3.6 Steps to be taken
The object of a nursing programme is to improve the capability of the unit to
generate internal surplus. In view of the adverse factors affecting a sick unit, a
systematic approach is necessary to achieve this objective. Following are the
important steps to be taken for preparing an effective nursing programme for
rehabilitating a sick unit.
(i) Analysis of the past operations: Such an analysis is necessary to identify
unit's strengths and weaknesses. It is more important to identify all weaknesses.
(ii) Determination of a viable level of operations: This is the level which will
generate a reasonable internal surplus. The new breakeven point must be
determined and this level must be substantially higher than the previous break-
even point.
(iii) Investigation of the feasibility of operating at this level within the prevailing
business environment. For this purpose the following points will need to be studied
carefully:
i) Is the plant capable of operating at this level on a continuing basis?
ii) Can the market absorb this output?
iii) Is the prevailing price level remunerative?
iv) Are any changes required in the method of selling or distribution to handle
the increased quantity?
v) Are the necessary raw materials available to support this level of activity?
352
vi) Can the present organisation cope with the increased level of activity? If not,
in what manner does it need to be strengthened?
vii) Is the borrower prepared to submit himself to the financial discipline
required for this exercise?
viii) Are there other constraints such as power, transport, space„ etc.?
(iv) Determination of the magnitude of the working funds require to initiate
and maintain the operation at this level. In estimating this, norms for the particular
industry for inventory, processing cycle times, credit terms, etc. will have to be
taken into account.
(v) Determination of the sources of funds. The following are typical sources:
a) Further capital contribution from the borrower or his friends.
b) Disposal of excess stocks or assets.
c) Rapid collection of outstanding bills.
d) Internal generation.
e) Enhancement, readjustment of limits or rescheduling interest payments
and/or term loan instalments.
(vi) Drawing up an action plan which will effectively overcome the weaknesses
and capitalized on the strengths. Each weakness identified must have a
corresponding action to overcome it. The plan must indicate in detail the results
that can be expected over a period of time. It must also indicate the phased
liquidation of the bank's outstandings.
(vii) Identifying the key performance indicators for close monitoring. The
monitoring system should pay particular attention to the areas of weaknesses
which brought about the initial sickness.
22.3.7 Guidelines for Monitoring a Nursing Programme
The details of the monitoring system for each unit will depend on the nature of
the industrial activity and the sophistication of the manufacturing process. The
following, however, will serve as a general guide for this purpose:
i) Management information system: Such a system should be set up
immediately. Without this system, neither the borrower nor the bank will be able to
assess the progress of the nursing programme.
ii) End-use of additional funds: Since the nursing programme usually involves
outlays of additional funds, it is necessary to ensure that these funds are properly
used for the purpose intended.
iii) Monitoring areas of weakness: The action plan would have indicated the
areas of weakness and the strategy for overcoming them. It is necessary that this
aspect is given particular attention, as otherwise the success of the nursing effort
will remain in doubt.
353
iv) Monitoring meeting: There must be monthly meetings between the borrower
and the bank to assess the progress of implementation. Where a Management
Consultant is associated with the nursing programme, he should preferably be
present at monthly meetings.
The objective of these monthly meetings is to review the progress achieved. If
any adverse variances are observed, suitable corrective actions could be taken up
for review at these meetings in respect of the following:
a) Production and sales,
b) Profitability and internal surplus,
c) Working capital management (e.g. collections, inventory,-creditors etc.),
and
d) Position of Bank borrowings.
Use of Management Consultant, in Nursing Programme
Management of finance is an area of weakness in many small-scale units. The
sickness of the unit Is directly attributable to lack of proper management in these
cases. The nursing programme must, therefore, ensure that this weakness is
rectified. In other words, apart from the additional financial input, where necessary,
the nursing programme must also ensure the requisite input of management
expertise.
Concluding a Nursing Programme
By its very nature,: a nursing programme is only of a short duration. The,
success of a nursing programme le., capacity to generate internal surplus^ should
be evident within the estimated period. When this, situation established, it would
be desirable to end the close monitoring procedure adopted during the nursing
programme and apply the normal follow-up procedure recommended.
22.3.8 Government of India and the Sick Units
The Government of India in collaboration with the Reserve Bank of India, has
taken a number of steps for rehabilitation of sick units. These step are as follows:
1. Setting up of Sick Industrial Undertakings Cell: A Sick Industrial Undertaking
Cell has been set up in the Reserve Bank of India to functions as a clearing house
for information relating to sick units and also to as a coordinating agency as
between the Government, banks, finance institutions and other agencies for
tackling the various related issue This cell has been closely monitoring the banks
performance in indentifying sick units and taking remedial action. With a view to
checking industrial sickness, the cell has issued suitable instructions to the banks
in matter.
2. Setting up of Coordination Committees: The committees have been set up at
all the Regional Offices of the Department of Banking Operations and Development
of Reserve Bank of India for the purpose of ensuring better coordination between
the banks, Central and State Level financial institutions, the State Government and
other organisations involved in promoting industrial growth.
354
(iii) The rate of interest on loans should be completely deregulated and should
be determined by the lenders based on the competitive market forces.
(iv) Banks that had sanctioned term loan singly or jointly must also sanction
working capital limit singly (or jointly, in the ratio of the term loan) to avoid delay in
commencement of commercial production of the MSME.
(v) Banks could focus on opening more specialised MSME branches, while
RRBs and co-operative banks could be asked to undertake more MSME financing.
(vi) A Rehabilitation Fund, with a corpus of Rs. 1,000 crore, should be created
as many sick units could not be rehabilitated due to non-availability of promoters'
contribution,
(vii) A Marketing Development Fund to provide, inter alia, financial assistance
to MSMEs in setting up distribution and marketing infrastructure/outlets should
be set up.
(viii) Banks should finance, on an average, at least 10 MSME accounts per
semi-urban/urban branches per year.
(ix) State Governments should have separate department for MSMEs as also
short and long term policies for development/promotion of the MSME sector.
(x) Banks should set up credit counselling centres (whether singly or jointly
with other banks or with large corporates) exclusively for MSMEs in major
industrial towns/clusters.
(xi) A micro or small enterprise (as defined-in the MSMED Act, 2006) could be
defined as sick, if any of the borrowal account of the enterprise remained a non-
performing asset (NPA) for three months or more, or, accumulated losses led to a 50
per cent erosion of its net worth.
22.4 REVISION POINTS
• Sick Industrial Company: An industrial company which has (a) accumulated
losses in any financial year equal to 50% or more of its average net worth during
four years immediately preceding such financial year or (b) failed to repay its debt
within any three consecutive quarters on demand made in writing for its repayment
by a creditor or creditors pf such company.
• Weak Unit: A unit which has at the end of any accounting year: (a) accumulated
losses equal to or exceeding 50% of its peak net worth for the immediately preceding
four accounting years; (b) a current ratio of less than 1:1; and (c) suffered a cash loss
in the immediately preceding accounting year.
22.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define a sick unit.
2. What is industrial Sickness?
3. What do you Mean by weak Unit?
357
22.6 SUMMARY
According to RBI, an Industrial unit is sick, it has incurred cash loss for one
year and in the judgement of the bank, it is likely to continue to incur loss in two
following years and it has imbalance in its financial structure such as current ratio
being less than 1:1 and worsening debt equity ratio. Industrial sickness does not
occur suddenly. The causes of sickness can be classified onto two categories.
External causes and internal causes. The government India is collaboration with
RBI has taken a number of steps for rehabilitation of sick units.
22.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. The term ……………………………. in banking means the unsatisfactory
working of industrial units resulting in non-payment of bank dues.
2. ……………………………….as one whose accounts were chronically irregular
and required a study to evolve a nursing programme and a close follow-up.
22.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. https://www.scribd.com
2. http://siva8622kalvi.blogspot.in/
3. http://etabu.com/
4. http://docslide.us/
5. http://www.authorstream.com/
22.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define a 'sick unit'. Suggest the steps that you will take for preparing and
implementing a nursing programme for rehabilitation of a sick unit.
2. What is industrial sickness? What are the problems faced by the
commercial banks and financial institutions in rehabilitating sick units financed by
them?
3. Under what circumstances an industrial unit financed by bank is classified
as sick unit? What controls would you suggest under nursing programme adopted
for this unit?
4. What is a nursing programme? What should the financing bank do before
adopting nursing programme for any industrial unit?
5. Discuss the norms prescribed by the Reserve Bank of India to determine
industrial sickness and mention the important steps to be taken to make a sick
unit viable.
6. Mention briefly the symptoms of incipient industrial sickness.
7. What are the causes of industrial sickness?
8. State the main recommendations of the working group on rehabilitation of
sick SMEs.
358
359
LESSON – 23
introduced and subsequently adopted by several major corporations that lead EVA
to have successful stories at the very beginning. Mainly professional literature
mostly aimed at presenting, promoting or discussing the EVA concepts in relation
to consulting work. While most of this, partly anecdotal, literature looks at the
advantages of the concept with a few critical views also. Subsequent sources are too
numerous for an extensive listing, but for instance there is material such as
Milunovich & Tsuei (1996), Anctil, Jordan & Mukherji (1998), Damodaran (1999),
Mouritsen (1998), Bowen & Wallace (1999), and Dodd & Johns (1999). Therealso is
much WWW based material such as Mäkelä (1998), Weissenrieder (1999), and
Stern Stewart & Co. (2000).Empirical research literature measuring the strength of
the relation between market returns (or market value) and EVAcompared to the
relation between market returns and the traditional income measures. O'Byrne
(1996, p.125) concludes, "EVA, unlike NOPAT [net operating profit after taxes] or
other earnings measures like net income or earnings per share, is systematically
linked to market value. It should provide a better predictor of market value than
other measures of operating performance." Besides the theoretical discussion,
understanding is needed about the numerical behavior of the EVA under different
conditions and about EVA's numerical relationship to the accounting measures like
Return on Investments (ROI), Return on Equity (ROE) and to economic profitability
measures like the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
23.3.2 Important Features of EVA
It acts as performance measure which is linked to share holder value
creation in all directions.
It is useful in providing business knowledge to everyone.
It is an efficient method for communicating to investors.
It transforms the accounting information into economic quality which can be
easily understood by non financial managers.
It is useful in evaluating Net Present Value(NPV) of projects in capital
budgeting which is contradictory to IRR.
Instead of writing the value of firm in terms of discounted cash flow, it can
be expressed in terms of EVA of projects.
23.3.3 EVA as a Management Tool
EVA is superior to accounting profits as a measure of value creation because it
recognizes the cost of capital and, hence, the riskiness of a firm’s operations (Lehn
& Makhija, 1996, p.34). It is used as a value based performance measure tool more
widely. In this context, EVA is compared with some traditional measures and with
some other value based measures as well.
EVA vs. Traditional Measures
EVA is based on the common accounting based items like interest bearing
debt, equity capital and net operating profit. It differs from the traditional measures
mainly by including the cost of equity. Salomon and Laya (1967) studied the
362
accounting rate of return (ARR) and the extent to which it approximates the true
return measured with IRR. Harcourt (1965), Solomon and Laya (1967), Livingston
and Solomon (1970), Fischer and McGowan (1983) and Fisher (1984) concluded
that the difference between accounting rate of return (ARR) and the true rate of
return is so large that the former cannot be used as an indication of the later.
Among all traditional measures, return on capital is very common and
relatively good performance measure. Different companies calculate this return
with different formulas and call it also with different names like return on
investment (ROI), return on invested capital (ROIC), return on capital employed
(ROCE), return on net assets (RONA), return on assets (ROA) etc. The main
shortcoming with all these rates of return is in all cases that maximizing rate of
return does not necessarily maximize the return for shareholders. Observing rate of
return and making decisions based on it alone is similar to assessing products on
the "gross margin on sales" -percentage. The product with the highest "gross
margin on sales" percentage is not necessary the most profitable product. The
difference between EVA and ROI is actually exactly the same as with NPV (Net
present value) and IRR (Internal rate of return). IRR is a good way to assess
investment possibilities, but we ought not to prefer one investment project to the
other on the basis of IRR only.
Mathematically EVA gives exactly the same results in valuations as Discounted
Cash Flow (DCF) or Net Present Value (NPV) (Stewart, 1990, p. 3; Kappi, 1996),
which are long since widely acknowledged as theoretically best analysis tools from
the stockholders’ perspective (Brealey & Mayers, 1991, pp. 73-75). In the corporate
control, it is worth remembering that EVA and NPV go hand in hand as also ROI
and IRR. The formers tell us the impacts to shareholders wealth and the latters tell
us the rate of return. There is no reason to abandon ROI and IRR. They are very
good and illustrative measures that tell us about the rate of returns. IRR can
always be used along with NPV in investment calculations and ROI can always be
used along with EVA in company performance. However, we should never aim to
maximize IRR and ROI and we should never base decisions on these two metrics.
IRR and ROI provide us additional information, although all decisions could be done
without them. Maximizing rate of returns (IRR, ROI) does not matter, when the goal
is to maximize the returns to shareholders. EVA and NPV should be in the
commanding role in corporate control and ROI & IRR should have the role of giving
additional information.
EVA vs. Other Value-based Measures
EVA is not the only value-based measure rather we have a good number of
tools that are also used for the same. Some are developed by consulting industries
and others are by academics. Consultants like to use their particular acronym to
establish it as their personal brand though it would not differ very much of the
competitors’ measures. Thus the range of these different acronyms is wide. Some of
such measures are mentioned here in a tabular format so that readers can grasp
them easily.
363
23.3.4 4 Ms of EVA
As a mnemonic device, Stern Stewart describes four main applications of EVA
with four words beginning with the letter M.
Measurement
EVA is the most accurate measure of corporate performance over any given
period. Fortune magazine has called it "today's hottest financial idea," and Peter
Drucker rightly observed in the Harvard Business Review that EVA is a measure of
"total factor productivity" whose growing popularity reflects the new demands of the
information age.
Management System
While simply measuring EVA can give companies a better focus on how they
are performing, its true value comes in using it as the foundation for a
comprehensive financial management system that encompasses all the policies,
procedures, methods and measures that guide operations and strategy. The EVA
system covers the full range of managerial decisions, including strategic planning,
allocating capital, pricing acquisitions or divestitures, setting annual goals-even
day-to-day operating decisions. In all cases, the goal of increasing EVA is
paramount.
Motivation
To instill both the sense of urgency and the long-term perspective of an owner,
Stern Stewart designs cash bonus plans that cause managers to think like and act
like owners because they are paid like owners. Indeed, basing incentive
compensation on improvements in EVA is the source of the greatest power in the
EVA system. Under an EVA bonus plan, the only way managers can make more
money for themselves is by creating even greater value for shareholders. This
makes it possible to have bonus plans with no upside limits. In fact, under EVA the
greater the bonus for managers, the happier shareholders will be.
Mindset
When implemented in its totality, the EVA financial management and incentive
compensation system transforms a corporate culture. By putting all financial and
operating functions on the same basis, the EVA system effectively provides a
common language for employees across all corporate functions. EVA facilitates
communication and cooperation among divisions and departments, it links
strategic planning with the operating divisions, and it eliminates much of the
mistrust that typically exists between operations and finance. The EVA framework
is, in effect, a system of internal corporate governance that automatically guides all
managers and employees and propels them to work for the best interests of the
owners. The EVA system also facilitates decentralized decision making because it
holds managers responsible for-and rewards them for-delivering value.
23.3.5 Steps in EVA Computation
EVA computation requires some basis steps. The common steps are
exemplified here that may be modified due to the typical nature of business or
processes where it has been used.
364
difficulties in obtaining a finer measurement. However, they note that there are
potential drawbacks to this solution, including the addition of another layer of
management and the free-rider problem. Corporate structure is another important
factor in the feasibility of the measure of EVA. If the firm reorganizes frequently,
there is no history for the calculation and monitoring of EVA growth over time.
What happens to any positive or negative EVA? Does it follow the manager since
there is no longer a unit in which it can reside?
Factors to consider
There must be agreement as to:
The adjustments to GAAP to obtain the EVA figure;
The cost of capital;
Jointness over revenues, costs, assets and liabilities;
Allocated costs; and
Appropriate value drivers for each unit or sub-unit.
Adjustments
Measurement can have an impact on managerial behaviour and affect the way
business is conducted. For these reasons, Stern Stewart recommends adjusting
conventional GAAP figures to remove ‘distortions’ that they create. It says that more
than 160 adjustments can be made to the financial accounting numbers although
that, in reality, only around 20 adjustments will be made for a particular firm.
Adjustments must be consistently applied further down through the
organization if EVA is to be calculated at lower levels. However, as soon as you start
making adjustments to accounting numbers and there is discretion over the nature
of those adjustments, the measure is no longer objective. It would be easy to lose
confidence in the measure if individuals within the firm couldn’t see how it was
calculated or where the adjustments came from.
The cost of capital
The cost of capital should be calculated as a weighted average cost of debt and
equity, with the cost of equity derived from a model such as the capital asset
pricing model.
For EVA measurement there are two issues:
Should the cost of capital be time varying?
Should the cost of capital vary across business units to take account of
possible differences in risk (and leverage)?
A general rise in interest rates or the market means a rise in the cost of
capital. With rewards based on EVA, this potentially affects managerial
compensation. One way to avoid this problem is to use a constant cost of capital
over time. The estimate could be a company-wide cost of capital. However, this may
not adequately reflect the risk of business units or the projects in which they
invest. The cost of capital may be regarded as subjective if it is believed that risk is
367
not adequately reflected. However, if the cost of capital varies across business
units, it may create tensions within the firm.
Jointness over revenues and costs, assets and liabilities
Jointness over costs and revenues will inevitably arise in a decentralised
organisation, particularly a network business. Shared revenues include, for
example, revenue from bundling goods or services that go across business units.
Similarly, costs may also be bundled, for example, advertising. Unless these costs
and benefits can be broken down and priced separately for all units of the
company, a satisfactory means of allocating these costs and benefits has to be
devised. Any allocation will inevitably involve judgement, leading to subjectivity in
the measure. Capital must be allocated to business units in order to measure
business unit EVA. While this may be a simple enough exercise when units
maintain essentially separate assets, it can become more difficult when there is
jointness, for example, if products map to multiple assets in multiple business
units or assets map to multiple products. Shared assets and liabilities will
inevitably be the case down the hierarchy, particularly for network businesses.
Allocated costs
There is a standard problem of allocating costs and deciding on the
appropriate measure of performance. Should managers’ performance be measured
before or after the allocation of such costs? There are arguments on both sides but
the important point is that it is difficult to see how EVA can resolve this problem.
Value drivers
Value drivers for performance measurement are important, particularly as we
move down through the organisation since this is where the secondary objectives
lie. There must be agreement for each unit or sub-unit over:
The appropriate value drivers;
The key number of drivers on which to focus; and
How often the value drivers will be reviewed
The use of value drivers is a dynamic process, with the possibility of all of the
above factors changing between reporting periods.
Other items that may require adjustment depend on company-specific
activities. For example, when operating leases rather than financing leases are
employed, interest expense is not recorded on the income statement, nor is a
liability for future lease payments recognized on the balance sheet. Thus, while
interest is implicit in the yearly lease payments, an attempt is not made to
distinguish it as a financing activity under GAAP.
Under EVA, however, the interest portion of the payment is estimated and the
after-tax amount from it is added back into NOPAT because the interest amount is
considered a capital charge rather than an operating expense. The corresponding
present value of future lease payments represents equity equivalents for purposes
of capital employed by the firm, and an adjustment for capital is also required.
368
R & D expense items call for careful evaluation and adjustment. While GAAP
generally requires most R & D expenditures to be expensed immediately, EVA
capitalizes successful R & D efforts and amortizes the amount over the period
benefiting the successful R & D effort.
Other adjustments recommended by Stern Stewart include the amortization of
goodwill. The annual amortization is added back for earnings measurement, while
the accumulated amount of amortization is added back to equity equivalents.
Goodwill amortization is handled in this manner because by "unamortizing"
goodwill, the rate of return reflects the true cash-on-yield. In addition, the decision
to include the accumulated goodwill in capital improves the real cost of acquiring
another firm's assets regardless of the manner in which the acquisition is
accounted.
While the above adjustments are common in EVA calculations, according to
Stern Stewart, those items to be considered for adjustment should be based on the
following criteria:
Materiality: Adjustments should make a material difference in EVA.
Manageability: Adjustments should impact future decisions.
Definitiveness: Adjustments should be definitive and objectively determined.
Simplicity: Adjustments should not be too complex.
If an item meets all four of the criteria, it should be considered for adjustment.
For example, the impact on EVA is usually minimal for firms having small amounts
of operating leases. Under these conditions, it would be reasonable to ignore this
item in the calculation of EVA. Furthermore, adjustments for items such as
deferred taxes and various types of reserves (i.e. warranty expense, etc.) would be
typical in the calculation of EVA, although the materiality for these items should be
considered. Unusual gains or losses should also be examined and eliminated if
appropriate. This last item is particularly important as it relates to EVA-based
compensation plans.
How Companies Have Used EVA
Name Timeframe Use of EVA
The Coca-Cola Co. Early 1980s Focused business managers on increasing
shareholder value
AT&T Corp. 1994 Used EVA as the lead indicator of a
performance measurement system that
included "people value added" and "customer
value added"
IBM 1999 Conducted a study with Stern Stewart that
indicated that outsourcing IT often led to
short-term increases in EVA
369
Herman Miller Inc. Late 1990s Tied EVA measure to senior managers' bonus
and compensation system
23.3.7 Advantages of EVA
1. It helps the company in monitoring the problem areas and hence taking
corrective action to resolve those problems.
2. It can also improve the corporate governance of the company because since
a higher EVA implies higher bonuses to the managers they will be working hard
and also honestly which in turn augurs well for the company.
3. Unlike accounting profit, such as EBIT, Net Income and EPS, EVA is
Economic and is based on the idea that a business must cover both the operating
costs as well as the capital costs and hence it presents a better and true picture of
the company to the owners, creditors, employees, shareholders and all other
interested parties.
4. It also helps the owners of the company to identify the best person to run
the company effectively and efficiently.
5. Using EVA company can evaluate the projects independently and hence
decide on whether to execute the project or not
22.3.8 Limitations of EVA
EVA has a lot of advantages though it is not free of limitations. Some of the
limitations are pointed out below:
1. EVA is criticized to be a short-term performance measure. Some companies
have concluded that EVA does not suit them because of their focus on long-term
investments. An example is offered by American company GATX (Glasser, 1996),
which leases transportation equipment and makes fairly long-term investments.
2. The true return or true EVA of long-term investments cannot be measured
objectively because future returns cannot be measured; they can only be
subjectively estimated.
3. EVA is probably not a suitable primary performance measure for companies
that have invested heavily today and expect positive cash flow only in a distant
future. The periodic EVA fails to estimate the value added to shareholders, because
of the inflation and other factors.
5. EVA suffers from wrong periodizing. A company may have a lot of
undepreciated new assets in its balance sheet and it might show negative EVA even
if the business would be quite profitable in the long run.
6. Traditional financial ratios are commonly used for distress prediction. It was
observed that EVA does not have incremental value in the predicting.
23.4 REVISION POINTS
EVA: Value based measure that was intended to evaluate business strategies,
capital projects, and to maximize long-term shareholders wealth.
370
23.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define EVA and state its significance as a management tool in decision
making.
2. Explain the role of Cost of capital and WACC in calculating the EVA
3. List the steps involved in computing the EVA
4. Explain the major adjustments to be made while calculating EVA.
5. State the advantage and disadvantages of EVA.
23.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
Anctil, R. M., Jordan, J. S., & Mukherji, A. (1998). Activity-based costing for
Economic Value Added®. Review of Accounting Studies, 2(3), 231-264.
Bacidore, J. M., Boquist, J. A., Milbourn, T.T., & Thakor, A.V. (1997). The Search
for the Best Financial Performance Measure. Financial Analysts Journal, 11-20.
Biddle, G. C., Bowen, R. M., & Wallace, J. S. (1997). Does EVA beat earnings?
Evidence on associations with stock returns and firm values. Journal of Accounting
and Economics, 24(3), 301-336.
Blair, A. (1997). EVA Fever. Management Today, 42 - 45.
23.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
In the present context how companies have used EVA . Explain with suitable
example.
23.12 KEYWORDS
EVA, WACC, Cost of Capital, Value Drivers,NOPAT.
372
LESSON - 24
VALUATION OF SHARES
24.1 INTRODUCTION
As observed in Lesson 1, the objective of a firm is to maximise shareholder's
wealth. Further, it was explained that the shareholder's wealth is represented by
the product of number of shares and the current market price per share. Given the
number of shares that the shareholder owns, the higher the stock price per share,
the greater will be the shareholder's wealth. Thus, the financial objective of a firm is
to maximize the market value per share in the market. To maximise the stock price,
we have to develop a valuation model and identify the variables that determine the
stock price. Generally speaking, the value of the firm depends upon two things:
(i) the rate of return arid (ii) the element of risk. As the return and risk
characteristics of a firm are influenced by the three financial decisions, namely, (a)
Investment decisions, (b) Financing decision, and (c) Dividend decision.
24.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you should be able to:
Know the different concepts of valuation
Understand the necessity for and relevance of valuation
Ascertain the general and. specific factors influencing the valuation of
shares;
Explain and evaluate the different methods of valuation of shares.
Calculate fair market value of shares
24.3 CONTENT
24.3.1 Valuation Concept
24.3.2 Factors Influencing the Share Value
24.3.3 Necessity for Valuation
24.3.4 Relevance of Valuation
24.3.5 Asset Backing Method
24.3.6 Earning Capacity Method
24.3.7 Valuation of shares on the basis of Actual market Price
24.3.1 Valuation Concepts
The term 'value' has been used to convey a variety of meanings. The different
meanings of value are useful for different purposes. The various concepts of value
are discussed below:
1. Present Value: A business enterprise keeps or uses various assets because
they generate cash inflows. Value is the function of cash inflows and their timing
and risk. When cash inflows are discounted at the required rate of return to
account for their timing and risk, we get the value or the present value of the asset.
373
No account is taken for the real value of the assets, which may change with the
passage of time. The assets are generally recorded at cost. In case the convention of
conservatism is used then assets are shown at cost or market price whichever less
is. The convention of conservatism is followed for current assets only not for fixed
assets. The value of intangibles is also included in the assets. The debts are shown
on the outstanding values and no account is taken for interest or payment of
principal amount. The book value per share can be determined by dividing the
common shareholders' equity (capital plus reserves and surpluses) by the number
of shares outstanding.
24.3.2 Factors influencing the share value
The factors influencing the valuation of shares can be classified as general
factors and specific factors.
General Factors: These factors are those which have an overall effect on the
price of shares in general:
i) Government's fiscal and monetary policies—Bank rate, direct and indirect
taxes,
ii) Political stability in the country,
iii) Economic climate i.e., depression or boom,
iv) Industrial Policy of the Government,
v) International political and economic climate also influence the market value
of shares. No country's economy is so isolated that it is immune to changes
in other parts of the world.
Specific Factors: These factors are those which apply to the particular company
and to the industry in which the company is operating:
i) The present position and future prospects of the industry of which the
company is a part.
ii) The amount and trend of dividends paid and expected, future dividends,
taking into consideration the dividend cover and the yield compared with
similar equity shares.
iii) Announcement by companies themselves may affect prices, for instance, if a
company increases or does not pay interim dividend.
iv) The capital structure of the company, which will lead to the study of
financial leverage i.e. the proportion of debt to equity.
v) An analysis of the company's cash flow to determine its ability to service
fixed charges.
vi) The amount and trend of the company' s profits and the net earnings i.e. the
profits available for distribution to the equity shareholders after meeting all
prior charges, expressed as a percentage of the market value of the equity
share capital.
375
vii) The set up of the management to ensure that the company has got a
competent and broad-based, board of directors and also has within it
persons of sufficient standing with adequate technical, financial and
business experience.
viii) The net assets according to the balance sheet of the company
ix) Whether there is an active market in the equity shares and the amount of
the "turn" i.e., the difference between the higher and lower prices as quoted
on the stock exchange.
x) The possibility of bonus or rights issues.
24.3.3 Necessity for valuation
The necessity for valuation of shares arises inter alias in the following
circumstances.
i) Assessments under the Wealth Tax or Gift Tax Acts.
ii) Purchase of a block of shares which may or may not give the holder thereof
a controlling interest in the company.
iii) Purchase of shares by employees of the company where the retention of
such shares is limited to the period of their employment.
iv) Formulations of schemes like amalgamation, absorption, etc.
v) Acquisition of interest of disentitling shareholders under a scheme of
reconstruction.
vi) Compensating shareholders on the acquisition of their shares by the
Government under a scheme of nationalisation.
vii) Conversion of shares, say preference share, debentures/loan into equity.
viii) Advancing a loan on the security of shares.
ix) Resolving a deadlock in the management of a private limited company on
the basis of the controlling block of shares being given to either of the
parties.
x) Valuation of securities for Balance Sheet of trust and finance companies.
24.3.4 Relevance of Valuation
Valuation by expert is generally called for when parties involved in the
transaction/deal, etc., fail to arrive at a mutually acceptable value or the
agreements or Articles of Association, etc., do not provide for valuation by experts.
For isolated transactions of relatively small-blocks of shares which are quoted on
the stock exchanges, generally, the ruling stock exchange price provides the basis.
But valuation by values becomes necessary when: (i) Shares are unquoted, (ii)
Shares relate to private limited companies, (iii) Courts so direct, (iv) Articles of
Association or relevant agreements so provide, (v)Large blocks of shares is under
transfer, and (vi) Statutes as require (like Wealth Tax, Gift Tax Act).
376
Illustration - 1
The following is me summarised Balance Sheet of XYZ company Ltd. as at
December 31.2015.
Value of goodwill
(a) Annuity Method = Rs.800 x 3.78 (present value factor) =Rs.3,024
(b) Five years purchase of super profits=800 x 5 = Rs.4,000
(c) Capitalisation of supper profit method:
average profit
Goodwill = - Net assets (i.e capital employed)
normal rate profit
15,800
-150,000 =158,000-150,000 = Rs. 8,000.
10%
Weakness of Assets Based Approach: This method has its own weaknesses:
1. There is no uniform method for assessing book value of assets. Such a
value is influenced by policies of the companies on the one hand and
accounting practices on the other.
2. There is no uniformity in assessing depreciation which is an essential
ingredient of valuation of assets.
3. Goodwill and patents count a lot in valuation but in so far as accounting
practice goes, there is considerable lack of standardisation in this regard.
4. It is usually very difficult or rather impossible to exactly bring at par and
compare the value of securities of one company with another.
5. Every company has certain conventions about valuing assets rather than
following any logic and this influences valuation.
6. Usually the understandings do not take fixed assets at current value, but
at old costs which is quite deceptive.
7. This approach also does not give any real idea about earning power of the
assets, which is another consideration in valuation.
Advantages of the approach: This approach has certain advantages as well.
This approach has proved very useful in so far as investing companies, insurance
companies and a bank are concerned and in the case of such companies whose
assets are largely liquid, provided such an approach are not exclusively expanded
upon.
b) Asset backing where company is being liquidated (Realisable Value Approach)
Asset backing method is sound if liquidation is contemplated though realizable
value should be taken into account. When realisation is imminent, it is desirable to
construct a statement of affairs supported, by independent valuations of the fixed
assets such as land and buildings, plant and goodwill. Provision should also be
made for the cost of liquidation and thus some indication may be obtained as to
how much per shares may be payable to members.
24.3.6 Earning Capacity Valuation Method
Capitalisation of earnings approach for valuation of shares is based on the
assumption that a shareholder values earning power on the one hand and income
380
rather than physical assets on the other. This method is also known as the Yield
method. Under this method, the valuation depends upon the comparison of the
company's earning capacity and the normal rate of interest or dividend that is
current on outside investment. The Earning capacity or yield basis of valuation may
take any of the following two forms: (i) valuation based on rate of return, and (ii)
valuation based on productivity factor.
(i) Valuation based on Rate of Return: The term rate of return refers to the
returns which a share holder earns on his investment. It may further be classified
as (a) rate of return and (b) rate of earnings. To ascertain the value of shares based
on profit earning capacity future maintainable profits and rate of interest at which
the profits are to be capitalised must be fixed. In arriving at the profit to show the
normal earning capacity generally the following adjustment are made: (i) Non-
recurring items should be allowed for, (ii)Income tax charges should be
appropriated to the particular year in which they are paid, and (iii) allocation to
reserve.
The main purpose for adjustment of profit is the determination of future
annual maintainable profit which must be capable of distribution as dividend. The
rate of interest for capitalising the average normal profit is fixed upon by the
circumstances of a particular case. In practice a rate of 10% or more may be
reasonable.
The following steps may be followed for calculating the value of shares
according to yield method:
i) Calculation of average expected future profits.
ii) Calculation of expected return by the following equation:
Expected Profits
Expected Returns = x100
Equity Capital
iii) Calculation of yield value of share as under:
Expected Rate
Value of share= x Paid up value of share
Normal Rate
Conclusion: Of course earning approach has its own advantages, hot it cannot
be denied that such an approach has own limitations It is primarily because profits
are influenced by many factors. Even due to various reasons, the companies having
same span of work, working under same conditions might show different profits.
Accordingly this method determining the value of shares has its own inherited
problems.
(ii) Valuation based on Productivity Factor: Productivity factor represents the
earning power of the company in relation to the value of the assets employed for
such earning. The factor is applied to the net worth of the company on the
valuation date to arrive at the projected earnings of the company. The projected
earnings after necessary adjustments are multiplied by the appropriate capitalisation
factor to arrive at the value of the company's business. Total value is divided by the
381
number of equity shares to ascertain the value of each share. The productivity
factor-based valuation is merely a method for ascertaining a reliable figure of future
profits. The steps involved in such a method of valuation can be enumerated as
follows:
a) Average net worth of the business is ascertained by taking a number of
years whose results are relevant to the future. It will be appropriate to
determine the average net worth of each year on the basis of net worth of
the business at the commencement and at close of each of the accounting
years under consideration. The average net worth of the business of the
period under study would be calculated on the basis of the average net
worth calculated as above for each of the accounting years.
b) Net worth of the business on the valuation date is ascertained.
c) Average profit earned for the period under consideration is ascertained on
the basis of the profits earned by the business during the period by simple
or weighted average method as may be considered appropriate.
Average profit
d) The productivity factor is found out as follows: x 100
Average net worth
The company has investments worth Rs 2,80,000 (at market value) on the
valuation date, the yield in respect of which has- been excluded in arriving at the
adjusted tax profit figures. It is customary for similar types of companies to set
aside 25 percent of taxed profit for rehabilitation and replacement purposes. On the
valuation date, the net worth (excluding investments) amounts to Rs. 22,50,000.
The normal rate of return expected is 9 percent. The company has paid dividends
consistently within a range of 8 per cent to 10 per cent on equity shares over the
previous seven years and it expects to maintain the same.
You are required to ascertain the value of each equity share on the basis of
productivity, applying suitable weighted averaging.
Solution
Computation of Productivity Factor
Average Net Weighted Weighted
Adjusted Weights
Worth Net Worth adjusted taxed
Taxed Profits
profits
because in the market there are neither ready buyers nor ready sellers and equally
also in the market all the buyers and sellers are not rational or quite well informed.
Illustration - 4
Mr. Ram intends to invests Rs.66,000 in Equity Shares of a limited Company
and seeks your advice as to the maximum number of shares he can expect to
acquire based on a fair value of the shares to be determined by you. The following
information is available:
Rs.
Issued and Paid-up Capital:
6% preference Shares of Rs.100 each 11,00,000
Equity Shares of Rs. 10 each 7,00,000
18,00,000
Average net profit of the business is Rs. 1,50,000. Expected normal yield is 8%
in case of such equity shares. It is observed that net assets on revaluation are
worth Rs.l,40,000 more than the amount at which they are stated in the books.
Goodwill is to be calculated 5 years purchase of super profits, if any. Ignore
taxation.
Solution
1. Value on Yield basis
Rs.
Average net profit 1,50,000
Less: Preference dividend 6%on 11,00,000 66,000
Profit available to Equity Shareholders ,84,000
84,000
Earnings per share (EPS) = = Rs.1.20
70,000
Normal yield is 8%
100
Value of Equity Share = 1.20 x = Rs. 15
8
[or]
1.20
Actual Yield = x 100 = 12%
10
12%
Value of Equity Share = x Rs. 10 per share = Rs. 15
8%
66,000
No. of Equity Shares that he can acquire = = 4,400 Shares
15
385
21,60,000
Fixed Assets:
Freehold land and building (at cost less depreciation) 6,48,000
Plant and Machinery (at cost less depreciation) 5,40,000
Factory and Office Fittings (at cost less depreciation) 1,80,000
13,68,000
Current Assets, Loans and Advances 7,92,000
21,60,000
Additional depreciation:
(assumed) (on account of revaluation) 2=on Buildings i.e. 2%
× (792000 – 648000)2,800 +10% on
Plant and Machinery i.e. 10% ×( 7,20,000 – 5,40,000)
20,880
4,17,120
Less: Income Tax at 60%
i.e. 60% x (4,56,000-18,000 Directors Fees) 2,62,800
Average maintainable profit after tax 1,54,320
Capitalised value at 12% (assumed) 12,86,000
Number of Equity shares 36,000
12,86,000
Value per equity share = Rs.35.72
36,000
Valuation of Preference Shares
In India preference share have a priority as to payment of dividend and
repayment of capital over equity shares in the event of company’s winding up. They
are taken as cumulative but non-participating unless otherwise stated. Their
valuation is generally on “Dividend Basis” according to the following formula:
Paid - up value x Average maintanable Dividendrate
Normal rate of return
For example, if the paid-up value of preference share is Rs.80, average
dividend rate 12 percent, normal rate of return 10 percent the value of a preference
share would be Rs.96 (m i.e. Rs. 80 x 12/10).
In case the dividend on cumulative preference shares is in arrears, the present
value of such arrears of dividend (if there is a possibility of their payment) should
be added to the value of a preference share calculated as above.
The dividend basis for valuation of preference share is useful only in those
cases where the preference share capital does not has adequate assets backing and
the company is a going concern. In case the preference share capital does not have
adequate assets backing or the company is going into liquidation it will be
appropriate to value preference shares according to the net assets method.
In case of participating preference shares of companies in liquidation, it will be
appropriate to take into account the share in the surplus assets remaining after
payment to the equity shareholders.
Illustration - 6
A Company has net assets of Rs.1lakh before payment to the shareholders.
The share capital consists of 5,000 equity shares of Rs.10 each and 2,000
preference share of Rs.10 each. The preference shares are entitled to share 25 per
cent of the surplus assets remaining after payment to the equity shareholders.
Calculate the value of a preference share.
388
Solution
Rs.
Net assets before payment to shareholder 1,00,000
Less: Preference share capital 20,000
80,000
Less: Equity share capital 50,000
Surplus 30,000
Share of preference shareholders in the surplus 7,500
Total net assets available for preference shareholders 27,500
(20,000+7,500)
Number of preference shares 2,000
Value of a preference share 13.75
Illustration - 7
The following figures are extracted from the books of M/s. Prosperous Limited.
On a fair valuation of all the assets of the company it is found that they have
an appreciation of Rs.75,000.
The articles of association provided that in case of liquidation the preference
shareholders will have a further claim to the extent of 10 percent of the surplus
assets. Ascertain the value of each preference and equity share, assuming
liquidation, Ignore expenses of winding up.
Solution
Valuation of preference and Equity Shares of M/s. Prosperous Ltd.
Paid-up Share of Per
Total
Value surplus share
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
3,000 9% Preference shares 3,00,000 32,500 3,32,500 110.83
389
The company is three years old and has earned an aggregate net profit of Rs.9
lakhs. The equity shares may yield 15%. If the net assets are re-valued, the
value thereof is Rs.1,40,000 more than the value stated in the books. What is the
maximum number of shares Mr. Ashok can purchase based in fair value of the
shares?
(Ans: Fair value=Rs.14, No. of shares to be purchased on the basis of fair value
2.286 Equity Shares)
3. Mr. X, who desires to invest Rs.33,000 in equity shares in public limited
company, seeks your advice as to the fair value of the shares. The
following information is made available:
Issued and Paid-up Capital: Rs.
6 per cent Preference shares of Rs.100 each 5,50,000
Equity shares of Rs.100 each 3,50,000
9,00,000
Average net profit of the business in Rs.75,000. Expected normal yield is 8 per
cent in case of such equity shares. It is observed that the net assets on revaluation
are worth Rs.70,000 more than the amounts at which they are stated in the books.
Goodwill is to be calculated at 5 years purchase of the super profits, if any, (Ignore
income-tax).
Give your working of the fair value of equity shares and determine the number
of shares which Mr. X should purchase.
(Ans: Goodwill Rs.42,000; Intrinsic value of Rs.13.20; Value on yield basis:
EPS based Rs.15 and Rate of Earnings basis Rs. 12.50 No. of shares to be
purchased 2,340)
The Balance Sheets of two companies A Ltd., as on 31st March, 1994 are:
(Rs. Lakh)
A Ltd. B Ltd.
Equity capital 3.00 4.00
Reserves 3.00 2.00
5 per cent Debentures --- ---
Sundry Creditors 2.00 2.50
8.00 8.50
Fixed Assets 5.00 4.00
Stock 1.25 1.30
Debtors 1.70 1.10
Cash at Bank 0.05 0.10
P & L.A/c --- 2.00
8.00 8.50
391
A Ltd. proposes to take over B Ltd. For this purpose the assets were revalued
as:
Fixed Assets Rs. 6.15 lakhs
Stock 1.00 lakhs
Debtors 1.05 lakhs
The additional factor to be considered is that B Ltd., is an industry which is
not licensed under the current policy of the Government. Hence, there is an
advantage as an existing unit. For this premium of Rs.5 lakhs is assessed.
Calculate and suggest a share valuation of B for the takeover and suggest a
fair exchange ratio of shares.
(Ans: Break-up value of either more or less the same; Exchange Ration 1:1)
24.4 REVISION POINTS
Valuation Concepts: Present value, Going Concern Value, Liquidation Value,
Replacement value, Market Value, Book Value.
Factors Influencing the share value: General Factors, Specific Factors.
Methods of Valuation: Asset Backing Method, Earning Capacity Method,
Imputed Market Price of Shares.
24.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by Going concern Value?
2. What do you mean by asset backing Method?
3. What do you mean by goodwill?
4. What do you mean by Fair Market Value?
24.6 SUMMARY
Valuation of shares mainly depends upon two things one is the rate of return
and another one is elements of risks. These characteristics of the firm are
influenced by investment decision, financing decision and divided decision. The
various concepts of value are present value. Going concern value, Liquidation
value, Replacement value, Market value and book value. The different methods of
valuing shares may be broadly classified into (i) Asset backing method, (ii) Earning
capacity valuation method, (iii) Imputed market Price of shares.
24.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Under ………………………………method, the valuation depends upon the
comparison of the company's earning capacity and the normal rate of interest or
dividend that is current on outside investment.
2. .Under…………………….. method , the value is based on the assumption
that there are both willing buyers as well as sellers in the market and that each is
quite well informed.
24.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. http://home.ku.edu.tr/
392
2. http://people.stern.nyu.edu/
3. http://www.slideshare.net/lindyisabella/gsb711lecturenote04valuationofb
onds-and-shares
4. http://www.zeepedia.com/
24.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Briefly discuss some of the important purposes and methods of valuation
of shares.
2. What do you understand by asset based approach to valuation? What are
the main problems involved in this approach?
3. Critically evaluate capitalization of earnings approach for the valuation of
shares.
4. Explain the method of valuation of shares on the basis of actual market
price. State the main objections to this method.
5. Describe two methods of valuation of shares and discuss which method in
your view, most appropriate in valuing a minority and majority
shareholding.
24.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Chowdhury : “Management Accounting”, Ludhiana Kalyani Publishers
2. Rathnam P.V: “Financial Adviser”, Allahabad Kitab Mahal.
3. Saravanavel.P : “Financial Management”, New Delhi, Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
24.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
What are the facts the influence the valuation of shares for the purposes of
amalgamation/merger of companies? Discuss with illustrations.
24.12 KEYWORDS
Present Value, Going Concern Value, Liquidation Value, Replacement Value,
Market Value, Book Value,Assets Backing Method, Goodwill,Earning Capacity
Valuation MethodActual Market Price.Instrinsic Value.
393