LASER PARAMETERS AND ITS AFFECT ON 3D PRINTED PRODUCT BY

THE SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING PROCESS

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

for the award of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In

By

ANKIT VARDHAN SINGH

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY)

VARANASI – 221005

ROLL NO. – 16134004 2021

1
2
 CERTIFICATE

It is certified that the work contained in the thesis titled “LASER

PARAMETERS AND ITS AFFECT ON 3D PRINTED PRODUCT BY THE SELECTIVE
LASER SINTERING PROCESS” by Ankit Vardhan Singh has been carried out
under my supervision and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for
a degree.

It is further certified that the student has fulfilled all the requirements of
Comprehensive Examination, candidacy and SOTA for the award of M Tech
Degree

Dr. Santosh Kumar Head of Department

(supervisor)

3
4
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I, Ankit Vardhan Singh, certify that the work embodied in this thesis is my own
bona fide work and carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Santosh
Kumar from March 2020 to May 2021 at the Mechanical Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi. The matter
embodied in this thesis has not been submitted for award of any other
degree/diploma. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged and given credits
to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in my work in
this thesis. I further declare that I have not wilfully copied any other’s work,
paragraphs, text, etc., reported in journals, books, magazines, reports
dissertations, thesis, etc., or available at websites and have not included them
in this thesis and have not cited as my own work

Date :

Place : IIT (BHU), Varanasi Ankit Vardhan Singh

CERTIFICATE BY THE SUPERVISOR

It is certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the
best of my knowledge.

Dr. Santosh Kumar Head of the department

(Supervisor)
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6
 ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my hearty thanks and indebtedness
to my supervisor Dr. Santosh Kumar, Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi for his enormous
help and encouragement throughout the course of this thesis. His technical
knowledge and insight have given me an excellent background in the field of
my work. His original concepts, excellent guidance, perseverance, invaluable
suggestions made this work possible and complete.

My profound gratitude to Prof. A.P Harsha , Head, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi for providing
oppurtinity in order to take up and conduct my thesis successfully.

Ankit Vardhan Singh

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 CONTENTS

CONTENTS 8-9
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 10
LIST OF SYMBOLS 11
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 12
PREFACE 13

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 14

1.1 HOW SLS WORK 15

1.2 WHY CHOOSE SLS 16
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF SLS 17
1.4 SLS OF CERAMICS 17

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 20

2.1 LPBF 20
2.2 PRIMARY FOCUS 21
2.3 SCOPE OF WORK 25
2.4 BACKGROUND TO TECHNIQUES 26
2.4.1 SEM 26
2.4.2 HRTEM 27
2.4.3 SURFACE ROUGHNESS 28
MEASUREMENT
2.4.4 DENSITY MEASUREMENTS 31

8
CHAPTER 3 QUALITATIVE AND 33

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
3.1 LASER SELECTION 34
3.1.1 ND-YAG LASER 35
3.1.2 CO2 LASER 36
3.2 LASER DENSITY AND POWER 38
3.3 SCAN PATTERN AND HATCHING 40
DISTANCE
3.3.1 SCAN PATTERN 40
3.3.2 TYPES OF SCAN PATTERN 41
3.4 HATCH DISTANCE OR SCAN 43
SPACING
3.4.1 EFFECTS OF HATCH DISTANCE 44

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS 47

47
4.1 LASER SELECTION
47
4.2 ENERGY DENSITY
48
4.3 HATCH DISTANCE
50
4.4 DISCUSSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES 52

9
 Abbreviations

SP: Scanning Pattern

HD: Hatching Distance

LPBF: Laser Powder Bed Fusion

SLS: Selective laser sintering

SV: Scan velocity

SL: Stereolithography

DLP: Digital Light Processing

TPP: Two Photon Polymerisation

DIW: Direct Ink Writing

3DP: Three dimensional Printing

SLM: Selective Laser Melting

LOM: Laminated Object Manufacturing

FDM: Fused Deposition Modelling

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 List of Symbols

1. ρ Density of the sample

2. ρ0 Density of Auxiliary Liquid

3. ρL Density of Air

4. α Absorption Coefficient

5. π Value = 3.14

6. k Extintion Coefficient

7. λ Wavelength

8. σ Fracture Strength
9. σs Fracture strength of sample
10. P Porosity
11. v Poisson’s Ratio

11
 List of figures and tables

1. Figure 1 Ceramic 3-D printing technologies 18

2. Figure 2 3D Printing initiative undertaken by canon 22
3. Figure 3 22
4. Figure 4 Methods of ceramic forming 23
5. Figure 5 A simple LPBF setup 25
6. Figure 6 SEM 26
7. Figure 7 HRTEM IIT-BHU 27
8. Figure 8 Surface roughness terminologies 28
9. Figure 9 Arithmetic mean deviation of the profile 30
10.Figure 10 Root mean square deviation of the profile 30
11.Figure 11 Some common methods of density calculation 32
12. Figure 12 Nd-YAG laser tube 35
13. Figure 13 CO2 Lasertube 36
14.Figure 14 Stripe Scanning Pattern 42
15.Figure 15 Island Scanning Pattern 42
16.Figure 16 Chessboard scanning pattern 42
17.Figure 17 Schematic representation of hatching distance 43
18.Table 3.4.1 37
19.Table 3.4.2 44

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 PREFACE

SLS/SLM of ceramics has received several positive assessments.

However, several aspects of SLS/SLM processing, including as laser
power, scan velocity and hatch distance, and powder/powder bed
heating, have yet to be thoroughly researched or reviewed. Industry
has yet to benefit from key insights on process parameters. This review
examines the process parameters of ceramics printing using the
SLS(Selective Laser Sintering). The following is a breakdown of the
chapter's structure. The first section introduces the fundamental
approach and tools for a thorough examination of a product produced
by the SLS printing process. Following that, the second section
introduces laser parameters and other factors for the SLS process, as
well as a few physical properties concerned in ceramic applications.
The third part discusses how the processing parameters and other
factors influence the physical properties of the manufactured parts as
well as the general rules for parameter selections. Then the fourth part
illustrates the conclusion of the experimentation in the area for
improved results.

13
 1 Introduction
Using computer aided design (CAD) or 3D object scanners, additive
manufacturing allows for the creation of objects with precise geometric
shapes. These are built layer by layer which is in contrast to traditional
manufacturing that often requires machining or other techniques to remove
surplus material.

There are number of distinct AM processes with their own standards, which
include:

Binder Jetting: This technique uses a 3d printing style head moving on x, y and
z axes to deposit alternating layers of powdered material and a liquid binder as
an adhesive.

Directed Energy Deposition: Direct energy deposition additive manufacturing

can be used with a wide variety of materials including ceramics, metals and
polymers. A laser, electric arc or an electron beam gun mounted on an arm
moves horizontally melting wire, filament feedstock or powder to build up
material as a bed moves vertically.

Material Extrusion: This common AM process uses spooled polymers which

are either extruded or drawn through a heated nozzle which is mounted on a
movable arm. This builds melted material layer by layer as the nozzle moves
horizontally and the bed moves vertically. The layers adhere through
temperature control or chemical bonding agents.

Powder Bed Fusion: Powder bed fusion encompasses a variety of AM

techniques including direct metal laser melting (DMLM), direct metal laser
sintering (DMLS), electron beam melting (EBM), selective laser sintering (SLS)
and selective heat sintering (SHS(SLS)). Electron beams, lasers or thermal print
heads are used to melt or partially melt fine layers of material after which
excess powder is blasted away.

Sheet Lamination: Sheet lamination can be split into two technologies;

laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive manufacturing
(UAM). Laminated object manufacturing is suited to creating items with visual
or aesthetic appeal and uses alternate layers of paper and adhesive. UAM uses

14
ultrasonic welding to join thin metal sheets; a low energy, low temperature
process, UAM can be used with various metals such as aluminium, stainless
steel and titanium.

Vat Polymerisation: This process uses a vat of liquid resin photopolymer to

create an object layer by layer. Mirrors are used to direct ultraviolet light
which cures each resin layer through photopolymerisation.

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (Now known as Directed Energy

Deposition-Arc (DED-arc)): Wire arc additive manufacturing uses arc welding
power sources and manipulators to build 3D shapes through arc deposition.
This process commonly uses wire as a material source and follows a
predetermined path to create the desired shape. This method of additive
manufacture is usually performed using robotic welding equipment.

1.1 How does SLS work

Selective Laser Sintering uses a powered laser to melt layers of powder, one
layer at a time and create the desired 3D product

The general process:

1. The powder is preheated by the printing bed. The laser

then heats it close to its melting point which causes the
particles to fuse together.

2. The selected laser then traces the outline of the model provided
on the powder bed to create a solid layer – once this is complete, the
printing bed goes down and a new layer of powder is added.

3. This process is repeated, layer after layer, until the completed

part is created.

4. Once the part has been left to cool, the parts can be unpacked
and removed from the printing bed before they are cleaned and optional
finishing processes are applied.

15
 The Selective Laser Sintering process resembles that of other
powder bed fusion technologies in the following ways:

1. A designer produces a 3D model using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

program.

2. The design is split into thin (2D) layers.

3. The split design is sent to the SLS printer.

4. A leveling roller spreads a thin layer of powdered material across the

printer’s build platform.

5. A CO2 laser traces a cross-section on the material, heating and fusing it

together.

6. Once a layer is complete, the build platform is lowered to allow space

for the next layer of powder.

7. Unused material is recycled after each layer is finished.

8. The SLS process is repeated, building layer-on-layer until the part is

completed.

During the printing process, SLS parts are encompassed by

unsintered powder. This extra powder supports the part during printing,
removing the need for support structures.

1.2 Why choose SLS

One of the most important reason of selecting SLS over its counterparts is that
it does not require any support structure as the unsintered powder left after
the printing process acts as the support. SLS is ideal method for creating
complex parts and large structures, geometries and lattice structures – and can
significantly reduce production times and the amount of manual labour
required, hence cutting costs.

SLS, as one of the fastest AM technologies, allows for the simultaneous

printing of many parts, which not only maximises construction area but also
saves time. SLS-created parts have excellent mechanical qualities, including
durability, flexibility, fine detail, and heat stability. So, for example, if you want

16
to make long-lasting plastic products, SLS is the way to go. SLS differs from
other additive manufacturing technologies in that it can work with a wide
range of materials, including nylon, polystyrene, metals (steel, titanium,
composites), and sand mixes.

1.3 Applications of SLS

SLS originally emerged as a tool for rapid prototyping, but the scope of its
applications has been ever expanding. SLS now provides a whole range of
production opportunities, including:

– Jigs and fixtures

– Aerospace parts
– Medical products
– Machine components

SLS has shown to be very effective in areas like aerospace and automotive,
where small volumes of high-quality parts are required. Real-world examples
include Emirates Airlines, which said last year that it would employ SLS
technology to make parts for its aeroplane interiors, and Porsche, which is
using SLS to build spare parts for its historic automobiles. SLS has also found a
home in the healthcare business, where it is utilised to build highly
personalised items such as hearing aids, medical implants, prostheses, and
other devices.

1.4 SLS of Ceramics

The introduction of 3D printing into the ceramic component production

process opens up whole new opportunities for tackling the problems and
challenges outlined above. Marcus et al. [24] and Sachs et al. [25] were the
first to report on 3D printing of ceramics in the 1990s. By far, a wide range of
3D printing technologies for ceramic production have been developed using

17
the most recent developments in materials science and computer science.
These technologies can be classified as slurry-based, powder-based, or bulk
solid-based approaches, depending on the form of the pre-processed
feedstock prior to printing. Slurry-based technologies use ceramic/polymer
mixtures with viscosities ranging from low-viscosity (∼mPa·s) inks with a low
ceramic loading (up to 30 vol%) to high-viscosity (∼Pa·s) pastes with a much
greater ceramic loading (up to 60 vol%).

Ceramic 3-D printing technologies.

Figure- 1

Lakshminarayan and coworkers at the University of Texas in Austin first

revealed the potential of fabricating complicated 3D ceramic objects with SLS
in 1990, using Aluminium Trioxide based mixed powder systems. Because
alumina has a melting point of 2045 °C, low-temperature binders such as

18
ammonium phosphate (NH4H2PO4) and boron oxide (B2O3) with lower
melting temperatures (190 °C and 460 °C, respectively) were used. Gears and
casting moulds were successfully produced as 3D ceramic parts with
reasonable dimensional precision and part definition. Ceramics have extremely
high melting points as refractory materials. Although a high-power laser can
potentially generate temperatures high enough to trigger the densification
process, which is a solid-state diffusion-dominated process, and adequate
exposure time is also required to achieve the desired densities, local
densification of ceramic powder remains extremely difficult and impractical.

19
 2 Literature Review

2.1 LPBF ( Laser powder bed fusion )

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is a complementary process that uses a laser
beam to mix powder particles into a layer type, which allows for the
production of complex (3D) complex structures. LPBF includes selective laser
melting (SLM), in which the powder dissolves completely, as well as selective
laser sintering (SLS) for other cases such as solid state hardness, liquid state
fluid, and low melting [1] . The main advantages of LPBF are the efficiency of
time and the ability to create geometrically inaccessible with traditional
techniques. LPBF transformed production by offering greater freedom to
design 3D buildings that will be built directly from feedstock packages without
further processing. Introduced in the late 1980-1990s [2, 3, 4], the LPBF
process was first incorporated into metals, and later into polymers, pottery,
and more recently, semiconductors [5, 6].

LPBF can be broadly classified in two types: direct and indirect, depending on
whether a binder material is used. An indirect process either mixes binder
materials with ceramics or coats the ceramics with a polymer. The mixture can
be used as dry powders or as wet slurry from a suspended liquid. The binder
materials melt and consolidate the ceramic powders during laser scanning.
Then a de-binding process removes the binder, and further sintering of the
ceramic part is usually required to increase the final part density. In the direct
process, ceramic objects are created by sintering or melting without the aid of
any binders. Because of the high melting temperatures of ceramics, indirect
processing of ceramics is most common [14]

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2.2 Primary Focus

The properties and parameters of laser selection for additive manufacturing of

ceramic materials with SLS is the subject of this review. Inorganic and non-
metallic components such as crystalline oxide, nitride, and carbide are closely
bound in typical ceramics. Non-crystalline or crystalline glass is also referred to
as glass-ceramic. Excellent strength and hardness, good abrasion resistance,
high melting temperature, high chemical resistance, poor ductility, and low
electrical and thermal conductivity are all characteristics of ceramics.

Figure 1 summarises the classification of processing procedures (page 22). It

cannot be constructed using conventional or mechanical construction
methods. Multi-step techniques are frequently used to create them . A powder
mix combining binders and stabilisers is used to start the moulding process.
Extrusion, slip distribution, compression, tape imitation, and shaping injection
are the next steps in the shape forming process [7]. Sintering at high
temperatures is the final phase. Traditional procedures entail tool design and
use, are cost-effective, and limit the geometry of the device that may be
produced.

AM (additive manufacturing) on ceramics has been developed to overcome

some subtractive manufacturing’s shortcomings,

1. Especially with respect to high tool wear,

2. Size shrinkage,

3. Difficulty creating complex structures.

Binder-based, extrusion-based, and powder-based (LPBF) additive

manufacturing processes are all available. LPBF, for example, allows for fast
and direct fusion without the need for costly post-treatments or hazardous
binders, which are sometimes required by other procedures. Medical and
dental components [8, 9, 10], metal casting moulds [11], thin wall
constructions, turbine blades, nozzles [12], and thermal or electrical insulation
[13] could all benefit from LPBF-produced ceramic parts.

21
 Figure 2: 3D Printing initiative undertaken by canon

Figure 3: (IMAGE SOURCE – GOOGLE IMAGES AND WIKIPEDIA )

22
 Figure 4: Methods of ceramic forming

While LPBF allows for the quick production of ceramic pieces with complicated
structures, it does have two technical drawbacks. First, ceramic particles flow
poorly as compared to metal powders, resulting in uneven distribution across
the powder bed surface. Second, and more critically, highly localised heating
combined with the limited thermal conductivity of ceramics frequently results
in considerable temperature gradients, causing residual strains and
deformation. The two constraints, when combined with the brittleness of
ceramics, can result in cracking, lack of fusion, rough surfaces, porosity, and
less than full density[14]. Because of these difficulties, current ceramic LPBF
(SLS) outcomes are far from satisfactory.

23
A basic LPBF system has three components: a laser, a powder bed, and a
spreading system. A laser and a scanner are included in the laser system. The
laser beam must focus on the powder surface and be absorbed by the
substance in order to heat and melt the material. The laser may move in a two-
dimensional plane thanks to the scanner[16]. The powder bed holds the
ceramic powders and is usually adjustable in height to allow laser focussing on
the newly formed surface. A slot feeder is commonly used to disperse fresh
powders, and a roller or scraper blade is used to level the surface.

Figure 2 shows an example of a common LPBF arrangement. A roller, a scraper

blade, or a combination of the two is used to spread powders over the building
platform and flatten them. To maintain the appropriate laser focus, the new
powder surface moves down one layer thickness. The 3D portion is divided
into a number of planes to be processed; each plane is made up of a set of
basic laser scanning elements known as vectors.[17] The scan pattern, which
determines the orientation and distance between vectors, is pre-programmed.
Following such patterns, the laser scans the flat surface of free or slightly
compacted powders and selectively melts the lighted granules. After the
powders have been exposed to air, they swiftly solidify. The process is then
repeated until a 3D structure with the correct shape and thickness is created.
Unprocessed powder from each layer fills the vacant space in the fabrication
chamber and supports the constructed item during the process; this powder is
then recycled. Figure 1 depicts the basic process flow chart. The fabrication
chamber is occasionally heated and maintained at a specific temperature to
aid the sintering or melting process, depending on the materials to be treated.

24
 Figure 5: A simple LPBF setup

2.3 Scope for work

SLS/SLM of ceramics has received several positive assessments,[19,20,21,22]

However, several aspects of SLS/SLM processing, including as laser power, scan
velocity and hatch distance, and powder/powder bed heating, have yet to be
thoroughly researched or reviewed. Industry has yet to benefit from key
insights on process parameters [23]. This review examines the process
parameters of ceramics printing using the SLS(Selective Laser Sintering). The
following is a breakdown of the chapter's structure. The first section
introduces the fundamental approach and tools for a thorough examination of
a product produced by the SLS printing process. Following that, the second
section introduces laser parameters and other factors for the SLS process, as
well as a few physical properties concerned in ceramic applications. The third
part discusses how the processing parameters and other factors influence the
physical properties of the manufactured parts as well as the general rules for
parameter selections. Then the fourth part illustrates the scope of further
examination and experimentation in the area for improved results.

25
2.4 Background to Techniques

2.4.1 SEM

There are several different types of electron microscopes, including the

transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscope (SEM),
and reflection electron microscope (REM.)

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of
electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various
signals that contain information about the surface topography and
composition of the sample. A scanning electron microscope scans a beam of
electrons over a specimen to produce a magnified image of an object. ...
Electrons from the beam hit the surface of the object and bounce off it. A
detector registers these scattered electrons and turns them into a picture.

Figure 6: SEM
26
2.4.2 HR TEM (High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy)

Figure 7 HRTEM IIT-BHU

27
2.4.3 . Surface roughness measurement

Figure 8

TERMINOLOGY AS PER INDIAN STANDARDS :

• Lay: Represents the predominant surface pattern. It reflects the machining

operation used to produce it.

• Roughness: Consists of surface irregularities which result from the various

machining processes.

• Waviness: This refers to the irregularities which are outside the roughness
width cut-off values. Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface
texture. This may be the result of workpiece or tool deflection during
machining, vibrations or tool run-out.

• Form: This is the general shape of the surface, ignoring the variations due to
roughness and waviness. • Centre line: The line about which roughness is
measured.

28
• Traversing length : It is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation
of the surface roughness parameters. The traversing length may include one or
more sampling lengths.

• Sampling length (l) : Is the length of profile necessary for the evaluation of
irregularities to be taken into account. This is also known as the cut - off length
as regard to the measuring instruments. It is measured in a direction parallel to
the general direction of profile.

Surface texture is deemed to include all those irregularities which, recurring

many times across the surface, tend to form on it a pattern or texture. The
irregularities in the surface texture which result from the inherent action of the
production process is called roughness or primary texture. That component of
surface texture upon which roughness is super imposed is called waviness or
secondary texture. This may result from such factors as machine or work
deflections, vibrations, chatter, heat treatment or warping strains. The
direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the
production method used is called lay. The parameters of the surface are
conveniently defined with respect to a straight reference line. The most widely
used parameter is the arithmetic average departure of the filtered profile from
the mean line. This is known as the CLA (Centre - Line - Average) or Ra
(roughness average).

29
 Figure 9: Arithmetic mean deviation of the Profile, Ra :

Figure 10: Root-mean-square deviation of the Profile, Rq :

30
2.4.4 Density Measurement ( Archimedes Principle )

Archimedes principle state that an object submerged in water at rest, fully or

partially is acted upon an upward force, the magnitude of which is equal to the
weight of the water displaced by the object. The volume of displaced fluid is
equivalent to the volume of an object fully immersed in a fluid or to that
fraction of the volume below the surface for an object partially submerged in a
liquid. The weight of the displaced portion of the fluid is equivalent to the
magnitude of the buoyant force.

The solid is weighed in air (A) and then again (B) in the auxiliary liquid with a
known density. The density of the solid ρ can be calculated as follows:

ρ = Density of the sample

A = Weight of the sample in air

B = Weight of the sample in the auxiliary liquid

ρ0 = Density of the auxiliary liquid

ρL = Density of air

The temperature of the liquid must be taken into account as this can cause
density changes of the order of magnitude 0.001 to 0.1 per °C, the effect
of which can be seen in the third decimal place of the result.

31
 Figure 11: Some common methods for density calculation

32
 3 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis(Parameters)

Laser Parameters

During the SLS process, it was seen that many factors affect the final product.

They are as follows:

1. Wavelength
2. Scanning speed
3. Hatch Distance
4. Hatch Distance
5. Scan Pattern
6. Continuous or pulsed laser operation

Process flow chart for SLS manufacturing

2D elements of laser scan vectors are designed for each layer

A layer of powder is deposited onto building platform

The powders are flattened

The laser beam selectively sinters deposited powder layer

The powder bed surface is lowered by a height of one layer thickness

The 3D product is created and the excess of the powder is recycled.

33
3.1 Laser Selection

Laser and powder interaction are one of the important parameter of SLS
process. Laser selection is dependent on the material that is to be processed (
sintered ). [23]

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT:

The absorption coefficient determines the extent of the penetration of a

material light or LASER before it is absorbed. It depends on material and the
wavelength of the light that is being absorbed

The absorption coefficient α is in dependance extinction coefficient, k by the

following relation:

α = 4πk / λ

From which it is inferred that “The absorption

coefficient is indirectly proportional to the wavelength
of the light or the laser that is being used “

34
Nd- YAG laser and Co2 laser have been prominently used for the SLS purpose
and its properties were investigated.

3.1.1 Nd-YAG laser:

Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet laser is a solid state laser

wherein Nd: YAG is used as laser medium

Figure 12 (SOURCE – GOOGLE IMAGES/PINTEREST)

35
 3.1.2 CO2 laser:
Active Medium in CO2 laser : Helium, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide

Figure 13 (SOURCE – WIKIPEDIA IMAGES)

36
 Materials Absorptance of Nd-YAG laser Absorptance of CO2laser
(λ=1.06µm) (λ= 10.6µm)
ZnO 0.02 0.94
Al2o3 0.03 0.96
SiO2 0.04 0.96
BaO 0.04 0.92
SnO 0.05 0.95
CuO 0.11 0.76
SiC 0.78 0.66
Cr3C2 0.81 0.7
TiC 0.82 0.46
WC 0.82 0.48

Table 3.1.1: Optical absorptance of Nd-YAG and CO2 laser for different materials

Laser selection as seen depends on materials. Materials only absorb light

energy for certain wavelengths. Optical absorption coefficients were found and
listed ( Table 4.1.1 )

It was seen that the common oxide ceramics weakly absorb in near infrared
region whereas carbide ceramics absorb 1.06µm wavelength. It was seen that
the CO2 laser was better suited for oxide ceramics while Nd-YAG are suitable to
metal and carbide ceramics.

37
3.2 Laser Density and Laser power

Scan speed, Hatch distance and the laser power are the important adjustable
parameters of a laser system that is being deployed. The scanning speed and
laser power is to be adjusted onto the powder surface to provide enough heat
to carry on the SLS process [24]. It was seen

(Laser) Energy Density = Peff / vs.h.d

Where Ed is the energy density or energy input

Vs is the scan speed

This parameter has been used as a thumb rule to determine the optimum laser
power for the process.

This equation does not take into account various other factors such as:

1. Hatch style

2. Laser diameter

3. Laser offset at corners

True stress and True strain for a different samples at a constant energy density
and at a constant scan speed and varying power were studied and the results
have been further investigated.

Sample was: Al-12Si [25]

38
The results of room temperature tensile tests of Al-12Si specimens
manufactured by SLS at a constant energy density of 55 J/mm3 with a constant
layer thickness and hatch distance are shown in Figure 1(a). To achieve a
constant energy density, the two parameters laser power and laser scan speed
were adjusted. Even though the same energy density is provided to the
powder bed for the creation of the tensile specimens, the tensile curves are
not identical. For Al-12Si samples created with 320 W power and 1455 mm/s
scan speed (i.e. optimal settings), the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
(UTS), and ductility are 240, 385 MPa, and 3%, respectively. When the power is
dropped to 280 W and the scan speed is reduced to 1273 mm/s, the UTS and
ductility drop to 330 MPa and 1.75 percent, respectively. Similarly, as the laser
power and scan speed are gradually reduced to 40 W and 182 mm/s, the
tensile characteristics decrease, with a UTS of only 100 MPa and no discernible
ductility.

These findings suggest that energy density cannot be utilised as a single

parameter to properly manage SLS specimen quality. Except for the samples
produced with a laser power of 40 W and a laser scan speed of 182 mm/s, the
samples show no ductility when the laser power is less than 200 W and the
scan speed is less than 1091 mm/s. These findings suggest that, in order to
generate SLS parts with optimal mechanical properties, either the laser power
or the laser scan speed must be independently modified. Al-12Si samples were
manufactured at both fixed scan speed by adjusting the laser power and fixed

39
laser power by varying the laser scan speed in order to clarify the influence of
laser power/laser scan speed on mechanical properties.

Figure 1(b) illustrates the room temperature tensile test results of Al-12Si SLS
specimens generated with a constant laser scan speed and a laser power
ranging from 320 to 80 W. (in steps of 40 W). The tensile characteristics of the
Al-12Si samples appear to worsen as the laser power is reduced. For example,
a sample created with a laser power of 320 W has a UTS of 385 MPa, and when
the laser power is dropped to 280, 240, 200, 160, 120, or 80 W, the UTS
gradually drops to 355, 343, 275, 187, 128 and 60 MPa, respectively.
These findings show that the laser power has a significant impact on the mecha
nical properties of SLs-produced items.

Samples produced with a constant laser power but a decreasing laser scan spe
ed, on the other hand, showed no significant alterations.

3.3 Scan pattern and hatching distance

3.3.1 Scan Pattern

In SLS, SP influence important features like porosity, microstructure, surface

roughness, heat build up etc in the finished printed components. Different
scanning strategies are accessible in SLS (Selective laser sintering) machines.

In the process workflow, the component to be printed is digitalized and sliced

in layers. Each layer is split into various regions based on algorithms that
determine whether a specific location has material above or below. In short,
these algorithms are the logical versions of these 2 questions: is there material
above this in-layer region? Is there material below it? The answer defines each
area as core, skin, upskin, downskin.

40
Defining these in-layer regions gives the flexibility to assign them different
parameters. the melting process and heat transfer is intrinsically different
depending on the material and its location

3.3.2 Types of scan patterns

Stripe pattern

The stripe pattern is a band defined by the scan vector width (ie stripe width),
the hatching space between adjacent tracks and the scan direction as well as
the overlap with the neighbouring stripes

Chess board pattern

The chessboard pattern – or checkerboard pattern - is defined by its squares,

similar to, as the description suggests, the squares of a chessboard. This
pattern is defined by the side length of the square, the hatching distance
between adjacent tracks and the overlap between squares. The equivalent of
the white squares of the checkerboard are printed first before the black
squares.

Island Pattern

This is a random version of the chessboard pattern. Here each square is

printed randomly across the layer, in no particular order. The main variables
are square side width, overlap and hatching distance to ensure no powder is
left unmelted.

41
 Figure 14: Stripe Scanning Pattern

Figure 15: Island Scanning Pattern

Figure 16: Chessboard Scanning Pattern

42
3.4 Hatch Distance OR Scan Spacing

Scan spacing is the separation between two consecutive laser beams. It is also
called hatch spacing or hatch distance. It is measured by a distance from the
center of one beam to the center of the next beam. Scan spacing is directly
proportional to the production speed. If it is high, it will take less time for laser
to scan the layer while if it is low, a number of scanning needs to be executed
to process the whole layer. Smaller scan spacing is required for making thin
features.

In order to have large scan spacing, large laser spot size is required. Otherwise,
there remains gap between two consecutive scans resulting in porous
products. For processing with larger spot size, higher laser power is required to
supply necessary laser energy. It implies that in a given SLS/SLM system, the
maximum scan spacing obtained is limited. In order to avoid any porosity
formation at the boundaries of scans, some overlap is made. Overlap is
necessary because in a typical Gaussian beam, laser power at the center of the
scan is higher than at the boundary of the scan resulting in melting at the
center while heating at the boundary. Creating the overlap compensates this
less heat generation at the boundary.

Figure 17: Schematic representation of Hatching Distance

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 3.4.1 Effects of Hatch distance

Experimentation on 2 samples of AlSi10Mg were done for different hatch

distance and the results are studied using SEM ( Scanning Electron Microscope,
Compression test and simulation for the thermal conductivity as well as
density in regards to the porosity. The following table was deduced [28] :

Sample Laser Scan Layer Hatch Energy Density Porosity Thermal

Power Speed Thickness distance density (gr/cm3) (%) conductivity
3
(W) (mm/s) (mm) (mm) (J/mm ) (W/mK)

S1 370 1300 0.03 0.5 18.97 2.45 6.6169 100

S2 370 1300 0.03 1 9.48 1.97 19.298 53

Table 3.4.1

As can be seen from the table, as the hatch distance increases, the porosity of
the sample increases which leads to various outcomes:

1. Low Density
2. Low thermal conductivity
3. Low Energy density

As can be understood from the table, as the hatch distance increases the
porosity of the sample increases and the thermal conductivity decreases due
to the presence of the pores which act as no conduction zone.

The energy density according to the other parameters can be calculated by the
formula given below:

ED = PLaser / vscan hd tlayer

44
Solving according to the metrics given in the above table,

(i) For S1:

Plaser =370

Vscan =1300

Hd = 0.5

tlayer= 0.03

ED = 18.8 J/mm3

(ii) For S2:

Plaser =370

Vscan =1300

Hd = 1

tlayer= 0.03

ED = 9.4 J/mm3

The above results indicate that the thermal conductivity is decreasing with the
increasing porosity. The reason behind this is that the porosity makes the heat
conduction through the material difficult and in this case it is causing the
thermal conductivity to decrease.

Due to increase in hatch distance, porosity increases too, resulting in a lower

mechanical strength of the material, ie decreasing the compressive strength
which further can be studied by the compression test.

45
Now, the effect of porosity to mechanical property can be studied
by the formula given below:

σ/ σs = ((Φ – P) / Φ)1+V x ( 1 – Φ2/3 )1/2

Φ = 1 – ((1+v)/3(1-v))

Where P is the porosity

And v is the Poisson ratio

As can be seen from the above formula σs ( s stands for sample )

roughly have a indirect relation with the porosity of the sample.

46
 4. Conclusions

In the compiled study of various process parameters mainly focused on

the following

1. Laser Selection
2. Energy Density
3. Hatch Distance

Majorly the below mentioned conclusion can be drawn which can be

further extrapolated and researched for different other materials and
parameters (quantitative)

4.1 Laser Selection

The absorption coefficient determines the extent of the penetration of

a material light or LASER before it is absorbed. It depends on material
and the wavelength of the light that is being absorbed

As seen for the ND-YAG and CO2 laser, It was seen that the common
oxide ceramics weakly absorb in near infrared region whereas carbide
ceramics absorb 1.06µm wavelength. It was seen that the CO2 laser was
better suited for oxide ceramics while Nd-YAG are suitable to metal
and carbide ceramics

47
 4.2 Energy Density

Energy Density = Peff / vs.h.d

Where Ed is the energy density or energy input

Vs is the scan speed

This parameter has been used as a thumb rule to determine the

optimum laser power for the process.

This equation does not take into account various other factors such as:

1. Hatch style

2. Laser diameter

3. Laser offset at corners

Findings suggest that energy density cannot be utilised as a single

parameter to properly manage SLS specimen quality. Except for the
samples produced with a laser power of 40 W and a laser scan speed of
182 mm/s, the samples show no ductility when the laser power is less
than 200 W and the scan speed is less than 1091 mm/s. These findings
suggest that, in order to generate SLS parts with optimal mechanical
properties, either the laser power or the laser scan speed must be
independently modified. Al-12Si samples were manufactured at both
fixed scan speed by adjusting the laser power and fixed laser power by
varying the laser scan speed in order to clarify the influence of laser
power/laser scan speed on mechanical properties

48
 4.3 Hatch Distance

As can be seen from the table, as the hatch distance increases, the
porosity of the sample increases which leads to various outcomes:

1. Low Density
2. Low thermal conductivity
3. Low Energy density

As can be understood from the table 3.4.1, as the hatch distance

increases the porosity of the sample increases and the thermal
conductivity decreases due to the presence of the pores which act as
no conduction zone.

Results indicated that the thermal conductivity is decreasing with the

increasing porosity. The reason behind this is that the porosity makes
the heat conduction through the material difficult and in this case it is
causing the thermal conductivity to decrease.

Due to increase in hatch distance, porosity increases too, resulting in a

lower mechanical strength of the material, ie decreasing the
compressive strength which further can be studied by the compression
test.

49
 4.4 Discussion and Future Scope

Other factors also significantly affect the SLS process, including pre- or
post-processing, secondary laser assistant, application of protective gas
atmosphere, etc. The preheating decides the temperature of the powder
bed and is particularly important in the case where binders are used
since it affects the wetting and spreading properties. Oxidation usually
happens if the process is not in an oxygen-deficit environment, which
affects the materials’ structure and properties.

The laser beam characteristics and scanning fashion, together with the
optical and thermal properties of the powder layer, govern the balance
between heating by the absorption of laser radiation and conductive
thermal losses. The thermal absorption and dissipation dictate the
temperature of the laser-powder interaction zone. With appropriate
combinations of laser parameters and proper powders, the interlayer
bonding strength and the mechanical strength of the whole component
can be improved

Comparing to metals, laser powder bed fusion of ceramics (SLS) is

relatively new, less studied, and less mature. Ceramics are a large
materials family which includes oxides (Al2O3, MgO, ZrO2, FeO, NiO,
SiO2, CuO, Ca3(PO4)2, etc.), carbides (BC, SiC, WC, etc.), nitrides
(Si3N4, Al6N6O2Si, AlN, etc.), sulfides (Yb3S4, CeS, CaLa2S4, MgYb2S4,
MnEr2S4, ZnGa2S4, etc.), fluorides (CaF2, BaF2, SrF2, etc.), and ceramic
component mixtures (Al2O3-ZrO2, Al2O3-SiO2, ZrO2-Y2O3, Li2O-Al2O3-
SiO2, K2O-Al2O3-SiO2, etc.). However, so far the laser powder bed fusion
on ceramics has been studied on only a small fraction of this materials
family. Not all of them may be suitable for the current layer-by-layer
construction technique due to factors such as high melting temperature,
different optical/thermal properties, or availability of suitable powders.
Further development may lead to construction of multi-material,
multifunctional objects.

50
To obtain desired structural and physical properties of a fabricated part,
an optimized process is required for the laser powder bed fusion
technique. However, since the process parameters are completely
material-dependent and can be varied largely for different ceramics, it is
necessary to optimize the process parameters for each material through
series of experiments, theoretical modeling, or a combination of both.
The optimization includes powder, laser, and environmental factors, as
well as possible pre- and post-processes.

As these factors are further investigated, the difficulties related to them

may be solved. For example, proper choice of lasers and powders,
combined with an optimum process, can compensate for or overcome
some of the limitations and produce near 100% relative density. Such
near pore-free parts have only micro-cracks or no cracks, and their
mechanical properties are close to those manufactured from
conventional methods. The SLS technique therefore shows potential for
ceramic fabrication and will continue to attract research and industrial
interests in the future.

51
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