O-Levels Biology (5090) Definition List

Compiled by: Qazi Munib Sabir

- Chapter 1 (Cells)
- 1.1 Cell Structure
. Cell: The basic structural unit of all living matter.
. Protoplasm: The nucleus, and the cytoplasm together make up the protoplasm.
. Cytoplasm: The liquid part inside the cell, that contains organelles (for example mitochondria),
and is the site for cell activities.
. Nucleus: Contains the genetic information of a cell, in the form of chromatin, and it controls
all the cell activities for example growth and repair.
. Organelles: Structures that perform specific functions inside the cell.
. Cell Membrane: The partially permeable layer (made of lipids and fats) that surrounds the
cytoplasm of a cell, and controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell.
. Cell Wall: Present in plant cells, this layer is made up of cellulose, and it surrounds the entire
plant cell including the cell membrane, this is fully permeable.
. Nucleolus: Found inside the nucleus, used in making proteins.
. Nuclear Envelope: Membrane of the nucleus, which separates the content of the nucleus from
the cytoplasm.
. Nucleoplasm: Similar to the cytoplasm, but this is within the nucleus.
. Chromatin: Thread-like structures within the nucleus that contain DNA, and proteins. Genetic
information is stored within DNA. At the time of cell division, the chromatins condense to form
coiled structures called chromosomes.
. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): Synthesizes and transports proteins made by the
Ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus. When viewed under a microscope the RER appears to be
rough as the name suggests, since it has ribosomes attached on it.
. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): Synthesizes steroids, and carries out detoxification.
These appear smooth under the microscope, as ribosomes are not attached to them.
. Ribosomes: Small, round structures that are either attached to the RER, or are lying around
freely in the cytoplasm.
. Golgi apparatus: Also known as the Golgi body, it is a disc shaped structure that modifies
substances made by the ER, and packages them into vesicles.
. Mitochondria: Are small organelles, where aerobic respiration takes place. ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) Molecules are produced as a result, which store energy produced as a result of
respiration.
. Chloroplast: Organelles found inside plant cells, these contain a green pigment called
chlorophyll, which is imperative towards photosynthesis.
. Vacuoles: Fluid-filled spaces inside the cytoplasm. Animal cells have many, temporary
vacuoles, while plant cells have a large, permanent central vacuole called the sap vacuole.
- 1.2 Specialized Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems
. Differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized to carry out a specific function.
. Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Are non-nucleated (have no nucleus) cells, that contain a red pigment
called Haemoglobin (Hb). Hb binds to oxygen to transport it around the body. RBCs are
biconcave in shape.
. Root Hair Cells: Have a long tubular shape called protrusion, these are specialized to absorb
water and dissolved mineral ions from the soil.
. Xylem Vessels: Long hollow tubes extending from the roots to the leaves, these have no cross
walls. These do not have a protoplasm, and their walls are have a layer of lignin for strength.
Are specialized to transport water from the root to the leaves
. Tissues: a group of cells with similar functions, which work together to carry out one specific
function. Further divide into (a) Simple Tissues, and (b) Complex Tissues.
a) Simple Tissues: The same kind of cells group together to form simple tissues, for example
muscular tissues in animals, and epidermis in plants.
b) Complex Tissues: More than one type of cells group together to form complex tissues, for
example blood in animals, and phloem tissue in plants.
. Organ: More than one type of tissue working together to carry out a specific function, for
example the heart in animals, and the leaf in plants
. Organ System: Several organs working together for a common purpose, for example the
nervous system in animals, and root system in plants.
. Organism: Various organ systems together make up the body of an organism

- Chapter 2 (Movement Of Substances)

- 2.1 Diffusion
. Diffusion: The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration, down the concentration gradient. Does not require energy (Passive
Process)
. Concentration Gradient: Difference in the concentration between the two regions.

- 2.2 Osmosis
. Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules form a region of higher water potential to a
region of lower water potential (down water potential gradient), through a partially permeable
membrane. Does not require energy (Passive Process)
. Water Potential Gradient: Difference in the water potential between the two regions.

- 2.3 Active Transport

. Active Transport: This process requires energy produced as a result of respiration, and in this
the particles move from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration
(against the concentration gradient).
. Since this requires energy it is an active process.
- Chapter 3 (Nutrients)
- 3.1 Carbohydrates

. Carbohydrates: Organic molecules made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. The ratio of
Hydrogen to Oxygen is 2:1, and they further divide into (a) Monosaccharides, (b) Disaccharides,
and (c) Polysaccharides.

(a) Monosaccharides: Also known as single sugars, these are small molecules that cannot be
further broken down. These undergo condensation reactions to form Disaccharides, and
Polysaccharides. Monosaccharides have the formula C6H12O6. Examples include Glucose,
Fructose and Galactose.

Monosaccharides are reducing sugars.

(b) Disaccharides: Also known as double sugars, these are formed when two single sugars join
together. These can be broken down by hydrolysis to form monosaccharides. Disaccharides
have the formula C12H22O11. Examples include Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose

(c) Polysaccharides: These are large/complex sugars, they are made up of many smaller sugar
molecules, and so have a large, complex structure. They bind/link themselves differently to
form different structures. Examples include Cellulose, Starch, and Glycogen.

- Reducing Sugar Test (Benedict’s Test)

1- Add 2cm^3 of given sample into a test tube.

2- Add 2cm^3 of Benedict’s solution to the test tube (It is blue in colour)
3- Shake the mixture, then heat it for 3-4 minutes in a water bath
4- Note the colour change.

Colour Change Observed Conclusion Drawn

Colour Remains Blue Reducing Sugars are absent
Blue to Green Traces/Little amount of Reducing Sugars
Blue to Yellow/Orange Moderate amount of Reducing Sugars
Blue to Brick-red Large amount of Reducing Sugars
- 3.2 Fats

. Fats: Organic molecules made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. The ratio of
Hydrogen to Oxygen is very large in the case of fats. They break down to form fatty acids, and
glycerol (3 fatty acid molecules, and one glycerol molecule).

- Ethanol Emulsion Test

1- Liquid Sample
. Add 2cm^3 of the given sample in a test tube, add 2cm^3 of ethanol solution to it, and then
add 2cm^3 of distilled water in that test tube, and note if a cloudy-white emulsion forms, if it
does then fats are present, otherwise they’re absent.

2- Solid Sample
. Crush the solid sample into small pieces, and then decant them, after that carry out the same
process as the liquid sample, if a cloudy-white emulsion forms fats are present, otherwise they
are absent.

- 3.3 Proteins

. Proteins: Organic molecules made up of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and
Nitrogen. Sometimes they also might contain Sulfur. Proteins are made up of simpler
compounds called amino acids. There are 20 different kinds of amino acids that make up
proteins.

- Biuret Test

1- Add 2cm^3 of given sample in a test tube

2- Add 2cm^3 of Biuret Solution to the test tube (Blue in Colour)
3- Shake and note the colour change

. If the colour changes from blue to purple, then proteins are present, otherwise they’re absent.
. The deeper the purple colour, the greater the concentration of the proteins.
- 3.4 Other Definitions, and ID Tests

- Starch Test (Iodine Solution)

. Add 2cm^3 of the given sample in a test tube, and then add 2cm^3 of Iodine Solution to it
(Iodine Solution is brown in colour)
. Note the colour change, if colour changes from brown to blue-black, then Starch is present in
the sample, otherwise it is absent.

- Condensation Reaction: The chemical reaction in which two simple/smaller molecules are
added together to form one larger molecule. One water molecule is removed during this
reaction

- Hydrolysis: The reaction in which a molecule of water is added to a large/complex molecule to

break it down into simpler ones.

- Chapter 4 (Enzymes)

- Enzymes: Are biological catalysts made up of proteins, that can alter (speed up or slow down)
the rate of a chemical reaction, while being chemically unchanged themselves.

- They do so by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction with a lower activation energy.

- In your scheme of studies enzymes are further divided into (a) Carbohydrases, (b) Proteases, (c)
Lipases

(a) Carbohydrases: Digest Carbohydrates

(b) Proteases: Digest Proteins
(c) Lipases: Digest Fats.

- Catalysts: Substances that alter the rate of chemical reactions without being effected
themselves.

- Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to start.

- Active Site: The part of the enzyme where the substrate attaches itself is called the active site of
an enzyme

- Optimum Temperature: The temperature at which an enzyme functions best, every enzyme has
its own specific optimum temperature
- Optimum pH: The pH at which an enzyme functions the best, every enzyme has its own specific
optimum pH.

- Denaturation: Change in the shape of the active site of an enzyme, this change can be brought
by (i) Temperature, and (j) pH.

(i) Due to Temperature: The Denaturation due to temperature is permanent (irreversible), and
cannot be reversed, the active sites shape does not go back to normal.
(j) Due to pH: The Denaturation due to pH is reversible, and the shape of the active site goes back
to normal once the enzyme receives its optimum conditions

- Chapter 5 (Nutrition In Humans)

. Nutrition: The process by which organisms get food and energy for growth, repair, and
maintenance of the body. In humans nutrition consists of:

1- Ingestion: The intake of food

2- Digestion: Large, insoluble food molecules are broken down into small, soluble ones that
can be absorbed by the body’s cells
3- Absorption: The digested food molecules are absorbed by the body’s cells
4- Assimilation: The usage of the absorbed food molecules by the cells.

. The Human Digestive System:

Mouth:

1- Teeth: Chew the food to break down the large food pieces into smaller ones, increasing the
surface area for enzymatic action.
2- Salivary Glands: Secrete Saliva into the mouth, which has salivary amylase to break down
sucrose.
3- Tongue: Helps mix the food with saliva, and helps you taste

Pharynx:

1- Connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus

2- Both food and air pass through the pharynx when they enter the body.
 Oesophagus:

1- A narrow muscular tube also known as the gullet.

2- Extends the mouth to the stomach.
3- The walls of the oesophagus have two layers of muscles, circular and longitudinal muscles.
4- Longitudinal muscles are on the outer side of the wall, while Circular muscles are on the inner
side of the wall.
5- These 2 muscles work antagonistically to carry out Peristalsis (the involuntary, rhythmic wave-
like contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal.)

Stomach:

1- The stomach is a bag of muscle that has gastric glands to produce gastric juice, which has
enzymes.
2- Gastric juice is important when it comes to digestion

Small Intestine:

1- Consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

2- Walls of the small intestine have glands that can secrete enzymes.
3- The Wall of small intestine has villi that help it absorb food and water molecules.

Large Intestine:

1- Consists of the colon, and rectum

2- The caecum, and appendix attach the small intestine to the colon, these two really don’t have a
function in the human body anymore
3- The colon absorbs water and dissolved minerals from the undigested substances.
4- No digestion takes place in the Large Intestine.
5- Faeces are stored for some time in the rectum, and then are expelled from the body through
the anus.
 . Accessory Organs (Liver, Gall Bladder, Pancreas):
1- Liver:
. Dark, red structure that produces bile. Bile is used to digest lipids

2- Gall Bladder:
. Bile is stored here, and flows into the duodenum via the bile duct

3- Pancreas:
. Connected to the duodenum by the pancreatic duct
. Bile duct joins the pancreatic duct right before it connects to the duodenum
. Pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes
. Pancreas also secretes insulin, and glucagon

- Digestion: Large, insoluble food molecules are broken down into small, soluble ones that can be
absorbed by the body’s cells. Further divided into (a) Physical Digestion, (b) Chemical Digestion.

(a) Physical Digestion: No Enzymes are involved, takes place in the mouth due to the chewing
action of the mouth, and in the stomach due to the contractions and relaxations of the
muscles of the stomach.

Increases the S.A to Volume Ratio

(b) Chemical Digestion: Break down of large food molecules that cannot be absorbed by the
body into smaller ones that can be absorbed

Done by the action of enzymes

- Deamination: The process by which amino groups are removed from amino acids, and
converted into urea

- Detoxification: The conversion of harmful substances into less harmful/harmless ones is known
as Detoxification
- Chapter 6 (Plant Nutrition)

- Photosynthesis:
The Anabolic process in which light energy trapped/absorbed by the chlorophyll is changed
into chemical energy. The Chemical energy is used to synthesize carbohydrates from water and
CO2. O2 is released during the process alongside glucose, CO2 and H2O are the raw materials of
photosynthesis.

- Leaf Structure

Lamina: Has a large, flat surface compared to its volume, this ensures that the maximum
amount of sunlight is obtained for photosynthesis. Since the lamina is large and thin it also
ensures rapid CO2 diffusion.

Petiole: Holds the lamina away from the stem so that the lamina can obtain sufficient sunlight,
and air.

- Internal Structure of Lamina

Upper Epidermis:
.It is made up of a single layer of cells tightly packed together. The upper epidermis is covered by
a waxy, transparent layer called the cuticle

Palisade Mesophyll:
.Consists of one or two layers of closely packed, long and cylindrical cells.
.Has many chloroplasts
 Spongy Mesophyll:
.Irregularly shaped cells
.Large intercellular airspaces
.Cells carry out photosynthesis, however have fewer chloroplasts than Palisade Mesophylls
.Cells are covered with a thin layer of moisture.
.Contain xylem and phloem, these two group together to form the vascular bundles

Lower Epidermis:
.Beneath the mesophyll layer
.Like the upper epidermis these too have a single layer of closely packed cells covered with a
cuticle (reduces water loss)

Stomata:
.There are many openings in the lower epidermis called stomata
.Close and open depending upon external conditions

- Chapter 7 (Transport in Humans)

7.1 Composition of Blood

Plasma: The pale yellowish liquid, this is about 90% water. Plasma contains a mixture of proteins
such as fibrinogen, prothrombin, antibodies, then dissolved salts and minerals such as Ca, Na,
K, food substances such as glucose, amino acids, excretory products like CO2 in the form of
H2CO3, and urea.

Erythrocytes (RBCs):
- . Features already discussed in Chapter 1.
. Advantages of the features:
- Haemoglobin: Combines with Oxygen reversibly to form oxyhaemoglobin, this is used to
transport oxygen around the human body.
- Biconcave Shape: The center of the RBC is thinner when compared to its edges, and so it has a
greater SA to Volume ratio, and this makes the rate of absorption and release of Oxygen faster.
- Thin and elastic: Can pass through the walls of capillaries (thin blood vessels).
- Non-nucleated: More space for haemoglobin, and so more oxygen.

Leukocytes (WBCs):
. Larger than RBCs, but lesser in number
. The main types are (a) Lymphocytes, and (b) Phagocytes

(a) Lymphocytes: Have large rounded nucleus, small amount of non-granular cytoplasm, tend to be
of a near circular shape, and do not move much. These produce antibodies.

(b) Phagocytes: Have a lobed nucleus, and a granular cytoplasm. The phagocytes ingest the foreign
particles that enter the body
 Phagocytosis: Is the process of engulfing foreign particles for example bacteria, by the WBCs

Tissue Rejection: Tissue rejection is a process in which a transplant recipient's immune system
attacks the transplanted organ or tissue.

- 7.2 The Circulatory System

Heart: The heart is a bag of blood, which pumps blood to the whole body through various
blood vessels, the average human heart is about the size of a person’s fist.

Arteries: Have thick, muscular walls, and narrow lumens. Carry oxygenated blood away from
the heart. The largest artery of the body is the aorta. Arteries further branch out into arterioles.

Arterioles: These divide further, and their branches form the capillaries.

Veins: Have thin, elastic walls, and large lumens with valves. Carry deoxygenated blood
towards the heart. The largest vein of the body is the vena cava. Veins are formed when
venules join together.

Venules: Before leaving an organ, capillaries join together to form venules (smaller veins)

Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, these are one cell thick, and their main function is to
connect arteries to veins. Capillary Exchange (leaking of plasma) also takes place over here.

- 7.3 Double Circulation in Mammals

. Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation in the
case of double circulation. In mammals’ one systematic circulation, and one pulmonary
circulation make up a double circulation.

. Systematic Circulation: The circulation of blood around the body is known as systematic
circulation. Veins carry blood from all parts of the body towards the heart, and arteries carry
blood around the body, away from the heart.

. Pulmonary Circulation: The circulation of blood linking the lungs to the heart is known as the
pulmonary circulation. Pulmonary arteries carry blood from the heart to the lungs, while
pulmonary veins carry blood from the lungs to the heart.

. Coronary Arteries: The blood vessels specialized to supply the heart with nutrients and
oxygen.
- Chapter 8 (Transport in Plants)
8.1 Transport Structures of Flowering Plants

Xylem:
. Transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves
. It provides mechanical support to the plant
. Features have been discussed in chapter 1.

Phloem:
. Its main function is to transport food (sucrose and amino acids) from the leaves to other parts
of the plant.

Root Pressure:
. The Living Cells around the xylem vessel use active transport to pump ions into it, this lowers
the water potential of the vessels, and as a result water travels into the xylem vessels from the
living cells via osmosis. This phenomenon is called root pressure.

Capillary Action:
. Water moves inside narrow capillary tubes due to forces of adhesion, and cohesion. This is the
capillary effect, and it helps water move up the xylem vessel.

Transpiration:
. The loss of water vapour from a plant, primarily through the stomata of the leaves. The
suction created due to this is known as the transpiration pull, this pulls water and mineral ions
up a plant, and the stream formed due to this is called the transpiration stream.
 Chapter 9 (Respiration)
9.1 Types of Respiration

Respiration:
. The catabolic process in which food substances are broken down with the release of energy.
The main types of Respiration are (a) Aerobic Respiration, and (b) Anaerobic Respiration.

(a) Aerobic Respiration:

Breakdown of food molecules in the presence of oxygen, this process releases large amounts of
energy, and the waste products are H2O and CO2. The raw materials are Glucose and Oxygen.

All of these equations are acceptable for aerobic cellular respiration

(b) Anaerobic Respiration:

Is the breakdown of food molecules in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration releases
much less energy than aerobic respiration.

Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast:

 Anaerobic Respiration in Humans:

9.2 Gas Exchange in Humans

Gas Exchange:
Is the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment.

The Human Gas Exchange System:

- The Nose:
.You usually breathe through your two external nostrils. The advantages of breathing air through
the nose are as follows:
- Dust and bacteria in the air are trapped by the hair inside the nostril, and also by the mucus of
the mucous membrane.
- Air is warmed and moistened as it passes through the nasal passages.
- Dangerous/Harmful chemicals may be detected by the sensory cells in the mucous membrane.

- Trachea:
. This is also known as the windpipe, and is supported by C-Shaped Cartilages. The trachea has 2
main types of cells:
- The goblet cells, which secrete mucus to trap bacteria, and microorganisms.
- The ciliated cells, which have hair like projections called cilia, these sweep the mucus up the
trachea.

- Bronchi and Bronchioles:

. The trachea divides into two tubes that are similar in structure to it. These tubes are known as
the bronchi (bronchus if single), each bronchus carries air into the lungs, and they branch
repeatedly to give rise to bronchioles (very fine tubes). Each bronchiole leads into a cluster
alveoli.
- Alveoli:
. These are the center of gas exchange, it takes place through the walls of alveoli. The alveoli
have the following adaptive features:
- Large number of alveoli are present in the lungs, this provides a large Surface Area.
- Walls of alveoli are only one cell thick, this ensures rapid diffusion of gases.
- The walls off alveoli are surrounded by capillaries, this maintains the concentration gradient of
the gases.
- A thin layer of moisture covers the surface of alveoli, allowing oxygen to dissolve into it.

The path taken by air into the lungs is shown here (left to right.)

External Nasal Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli

Nostrils Passages

Inhalation:
. The process of taking in air, also known as Inspiration. Inhaled air is known as inspired air
. Has about 21% O2, about 0.03% CO2, about 78% N2, the water vapours are rarely saturated,
the temperature of inhaled air varies, and dust particles are usually present.

Exhalation:
. The process of giving out air, also known as Expiration. Exhaled air is known as expired air.
. Has about 16.4% O2, about 4.0% CO2, about 78% N2, the water vapours are saturated, the
temperature of exhaled air is 37 degrees Celsius, and the amount dust particles is very little.
- Chapter 10 (Excretion in Humans)

Excretion:
. The removal of toxic metabolic waste from the body of an organism.

10.1 Excretory Organs and Products:

Excretory Product Excretory Organ Form of Excretion

Carbon Dioxide Lungs Expired Air
Excess Mineral Salts: Skin Part of sweat (very little)
. Urea
. Uric Acid Kidneys Part of Urine
. Creatinine
Excess Water Kidneys Main Part of Urine

Skin Main Part of Sweat

Lungs Water vapour in exhaled air

Bile Liver Part of faeces, through the

intestines.

Osmoregulation: The maintenance of water and solute concentrations in the blood to maintain
a constant water potential in the body.

- Chapter 11 (Homeostasis)

Homeostasis:
. The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Negative Feedback:
. Negative feedback loops are characterized by their ability to either increase or decrease a
stimulus, inhibiting the ability of the stimulus to continue as it did prior to sensing of the
receptor
 Stimulus:
. Any deviation/change from the normal conditions is known as a stimulus, these are detected
by receptor cells/sense organs

Receptor Cells/Sense Organs:

. The organs/structures that detect stimuli.

A Negative Feedback Loop must consist of the following:

- A Normal Condition to be maintained
- A Stimulus
- A Receptor that detects the stimulus
- A Corrective Mechanism, which brings about the reverse effect of the stimulus
- Feedback to the Receptor to stop the corrective mechanism, once the set point is reached.

- Refer to the Book for Skin Part in Detail.

- Chapter 12 (The Nervous System)

12.1 The Human Nervous System

- Components of the human nervous system:

. The Central Nervous System (CNS), this has the brain, and the spinal cord
. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), this has the cranial nerves (from the brain), and the
spinal nerves (from the spinal cord)

- Sense organs (receptors) receive stimuli and inform the CNS about any change in the system,
this is done by electrical signals called nerve impulses. These nerve impulses are transmitted to
the CNS via nerves, the muscle then carries out the process, and so muscles are called effectors.

- Nervous Tissue:
. The nervous system is made up of nervous tissues, these consist of nerve cells called neurons.
There are three main types of Neurons
(a) Sensory Neuron (Receptor Neuron):
. Transmits nerve impulses from the sense organ to the CNS

(b) Relay Neuron (Intermediate Neuron):

. Transmits nerve impulses from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons. These are found in
the CNS

(c) Motor Neuron (Effector Neuron):

. Transmits nerve impulses from CNS to effectors

- Basic Terms associated with Neurons:

- Dendron:
Nerve fibres that transmit nerve impulses towards the cell body are known as dendrons. The
end branches of Dendrons are known as dendrites.

- Axon:
Nerve fibers that transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body.

- Synapse:
A junction between two neurons, or the junction between a neuron and an effector.

- Voluntary action:
A deliberate function performed by the body

- Reflex Action:
The immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control.

- Reflex arc:
The Shortest pathway by which a nerve impulse travels from a receptor to the effector

- Chapter 13 (The Human Eye):

- Components of the eye:

- Suspensory Ligament:
This attaches the lens to the ciliary body

- Iris:
Controls the amount of light that enters the eye
- Aqueous Humour:
This refracts light rays, and keeps the eyeball firm

- Pupil:
Allows light to enter the eye

- Cornea:
Refracts light rays into the pupil

- Lens:
Focuses light onto the retina

- Ciliary body:
Has ciliary muscles, these control the curvature and the thickness of the lens

- Vitreous Humour:
Refracts light rays, and keeps the eyeball firm

- Rectus Muscles:
Control the movement of the eyeball

- Sclera:
Protects the eye against injuries

- Choroid:
Has a black colour, so that the internal reflection of light does not take place

- Fovea (yellow spot):

Images are focused here sharply, this enables clear, detailed and coloured vision

- Blind Spot:
No photoreceptors are present here, so it is insensitive to light

- Optic Nerve:
Transmits never impulses from eye to the brain

- Retina:
Light sensitive layer that has cones that are concerned with bright light, and rods that are
concerned with dim light
 Pupil Reflex

Bright Light Dim Light

Circular Muscles in Iris Contract Radial Muscles in Iris Contract
Radial Muscles in Iris Relax Circular Muscles in Iris Relax
Pupils become smaller, less light enters Pupils become enlarged, more light enters

Focusing

Distant Object Near Object

Ciliary Muscles Relax Ciliary Muscles Contract
Suspensory Ligaments Become Taut Suspensory Ligaments slacken
Lens becomes thinner (less convex) Lens becomes thicker (more convex)
- Chapter 14 (Hormones):

Hormone:
A chemical substance produced in small quantities by endocrine glands, it is transported into
the bloodstream to target organs, where it exerts its effect. After hormones have performed
their function they’re destroyed.
- Chapter 15 (Cell Division):

- Growth:
. The Permanent increase in size. It is accompanied by cell division and differentiation to form
tissues, and organs.

- Mitosis:
. The form of nuclear division that produces genetically identical daughter nuclei with diploid
number of chromosomes, the number of chromosomes are the same as the parent nucleus.

- Meiosis:
. The form of nuclear division in which gametes are produced, the offspring has haploid number
of chromosomes, this type of division takes place in sex organs. Also known as reduction
division
. The gametes fuse upon fertilization and form a zygote with diploid number of chromosomes.

- Chapter 16 (Reproduction):

- Asexual Reproduction:
. It is the process through which genetically identical offspring is attained from one parent,
there is no fusion of gametes.

- Sexual Reproduction:
. It is the process involving the fusion of gametes to form a zygote, this leads to a genetically
dissimilar offspring

- 16.1 Reproduction in Plants

- Stamen (Male Part of the Flower)

- Anther:
Has two lobes, each lobe has two pollen sacs. Inside the pollen sacs there are pollen grains.
Pollen grains contain the male gametes of the plant

- Filament:
The stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse the pollen grain.
- Carpel (Female Part of the Flower)

- Stigma:
A swollen structure at the end of the style. It receives the pollen grains. The mature stigma
secretes a fluid, which triggers the pollen grains to germinate

- Style:
A stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary. It holds the stigma in a suitable position for the
pollen grains.

- Ovary:
The structure that develops into a fruit after fertilization. It produces and protects ovules.
The ovule is a structure that will develop into the seed after fertilization. It produces the
female gamete called ovum. The ovum is connected to the ovary via the placenta.

- Pollination:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

- Self-Pollination:
Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or of a different
flower on the same plant.

- Cross-Pollination:
Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one plant to the stigma of a flower of another
plant of the same species.
- 16.2 Reproduction in Humans

- The Male Reproductive System

- Testis:
. There are two testes, each one produces the male gamete known as sperm.
. They also produce the male sex hormone known as testosterone.

- Scrotum:
. The pouch-like structure in which the testis are found.
. Scrotums are found outside the main body cavity and so they are at a slightly lower
temperature than the rest of the body.

- Glands and their secretions:

. The prostate gland, seminal vesicle, and the Cowper’s gland secrete a fluid that mixes with
sperm to form semen.

- Urethra:
. Both semen, and urine pass through the urethra (a tube which passes from the bladder
through the center of the penis)

- Penis:
. An erectile organ that is used to deposit semen inside the vagina during sexual intercourse.

- The Female Reproductive System

- Ovary:
. The two ovaries produce eggs
. Each ovary produces hormones such as progesterone, and oestrogen
. When eggs become mature, they’re released from the ovaries

- Oviduct:
. Each ovary releases mature eggs into the oviduct or the fallopian tube.
. This is a narrow tube leading from the oviduct to the uterus
. The egg gets fertilized here

- Uterus:
. This is where the fetus develops during pregnancy
. The inner lining of the uterus is known as the uterine lining
- Cervix:
. Lower portion of the uterus, where it joins the vagina
. Allows menstrual blood to flow out during the menstrual cycle

- Vagina:
. Leading from the cervix to the outside, this is also known as the birth canal.
. Its opening is known as the vulva
. Semen is deposited here during sexual intercourse

- Puberty:
Is the stage of human growth and development in which a person becomes physically mature

- Chapter 17 (Heredity)

- Monohybrid inheritance:
Is an inheritance involving only one pair of contrasting traits

- Chromosome:
A rod-like structure visible in the nucleus during cell division, it is made up of DNA

- Gene:
A gene is a unit of inheritance, on a particular locus of a chromosome. It is a small segment of
DNA in a chromosome that controls a particular characteristic or protein in an organism

- Alleles:
Different forms of the same gene. Occupy the same relative positions on a pair of homologous
chromosomes

- Phenotype:
The expressed trait in an organism

- Genotype:
The genetic make-up of an organism, that is, the combination of genes

- Dominant Allele:
Expresses itself and gives the same phenotype in both the homozygous and heterozygous
conditions

- Recessive Allele:
Does not express itself in the heterozygous condition, expresses itself in the homozygous
condition only
- Co-dominance:
This occurs when two alleles controlling a certain trait both express themselves in the
organism

- Multiple Alleles:
A term used for a gene that exists in more than two alleles

- Variations:
Differences between individuals of the same species

- Mutation:
The sudden and random change in the structure of a gene or in the chromosome number

- Genetic Engineering:
A Technique used to transfer genes from one organism to another. Individual genes may be cut
off from the cells of one organism and inserted into the cells of another organism of the same
or different species. The transferred gene may express itself in the recipient organism.

Chapter 18 (Ecology)

- Habitat:
The place where an organism lives

- Population:
A group of organisms of the same species that live together in a habitat

- Community:
Made up of all the populations living and interacting with one another in a habitat

- Ecosystem:
A community of organisms interacting with one another and their abiotic environment

- Food Chain:
Series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food

- Producers:
Make their own food (autotrophs)

- Consumers:
Primary: Feed on autotrophs (these are herbivores)
Secondary: Feed on the primary consumers (these are carnivores)
- Tertiary: Feed on the Secondary Consumers (these are carnivores)

- Food Web:
It consists of interlinked food chains

- Carbon Sink:
An area that stores carbon compounds for an indefinite time period, carbon sinks store more
carbon than they release.