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Journal of South American Earth Sciences: Sciencedirect
Journal of South American Earth Sciences: Sciencedirect
Journal of South American Earth Sciences: Sciencedirect
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In this paper, the evolution of the fabric and 3D geometry of the Calmayo trondhjemitic pluton (512.1 ± 3.4 Ma;
Structure Sierra Chica, Córdoba, Argentina) is analyzed using Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) measurements
AMS combined with structural and microstructural data. Gravity data reveal that the pluton is a funnel-shaped body
Emplacement fabrics
resting on one main root zone detected below the central portion of the pluton. The microstructural observations
Rocks magnetism
in the trondhjemite rocks show a progressive textural overprint from magmatic, through high-T to low-T solid-
Gravimetry
state deformation textures. This overprint is interpreted to be a consequence of the dynamic emplacement and
local deformation, particularly close to the adjacent Soconcho shear zone. Late oxidation of the magnetic mineral
assemblage (martitization of magnetite) is more intense in the central and southern sectors close to the root zone,
explaining the flat magnetic response of this area, and contrasting with a noisy domain to the northeast where
magnetite is preserved. We propose that the Calmayo pluton was constructed by several pulses that ascended
through a root zone or main conduit. This root zone represents feeder dykes that exploited tension fractures
linked to the Soconcho shear zone. Fluids responsible for the late oxidation would have followed similar paths
through this protracted shear zone.
1. Introduction Firstly, the impact of diapirism affected virtually all steps of the
formation of a granite pluton, from the ascent of magma to its expansion
Focused in the Calmayo trondhjemite (Eastern Sierras Pampeanas of at the emplacement site. On the issue of magma ascent, it should,
Córdoba, Argentina), this work illustrates the usefulness of combining however, be noted that even Marsh (1982) stated that the rise of blows
geological and geophysical methods to analyze the structure and of magma as result of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability works in the mantle
emplacement of granite plutons. Structural studies on granitoids have but is unlikely to operate in the crust. According to field studies and
been conditioned, among others, by two factors: 1) the influence of thermal considerations, ascent by dyking is currently accepted as the
diapiric models (Ramberg, 1970; Marsh, 1982; Weinberg and Pod most reliable mechanism for the migration of granite magma up to mid
ladchikov, 1994) on the thinking of how a granite pluton is built and upper crustal levels (Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Hutton, 1992;
(Bateman, 1984), and 2) the difficulty in recognizing lineations of pri Petford et al., 1993). Nevertheless, a model of diapiric ascent of magma
mary, magmatic origin (Nédélec and Bouchez, 2015). through the middle crust is still being applied to anorthosite intrusions
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lpinotti@exa.unrc.edu.ar (L. Pinotti).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.103021
Received 22 June 2020; Received in revised form 10 October 2020; Accepted 5 November 2020
Available online 13 November 2020
0895-9811/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
in Proterozoic terranes (Mukherjee et al., 2020). The role of diapiric be represented by an ellipsoid of k1, k2 and k3 semi-axes (k1 ≥ k2 ≥ k3),
models was equally decisive for interpreting the geometry of plutons at the plane k1-k2 defining the magnetic foliation and k1 the magnetic
depth as inverted teardrops or mushroom-shaped bodies with thickness lineation. The interest of the AMS comes from the fact that a correlation
equal or larger than the surface dimensions (Bateman, 1984; Price and can be made usually between the magnetic fabric and the structural
Cosgrove, 1994). Following this belief, most cross-sections accompa fabric of a rock sample. Readers are referred to Bouchez (1997) for a
nying geological maps all over the world commonly represent granites comprehensive review on the usefulness and limitations of the AMS in
as column-shaped bodies with steep-dipping contacts that spread quite granites.
deep into the crust. Instead, gravity and seismic data reveal that plutons AMS has been extensively used as a tool to reconstruct the
usually display flat floors and tabular sheeted geometries, which emplacement history of igneous rocks (see Bouchez et al., 1990; Tarling
respond to a power-law relationship (Petford et al., 2000; D’Eramo et al., and Hrouda, 1993; Borradaile and Henry, 1997; Borradaile and Jackson,
2006a; Cruden et al., 2017). 2010; Mamtani et al., 2013; Raposo and Gastal, 2009; Sbaraini et al.,
Regarding the second factor, the interest of structures in granites 2020). The final geometry, fabric patterns and compositional arrange
comes from the fact that the magmatic foliation and lineation provide ment of magma bodies are a complex record of their construction and
the best source of information to establish the pattern of magmatic flow internal flow history (Paterson et al., 1998; Pinotti et al., 2016; Rocher
inside a pluton. However, the quasi-isotropic microstructure of many et al., 2018). Magma injection, flow and differentiation, as well as
granitoids makes it difficult to recognize these structures, and magmatic regional stresses, all control the internal fabric of magma bodies.
lineations, specifically, are barely visible to the naked eye (Bouchez, Comparing oriented structures from host rocks with internal magnetic
1997). Just as gravity is a powerful tool to characterize the and deformational fabrics in plutons allows to determine whether the
three-dimensional shape of plutons, the anisotropy of the magnetic pluton fabrics reflect the effect of regional tectonic strain or of internal
susceptibility (AMS) helps to overcome the limitations of field structural chamber processes. Additionally, such study may lead to the unravelling
observations to recognize lineations in plutonic rocks (Tarling and of crystallization conditions and magmatic emplacement as one or more
Hrouda, 1993). The bulk magnetic susceptibility, k, is the proportion pulses, at constant or variable physical conditions.
ality factor between an external magnetic field and the magnetization This study deals with the emplacement of the Calmayo pluton, a
that it induces in a rock sample. The magnetic susceptibility is an small trondhjemite body located at the Sierra Chica de Córdoba
anisotropic property corresponding to a second rank tensor, which can (Argentina). The study combines structural information from the
Fig. 1. (a) Location of the studied zone within the Sierras Pampeanas de Córdoba. CP (Calmayo pluton), HP (El Hongo pluton), SAP (San Agustín pluton). (b)
Simplified geological map of the central sector of the Sierra Chica showing the Calmayo pluton and the trajectories of the regional foliation.
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
country rocks and structural, petrographic and magnetic fabric data plan view, with 4.5 and 2.5 km-long semi-major axes (Fig. 2). The pluton
from the trondhjemite massif. Reflected-light microscopy was also used is essentially discordant, with contacts oriented at rich angles with
to identify the opaque minerals textural relationships, and character and respect to the country rock foliations. Two facies of similar trondhjemite
amount of alteration. In addition, a gravity/magnetic survey has been composition comprise the Calmayo pluton: 1) a coarse-grained facies of
carried out on the trondhjemite and country rocks. This combination of hypidiomorphic texture, found in the pluton core, and 2) a fine-grained
different but complementary geological and geophysical approaches porphyritic facies restricted to the pluton rim. The coarse grained facies
resulted in a detailed evaluation of the internal structure, flow patterns contains more than 90% plagioclase and quartz, with biotite as the most
and the three-dimensional shape of the Calmayo trondhjemite, which in abundant mafic mineral (≤5% wt). Accessory minerals include epidote,
turn enables us to understand the evolution history of the magma during apatite, magnetite, ilmeno-hematite, zircon and titanite. Idiomorphic
emplacement that integrates the shape and internal structure of the epidote with an allanite core is frequent as inclusions in biotite. Crystals
trondhjemite with the structures of the country rocks. of magnetite and ilmeno-hematite are frequent in biotite, as equiaxial or
extremely elongate crystals (shape ratios >10), respectively, which are
2. Geological setting parallel to the (001) cleavage of biotite crystals. The porphyritic
trondhjemite is composed of plagioclase phenocrysts surrounded by a
The Sierra Chica de Córdoba (Eastern Sierras Pampeanas, Fig. 1) is fine-grained matrix of quartz, plagioclase and biotite that suggests fast
the easternmost range of the Sierras de Córdoba, central Argentina, cooling at shallow crustal levels.
which constitutes one of the basement blocks that was uplifted by Ter From a structural point of view, magmatic structures (foliation and
tiary reverse faults between Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits (Jordan compositional layering) prevail in the central and western sectors, while
and Allmendinger, 1986; Bonalumi et al., 2005). It comprises solid-state deformation structures (S-C mylonitic rocks) are found in its
Neoproterozoic-Palaeozoic basement rocks, most of which are Early eastern part associated with the Soconcho shear zone (Martino, 2003;
Cambrian gneisses and migmatites with minor marbles, amphibolites D’Eramo, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2013). The magmatic layering is drawn
and ultramafic rocks, intruded by granite plutons emplaced at various by thin biotite-rich bands alternating with thicker plagioclase- and
crustal levels. The metamorphic sequence experienced high-grade quartz-bearing layers (Fig. 2). The magmatic foliation is defined by the
metamorphic conditions, reaching upper amphibolite-facies at P-T parallel arrangement of the idiomorphic crystals of plagioclase and
conditions of 750 MPa and 800 ◦ C, respectively, during the Pampean biotite. The magmatic origin of the foliation is inferred because these
Orogeny. The protoliths for these rocks have been interpreted as a minerals coexist with equiaxial aggregates of quartz devoid of solid-state
predominantly clastic sedimentary sequences that were deposited in the deformation microstructures. The layering and the magmatic foliation
accretionary prism of the Pampean subduction system (Dalla Salda are parallel and show westward dips and N- to NNW-strike (D’Eramo
et al., 1992, 1998; Rapela et al., 1998, 2018; Casquet et al., 2018; et al., 2014).
Weinberg et al., 2018).
The complex structural and metamorphic evolution of this basement 4. Geophysical survey/Geophysical data and results
reflects the overprinting of successive orogenic cycles (González
Bonorino, 1950; Gordillo and Lencinas, 1979; Ortiz Suárez et al., 1992; 4.1. Magnetic fabric in the Calmayo pluton
Rapela et al., 1998, 2018; Ramos et al., 2014; Casquet et al., 2018;
Weinberg et al., 2018). Between Late Cambrian to Middle Ordovician Anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility (AMS) has been analyzed
times (510–460 Ma), the metamorphic basement was intruded by plu on samples from 27 sites from the Calmayo pluton (Table 1). Two or
tons and dykes of tonalite, trondhjemite, granodiorite and to, a lesser three oriented cores per site were extracted with a portable drilling
degree, granite that make part of a trondhjemite-tonalite-granite (TTG) machine, and three cylindrical samples (24 mm in diameter and 22 mm
Famatinian magmatic arc (Rapela et al., 1998; Pankhurst et al., 2000; high) were obtained from each core, affording 213 specimens. Mea
D’Eramo, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2006a; 2006b; 2013; 2014; Rapela et al., surements were performed at the Universidad del País Vasco, Spain,
2018). The geochemical features of the TTG magmatism in Córdoba, i.e., using a Kappabridge KLY-2 bridge (Geofysica, Brno), yielding magnetic
Na2O, CaO and Sr enrichment, K2O, FeO, Cs, Y and U depletion, low susceptibility values and orientations of the three principal axes of the
Rb/Sr ratios, positive or absent Eu anomalies, high [La/Yb]N ratios, AMS ellipsoids (k1 ≥ k2 ≥ k3). The bulk susceptibility, k, is expressed as
relatively low 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios and variable εNd values, suggest (k1 + k2 + k3)/3. The magnetic lineation corresponds to the k1 -axis and
that a deep magmatic source of probably astenospheric origin was the k3-axis is the pole of the magnetic foliation (k1k2 plane). The
incorporated to the magma leading to the formation of the trondhjemite magnetic foliation strikes NNW–SSE to N–S and dips steeply to the west
plutons of the Sierra Chica de Córdoba (D’Eramo et al., 2006a). (Fig. 3). Field and magnetic foliation measurements give similar results,
Ductile and ductile-brittle shear zones frequently controlled the a fact pointing to biotite as the main mineral phase that defines the
magma ascent and emplacement during the Famatinian magmatic shape fabric in granites. Even if magnetite is present, it mimics the fabric
events (Demartis et al., 2011; D’Eramo et al., 2013; Boffadossi et al., of the silicate phase (Grégoire et al., 1998); elongate magnetite crystals
2020). Particularly, the famatinian Calmayo pluton is affected by the parallel to the (001) cleavage of host biotite crystals (Fig. 2 e) support
Soconcho ductile-brittle shear zone, a NNW-striking and WSW-dipping this interpretation. Moreover, the concordance between the magnetic
reverse shear belt, which extends for more than 35 km along the and field fabrics points to magnetic anisotropy triggered by
southern part of the Sierra Chica of Córdoba (Martino et al., 1995; multi-domain magnetite, as single domain magnetite would result in
Martino, 2003; D’Eramo et al., 2013). inverse magnetic fabrics (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993). In the Calmayo
pluton, the magnetic lineation differentiates two structural domains:
3. The Calmayo pluton S-plunging lineations dominate in the SW part of the pluton, whereas
WNW-plunging lineations prevail in the NE zone (Fig. 3). The Calmayo
The Calmayo pluton (Fig. 1), similar to the nearby El Hongo and San pluton can be divided into two structural domains based on orientation
Agustin trondhjemite plutons, belongs to the G-2 magmatic group of magnetic lineation: 1) S-plunging lineations dominate in the SW part
defined by Rapela et al. (1998). The three plutons were emplaced at of the pluton, where magmatic structures dominate, and 2)
crustal levels close to the brittle-ductile transition (D’Eramo, 2003; WNW-plunging stretching lineations linked to solid-state prevail in the
D’Eramo et al., 2006a, 2006b). High-to medium-temperature meta NE zone, where the magmatic structures are overprinted by S-C struc
somatic skarns are commonly observed when marbles are in contact tures (Fig. 3).
with the trondhjemites.
The Calmayo trondhjemite has an ENE-elongated elliptical shape in
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 2. High-resolution Bing satellite image of the Calmayo pluton and its host rocks. Black dashed contour shows the boundaries of the Calmayo pluton. (a)
Magmatic banding with a typical layer thickness of 10–15 cm. The layering is parallel to the granite foliation. (b) Microphotograph showing intermediate defor
mation in plagioclase and quartz (white arrow) on the central pluton region. (c) Microphotograph showing a quartz crystal with incipient chessboard pattern (white
arrow) affected by high temperature solid-state deformation. (d) Magmatic texture showing the idiomorphic shape of plagioclase crystals and the lack of intra
crystalline deformation in the interstitial grains of quartz. (e) Detail microphotograph showing magnetite crystals with their major axis parallel to the (001) biotite
cleavage. (f) Detail microphotograph showing S-C fabric defined by quartz and biotite in the high strain deformation zone close to the Soconcho shear zone.
4.2. Rock magnetism and magnetic remanence magnetizing the samples by a 2.2-T field along the z axis, a 0.5-T field
along the y axis and a 0.1-T field along the x axis (representing hard,
The nature of magnetic minerals was evaluated through the medium and soft coercivity fractions, respectively). Bulk MS was
following rock magnetic experiments: low-field thermomagnetic curves measured after each thermal step in order to monitor possible magnetic
were acquired with the CS4 furnace and CS-L cryostat attached to the mineral changes, by using a MS2W Bartington susceptometer.
MFK1-A Kappabridge. The magnetic remanence carried by the ferro Reflected-light microscopy was performed in order to identify the opa
magnetic fraction was measured using a three-axis 2G DC squid cryo que phases, textural relationships, and character and amount of
genic magnetometer. Alternating field demagnetization (AF) was alteration.
carried out to a maximum of 110 mT (peak) using a static 2G600 Magnetic susceptibility shows two modes (Fig. 4), corresponding to
demagnetizer attached to the magnetometer. Step-wise thermal paramagnetic and weakly ferromagnetic classes as defined by Clark
demagnetization up to 680 ◦ C was performed using either a two- (1999). Classification of rocks based on magnetic susceptibility is based
chamber ASC or Schonstedt TSD-1 oven. Isothermal remanent magne on the fact that, in the absence of ferromagnetic phases, magnetic sus
tization (IRM) up to 2.3 T were imparted by using an ASC IM-10-30 ceptibility is low and correlates with the whole rock iron content, allo
pulse magnetizer, and measured with an AGICO JR6 spinner magne cated in paramagnetic minerals and determined by chemical analyzes (e.
tometer. IRM acquisition curves were fitted by cumulative log-Gaussian g. Rochette, 1987). The addition of small amounts of ferromagnetic
(CLG, Robertson and France, 1994) functions using the software material (essentially magnetite) rapidly raises the magnetic suscepti
developed by Kruiver and Passier (2001). Thermal demagnetization of a bility values well above 10− 3 SI. A magnetic susceptibility greater than
triaxial IRM (Lowrie test; Lowrie, 1990) was performed, after 1.25× 10− 3 SI is impossible to achieve with paramagnetic minerals
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Table 1 from paramagnetic minerals, since such low susceptibility values can
AMS data for 27 sampling stations of the Calmayo pluton. only reflect at most trace amounts of ferromagnetic minerals. However,
Site k Pj T k1 k3 susceptibilities in that range can also be attained by summing trace
amounts of ferromagnetic minerals plus even lower amounts of para
C1 15.39 1.11 0.65 263/12 60/53
C2 265.85 1.31 0.82 183/24 72/40 magnetic minerals, as noticed by Trindade et al. (1999). In fact, the
C3 14.30 1.06 0.60 282/52 76/45 mean magnetic susceptibility of 400× 10− 6 SI observed in type A
C4 109.47 1.24 0.63 314/32 62/31 samples from Calmayo overcomes the theoretical paramagnetic sus
C5 25.51 1.12 0.51 193/70 63/13 ceptibility, i.e. the expected susceptibility if all the iron in these rocks
C6 36.69 1.11 0.34 303/37 67/37
C7 34.55 1.15 0.52 177/14 81/30
were allocated in paramagnetic minerals. According to chemical ana
C8 20.5 1.16 0.23 278/66 284/04 lyses performed by D’Eramo (2003) on Calmayo trondhjemite, Fe2O3 is
C9 20.30 1.17 0.24 183/20 80/29 typically around 1.25 wt%, ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 wt%, which would
C10 15.41 1.11 0.48 233/56 79/32 produce a paramagnetic susceptibility of around 65 × 10− 6 (range from
C11 9.36 1.21 0.38 178/52 77/11
15 to a maximum value of 140 × 10− 6 SI). The susceptibility that ex
C12 261.00 1.21 0.11 183/25 81/22
C13 477.26 1.23 0.53 190/34 80/31 ceeds this value must be attributed to a small amount of ferromagnetic
C14 6.54 1.02 − 0.24 296/82 71/05 minerals in type A samples. The secondary mode at higher susceptibility
C15 32.00 1.10 0.39 214/48 108/15
C16 30.10 1.16 0.31 180/35 70/22
C17 4.46 1.07 − 0.49 262/65 63/22
C18 37.90 1.14 0.51 289/45 35/16
C19 7.56 1.05 0.45 181/35 73/26
C20 60.49 1.22 0.16 234/47 51/39
C21 270.65 1.18 0.50 179/32 80/12
C22 769.14 1.28 0.59 283/62 61/22
C23 493.23 1.32 0.38 318/45 73/19
C24 8.82 1.07 0.42 280/60 59/24
C25 312.35 1.33 1.53 303/50 66/27
C26 27.49 1.11 − 0.04 260/72 48/11
C27 18.15 1.06 − 0.63 263/65 48/11
Fig. 3. Foliation and lineation maps in the Calmayo pluton. Lower hemisphere equal area projection of poles to the magnetic foliation (A). Lower hemisphere equal
area projection of lineations in the magmatic (B) and solid-state deformation (C) domains. Modified from Fig. 7 of .D’Eramo et al. (2013)
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 5. Rock magnetic data. a) Bulk magnetic susceptibility map, b) Intensity of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) map. Note the high values for magnetic
susceptibility and NRM in the northeastern sector.
values reflects the presence of a higher, even modest proportion of evident from the final drop at the Néel point in 680 ◦ C, but it cannot be
magnetite, of about 0.2 vol%, in type B samples. asserted whether it existed in the sample before heating or if it was
Fig. 6 shows low-field thermomagnetic curves, where the revers created in the process.
ibility of the process was checked by alternative cooling and reheating. Type B samples show a pronounced peak at Verwey temperature, and
Type A samples showed a subdued Verwey transition at low tempera a Curie temperature of 580 ◦ C, typical for nearly pure, MD magnetite.
tures, and a raise in magnetic susceptibility after 450 ◦ C in a non- The raising values of magnetic susceptibility close to the Curie tem
reversible way, denoting the creation of a ferromagnetic mineral dur perature seem to obey to creation of new magnetic minerals, as evi
ing heating. The Curie temperature of the newly formed minerals is close denced by the irreversibility on cooling. Hematite, if present, is
to that of magnetite, 580 ◦ C; however, the structure in the curve reflects completely masked by the much more magnetic magnetite.
a probably more complex assemblage. The presence of hematite is All the samples show composite IRM acquisition curves (Fig. 7),
reflecting the mixture of phases with different remanence-acquisition
coercive force (Bcr). Phases with coercitivity lower than 100 mT
constitute about 10–40% of the IRM for type A samples, and more than
90% for type B samples. An intermediate coercivity phase, of about 150
mT, is present in type A samples. Finally, a phase with high coercivity of
about 400–600 mT appears in all of the samples. Those three coercivity
fractions were magnetized along three different orthogonal directions,
and then thermally demagnetized (Lowrie test, Fig. 8). The low coer
civity fraction showed distributed unblocking spectra mostly below
580 ◦ C, probably magnetite, while both medium and high coercivity
fractions unblocked at 660 ◦ C, pointing to maghemite and hematite,
respectively, as magnetic carriers. As hematite saturation magnetization
is lower than magnetite by more than one order of magnitude, the
observed relations of SIRM imply that hematite is volumetrically more
abundant than magnetite in all of the samples. In fact, magnetite should
be nearly absent in samples type A, according to the subordinate percent
of IRM carried by this mineral.
The intensity of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) is of
about 60 mA/m for type A samples, and it can reach up to 250 mA/m
(Fig. 5b). On the other side, induced magnetization is expected to be low
according to the low values of magnetic susceptibility. For that reason,
high Königsberger ratio (Q) characterizes type A samples (Fig. 9). The
NRM was also very stable, as alternate field demagnetization was
effective to remove only a minor fraction of it (about 10%), denoting
that the magnetic phase carrying the NRM has coercive force higher
than 110 mT (Fig. 10). Thermal demagnetization revealed discrete
unblocking temperature of 610–640 ◦ C (Fig. 10). The high coercivity
and the range of unblocking temperatures are typical of impure hematite
(hematite with a content of Ti in the order of 10 mol %) or maghemite.
The opaque assemblage constitutes between 0.5 and 2 vol % of the
samples, and is composed by martitized magnetite and ilmeno-hematite
of magmatic origin, indicating oxidizing conditions during the
emplacement and cooling. The ilmeno-hematite is a ubiquitous acces
sory mineral, which shows as anhedral to subhedral crystals occupying
Fig. 6. Variation of magnetic susceptibility (arbitrary units) with temperature intergranular positions. The hematite-rich member is usually the host of
(T in ◦ C). Red/blue lines represent heating and cooling curves respectively, with disc-shaped rods of exsolved ilmenite-rich member parallel to {0001}
different traces for distinct cycles of reheating. (For interpretation of the ref (Fig. 11), a typical texture of equilibration on cooling of an original
erences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
ilmenite-hematite (Haggerty, 1991). Magnetite is present either as
of this article.)
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 9. Königsberger factor for type A samples. Q factor for type B samples is
meaningless as NRM is dominated by an unstable and dispersed component
carried by MD magnetite (see text). Most of the samples have Q > 1 (remanent
overcomes induced magnetization), and a significant fraction have Q > 10.
Note the absence of correlation between Q and magnetic susceptibility; this
implies that magnetic susceptibility and remanence are not controlled by the
same mineral, as the abundance of (relict) MD magnetite controls susceptibility,
while abundance of hematite (probably ilmeno-hematite) controls remanence.
lower coercivity in the NRM and IRM, while the highly coercive fraction
would be hematite, either the hematite-member in the exsolved crystals
of ilmeno-hematite, or the martite formed by oxidation of magnetite.
The latter process would also involve the formation of maghemite,
which could carry the medium-coercivity fraction of IRM.
The MD magnetite does not carry significant NRM except for the type
B samples, which show a highly disperse, soft component easily
demagnetized. Hematite, on the other side, carries a relatively strong
magnetization (Q ≫1) which is also very stable; this hematite compo
Fig. 7. IRM acquisition curves for previously demagnetized samples, shown as nent is present in both A and B type samples, and might contribute to
linear, gradient and standardised acquisition plots (LAP, GAP and SAP respec magnetic anomalies.
tively). The components modelled by IRM-CLG 1.0 software (Kruiver and
Passier, 2001) are shown. The abscissa is logarithmic for all three plots.
4.3. Gravity
isolated crystals or in contact with ilmeno-hematite, and shows variable
degrees of martitization, from incipient in samples type B, to nearly A total number of 62 gravity stations were distributed over the
complete in samples type A (Fig. 11). trondhjemite and surrounding areas of country rocks (Fig. 12). Average
The relicts of magnetite would be responsible for the fraction of gravity spacing within the pluton was of ~300 m whereas the average
spacing outside the trondhjemitic body was of ~1 km. All the
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
dimensional (2.5D) geological cross section with the ability to quickly homogeneous in both rock types (trondhjemite and host rocks). Indeed,
calculate and display the resulting gravity and magnetic response of the small variations in the content and nature of accessory minerals are not
cross section. The calculations of the model response are based on the expected to significantly modify the density of these rocks. The final
method of Talwani et al. (1959), and Talwani (1964), and the algorithms effects owing to the limited lateral extent of the pluton were corrected
described in Won and Bevis (1987). The 2.5D calculations are based on considering it as a 2D structure. The overall geometry of the pluton is a
the method used by Rasmussen and Pedersen (1979). Density and roughly tabular body with steep lateral boundaries and reaching its
magnetic properties within a given model body were assumed constant. maximum thickness at its central part. The minimum residual gravity
Iterative adjustments to geologic body configuration, density, and anomaly (− 3.5 mGal) is associated to the greater extent of the pluton
magnetic properties were made to minimize the root mean square (RMS) (~1 km depth) and is interpreted as the possible area of the pluton root.
error between observed and calculated gravity and magnetic anomalies. Some differences between the two models exist: the best fit for model
Due to the fact that GM-SYS calculates the modelled gravity and mag 1-1’ (absolute RMS error is 0.59 mGal) is obtained when the boundaries
netic anomalies simultaneously in real time, the modeler endeavors to between the pluton body and the metamorphic host rocks are not ver
achieve the smallest RMS error possible for both techniques by adjusting tical but dipping moderately outwards, resulting in a more elliptic ge
body shapes after designating acceptable density and magnetic ometry. However, profile 2-2’ reaches a best fit (absolute RMS error 0.64
properties. mGal) when the pluton boundaries dip inwards and the thickness of the
body at the eastern boundary is greatly reduced to less than ~50 m,
5. Discussion resulting in a more funnel shape geometry.
The modeling of the magnetic anomalies is more complex than the
5.1. Geophysical modeling gravity ones. Unlike the residual gravity anomaly, which yields a simple
V-shaped curve (Fig. 13), the magnetic anomalies are dipolar in char
Densities of the trondhjemites and the metamorphic host rocks of acter with several overlapping anomalies of different amplitude and
2.64 g cm− 3 and 2.78 ± 0.04 g cm− 3, respectively, were used to perform extent. Therefore, a reasonable fit by using only a common magnetic
gravity models. The use of a unique density for each body is justified by susceptibility value for the whole pluton body is very difficult to obtain
the fact that density is a physical property dependent on the bulk because magnetic susceptibility varies significantly (in orders of
composition of the rock, and is dominated by the most abundant mineral magnitude) with small variations in the abundance of an accessory
components (e.g. Dentith et al., 2020), which are relatively mineral, such as magnetite (e.g. Dentith et al., 2020). Thus and thus
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
different areas with different susceptibility values have been used in the metamorphic basement. The internal boundaries of the three areas in
models. Several rock samples distributed along the outcrop of the pluton side the pluton provide the best fit (RMS absolute errors of 5.1 nT for
were used to obtain representative values for magnetic susceptibility, as profile 1-1′ and 31.7 nT for profile 2-2’) when subvertical contacts are
discussed in section 4.3. The samples obtained at the central part of the used. The petrographic analysis showed that differences in magnetic
body provided values ranging from 3 to 70•10− 5 SI whereas the susceptibility obey to varying degrees of oxidation of magmatic
northern part is characterized by higher magnetic susceptibility values magnetite. The presence of fresh magnetite in the northeastern sector
ranging from 400 to 1100•10− 5 SI (Fig. 5a). From these data, and in explains the high-amplitude magnetic anomalies. The oxidation
order to obtain a reasonably good fit between the overall geometry of observed in the center and southern parts of the pluton is interpreted as
the pluton from the gravity and magnetic data, three different areas have late-magmatic/deuteric in origin and could reflect protracted access of
been differentiated in the magnetic models: a western zone with mean fluids near the root zone.
susceptibility values of 20•10− 5 SI; a central part with mean suscepti The radiometric response of trondhjemite responds to geochemical
bility values of 50•10− 5 SI and an eastern zone with mean susceptibility variations in the surface, specifically in the content of K, U and Th
values of 500•10− 5 SI. For the host rocks, a mean value of 70•10− 6 SI minerals. The weak response obtained is due to the low content of these
has been used as representative of the gneisses constituting the elements; on the other hand, the homogeneity of the radiometric
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
Fig. 13. Gravity and magnetic models. Model 1-1′ is a transverse section whereas model 2-2′ is parallel to the elongation of the pluton. No vertical exaggeration has
been used in the models. For a detailed description, see the text.
responses implies that its internal variations are not significant. Varia the space generation and forced magma to flow towards local dilational,
tions in these elements would be expected in the case of magmatic dif mean low pressure sites, such as the regional boudin necks (D’Eramo
ferentiation within the pluton and/or different zones of hydrothermal et al., 2013). The eastern sector of the Calmayo pluton is affected by the
alteration. The relatively homogeneous mineralogical composition of Soconcho dextral shear belt that could have acted as the main conduit
the Calmayo trondhjemite pluton suggests that this differentiation did for the channeling of trondhjemitic magma. Other similar examples
not occur. However, even in such homogeneous rocks, the magnetic have been reported by Mamtani et al. (2013), Majumder and Mamtani
system is extremely sensitive to redox changes and these changes (2009) and Bhatt et al. (2017). The geometry obtained from gravity
significantly modify the magnetic properties, as previously discussed. modeling in the Calmayo pluton is similar to that obtained on other
plutons around the world, such as those of the French Massif Central
(Vigneresse, 1990), and some other examples of the Sierras Pampeanas
5.2. Construction of the Calmayo pluton
(D’Eramo et al., 2006b). The gravimetric study reveals the presence of a
single root or feeding channel, which would have a submeridional major
The relationship between structures and magma rise has been widely
axis (NNW). The morphology of this root is evidenced by the funnel
documented in contractional (Tobisch and Paterson, 1990), extensional
geometry shown by the gravimetric anomaly in the central part of the
(Hutton et al., 1990; Acocella and Rosetti, 1999) and shear zone envi
2-2′ profile (Figs. 12 and 13). From this structure, the pluton expanded
ronments (Hutton and Reavy, 1992; Neves et al., 1996). Shear zones are
laterally, thus defining its final elliptical shape. The trondhjemitic
planar discontinuities rheologically weakened in the contact zones with
magmas that are generated at deep levels of the crust ascend by con
the surrounding materials, which favors their role as channels for the
trasting densities with their host rocks reaching the ductile-brittle
extraction of magma from deep levels of the crust. The Calmayo
transition zone, where the hydrodynamic force (buoyancy) is insuffi
trondhjemitic pluton was formed by the accumulation of numerous,
cient to fracture the upper brittle crust additional conditions (regional or
sporadic and small magma pulses at a crustal level close to the
local tectonic strain deformation and fracturing) are necessary to
brittle-ductile transition. The compressional regional stress field oper
crosscut this zone (Vigneresse, 1995). In the upper crust, the migration
ating at the moment of the intrusion of magma pulses tended to impede
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L. Pinotti et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 106 (2021) 103021
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