Fracture of solids

Learning objectives
• Concept of failure & fracture, Role of stress concentration around
geometrical discontinuities – Inglis stress analysis

• Theoretical cleavature/fracture strengths vs experimental fracture

strengths

• Concept of unstable & stable fracture – Griffith’s energy balance concept,

criterion for fracture, Obreimoff’s crack configuration

• Concept of mechanical energy release rate (G), stress intensity factor (K),
equivalence between G & K, stress fields at the tip of a sharp crack in a
linear elastic body, Concept of fracture toughness

• Non-linear fracture, Irwin-Orowan extension of the Griffith’s concept,

Barenblatt Cohesion Zone model, Rice’s J-integral, microstructural
manipulations to improve fracture toughness

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Inglis stress analysis
A

Local stresses very large at sharp discontinuities

(for eg. at point C), although the average stress
elsewhere is the nominal stress (A)
Y

At C,  = b2/c ( is the radius of curvature)

2b C X
2c  C   A (1  2 c b )

 1

 C   A 1  2(  ) 
c 2

 
A C 1
 2( c ) 2 (Elastic stress concentration factor)
A 

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Theoretical cleavage strength

You must know why the theoretical cleavage

strength overestimates the fracture strengths
of materials !
E = Young’s modulus of the material
1
 = surface energy of the cleaved surface
 E  2
do = equilibrium spacing
th = theoretical cleavage strength of a  th    Derived in the class room
perfect crystal  do 

Does fracture occur by complete cleavage of two perfect planes of atoms

or by the extension of an already existing crack/flaw ?
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
IIT Madras
Tensile fracture strengths of glass fibers

Approaches
theoretical value

For small diameter whiskers/fibers, the probability of the presence of

cracks/flaws must decrease leading to increased fracture strength

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Griffith’s energy balance concept

Where,
U = UM + US U = total free energy of the elastic body
in the presence of the crack,
UM = mechanical energy,
UM = UE + UA US = surface energy,
UE = elastic strain energy,
UA = potential energy associated with the
load-point displacements (expressed as
negative of work done)
c = crack length & dc is the incremental
extension (which is reversible)
c dc

dU
0 (at equilibrium)
dc
• Elastic body

• Reversible
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
IIT Madras
Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture
A Derived in the classroom

1
 2E   ' 2
F   

 o 
c

E = E (plane stress)
2c = E/(1-2) (plane strain)

A Energetics of the Griffith’s

crack configuration under
Unstable crack growth uniform tension (A)

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Obreimoff’s stable crack configuration
h = wedge thickness
c = crack length (OC)
d = thickness of the peeling layer
F = force introduced at the point where the
wedge touches the layer

1
 3Ed h 3 2 4
co   
 16  (co = equilibrium crack length)
Energetics of the crack configuration

Stable crack growth

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
IIT Madras
 Obreimoff’s stable crack configuration

• Established reversibility of the thermodynamic system & the influence of

chemistry (chemical kinetics) on the crack propagation by performing
experiments in air and vacuum.

Estimation of equilibrium crack length – done in the class room

You must now be able to distinguish the differences

between stable and unstable crack propagation which is
dependent on the loading and crack configurations !

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Mechanical energy release rate (G)
P 1
dU M   P 2 d
uo = P ( is the compliance) 2
uo
Mechanical energy released during
incremental crack extension is
independent of loading configuration
c dc
dU M
G (C = interfacial crack area)
dC
Dead
weight
1 2 d
G P (P = constant)
Derived in the class room 2 dc
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
IIT Madras
 Crack tip field & stress intensity factor

K I2
G '
E
G & K are equivalent !
Opening In-plane Out-of -
mode shear mode plane shear
mode

K depends only on the outer boundary

conditions, that is, on the applied loading &
Stress field in the vicinity of the tip specimen geometry. It determines the
of the Irwrin slit-crack. intensity of the local field.
 Non-linear crack-tip field
Need for non-linear and irreversible elements in equilibrium fracture mechanics

• Linear continuum approximation ?

•Real solids: maxima in the stress-strain characteristic (fracture

by bond rupture),

•Real solids: crack growth accompanied by high dissipative

deformation processes (vicinity of the crack tip),

•Validity of the energy-balance concept to non-linear crack

systems !

• Issue to be addressed: crack-tip singularity !

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Non-linear crack-tip field

Origin of crack-tip singularity:

• Validity of Hooke’s law

• Continuum approximation
Cohesive stress-
separation
function for two
Irwin crack-tip: atom planes

Infinite strain
& Avg. stress p= R0/
Ideal Hookean solid
R0 = WBB = 2B
Key to singularity: Non-linear
stress-separation
Dept. of MME functionDr.!rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Irwin-Orowan extension of the Griffith
concept (1958)
How to accommodate the essential elements of non-linearity and
irreversibility

Irwin-Orowan small-scale zone model

Inner-zone: Outer-zone:
Energy Linear elastic,
absorption transmits
processes outerloading

Assumption: Inner zone is negligibly small Critical energy terms can be

compared to outer zone mathematically decoupled !!
Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Irwin-Orowan extension of the Griffith
concept
C = Total surface area of the crack dU = dUM + dUS

dC = Incremental area of crack = -G dC + R dC

extension
= -g dC
dUM = mechanical work done (energy
change) for the outer zone
Where G = - dUM/dC, and g = -dU/dC
dUS = Surface work rate (enegy
Condition for equilibrium:
change) associated with inner zone
(separation of walls) that includes the
Crack extension force, g = 0, G = Gc
dissipative elements
K C2
Gc = '
=R
E

R = Crack-resistance energy (fracture surface energy) that includes all the

dissipative elements ;

R=R
Dept. of MME0
= WBB = 2BB (in the absence of dissipative elements, eg: ideal brittle
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
solid)
 Irwin-Orowan extension of the Griffith
concept

R = 2BB + RP

Where, RP is the plastic term

In metals, compared to typical surface energies which vary

between 0.5 and 2 J.m-2, the plastic work term ranges up to
103 J.m-2.

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Barenblatt cohesion-zone model (1962)

Resistance in terms of the non-

linear cohesive force function,

Forces distributed along the crack

plane,

CZ is the cohesion zone

1 
2 2 P ( X )dX
K 0   
 

0 X
1
2

Knet = KA + K0
(K0 is the stress intensity factor associated
with the cohesive stresses, KA is the external
contribution transmitted.

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Path-independent integrals about crack-tip
(Rice line integral, 1968)

• S = Line integration path

about crack tip C in plane
static crack system (of unit
thickness),

• S-A is a closed circuit,

• R = Polar circuit

• CZ = Cohesion zone

• T = Traction vector defined

on S & u is the corresponding
displacement vector

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Path-independent integrals about crack-tip
For the crack system shown in figure, the
mechanical energy (UM) can be written
as:

Upper
surface of
the crack ds
Lower
surface of
For a virtual displacement through dc, the
the crack dA mechanical energy change can be written as
(for reversible deformation of the crack
system):

S = Curve connecting the lower and

upper surfaces of the crack,

U = Strain energy density

J is the Rice line integral !
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Path independent J integral

JS + J-A = 0

JS = -J-A = JA

(line integral of a closed circuit is zero, through application of Green’s

theorem)

J-integral is path independent

JC = GC = K2/ E’ (for linear elastic brittle brittle materials)

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Practical crack test geometries
(i) Flexure specimen: Single-Edge-Notch-Beam (SENB)
For bars & rods
• 4-point bending
c
• Notched pre-crack oriented for
2d max. tension

L L c = straight crack length

w = width of the specimen

3PL
A  (From thin beam elasticity theory)
4wd 2
L = outer support span

1
K   Ac 2 (where  = 1/2)

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Practical crack test geometries
(ii) Double cantilever beam (DB) specimen
Const. wedging Const. point force Const. moment M
displacement h load P

Divergent dependence of G on c
Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Exercise
For a double cantilever beam, prove that the mechanical energy released (J-
integral) for constant load P is given by: J = 12P2c2/Ew2d3

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Practical crack test geometries
(iii) Double torsion specimen (DT)
For thin slab specimens

P = load
w0 = support span
2w = beam width
d = beam thickness
1
[12(1  )] 2 PwO
K 1
(from simple plate theory)
w 2d 2

Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Indentation fracture

Schematic illustration of radial Vickers indentation on a bulk

 1
 metallic glass – showing radial
cracking at a Vickers indentation E  P 2 
Kc     3 
cracks
H  2
c 
Dept. of MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V
 Microstructural aspects of crack propagation

Microstructural manipulation can be used to enhance the

toughness (KC) and develop new materials.

Metals 50 – 100 MPam

Ceramics 0.2 – 15 MPam
Polymers 1 MPam

Crack front obstacle

Microstructural manipulation – to impede/stop crack propagation

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

Microstructural manipulation to improve
fracture toughness is more important in
brittle materials (Ceramics)….

Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V

IIT Madras
 Toughening mechanisms in ceramics

 Crack-tip interactions

 Crack bowing (Deflection in the plane of the crack)

 Crack deflection (Deflection out of plane of the crack)

 Crack-tip shielding

 Transformation toughening
 Micro-crack toughening

 Crack bridging

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack tip interactions
 The primary aim here is to place obstacles in the crack path to
impede crack propagation/motion.

 The obstacles can be second-phase particles, fibers, whiskers, or

possibly regions that are simply difficult to cleave.

Crack bowing: Cracks virtually remain on the same plane

- obstacles can be impenetrable

- Strength & toughness of the obstacles (key issue)

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack bowing

Interaction of the crack front with an

inclusion in the glass showing crack
bowing
Schematic of the crack front
bowing

obstacle

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack deflection

If a crack is deflected out of plane that is normal to the uniaxial tensile stress,
the crack is no longer loaded in simple mode-I and therefore is not subjected
to maximum stresses at the tip of the crack.

Crack deflection

The change in the orientation of the crack plane during deflection leads to
the reduction in the crack extension force.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack deflection (SiC platelets in Al2O3
matrix)

SiC
platelets

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack deflection

 Toughening increment depends on

 Volume fraction of the obstacles

 Shape of the obstacles

Where, GC – crack resistance

force of the composite
GM – crack resistance force of
the matrix

Effect of aspect ratio of the obstacles

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V Faber & Evans, 1983
 Hollow carbon microsphere/phenolic resin
syntactic foam Crack
bowing

Crack
deflection

debonding

SEM micrograph of the fracture

surface of syntactic foam after
flexure tests debonding

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack tip shielding
 The stresses near a crack tip in a linear elastic material are related
to the applied stress intensity factor KIA,

 In most of the materials, non-linear deformation zones (process

zone) may occur in the high-stress zone at the crack-tip. So, the
stresses at the tip now can be defined by a local stress intensity
factor KIL.

 If KIL < KIA , the stresses are reduced and the process zone is
supposed shield the crack tip from the applied loads.

 Shielding will occur when K = KIL – KIA < 0, and failure will occur
when KIL = Fracture toughness in the process zone.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack tip shielding

 Various mechanisms exist for shielding crack tips from some of the
applied (and concentrated) stress.

 The best known mechanism is transformation toughening.

 This applies to both metals (stainless steels) and ceramics (zirconia

additions).

 The principle on which the toughening is based is that of including a

phase that is metastable at the service temperature and which will
transform when loaded (but not otherwise).

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Transformation toughening – ZrO2
(toughening agent)
1170°C 2370°C
ZrO2: monoclinic tetragonal cubic

 The classic example of transformation toughening is the addition of

a few (volume) % of ZrO2 to oxides and other brittle ceramics.

 The high temperature form of zirconia, tetragonal form (t-ZrO2) is

metastable and can transform to the low temperature, monoclinic
form (m-ZrO2).

 In order to reduce the driving force for the tetragonal->monoclinic

transformation, some “stabilizer” is added such as ceria (Ce2O3) and
yttria (Y2O3).

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Transformation toughening - ZrO2
(toughening agent)
 The large volume change on transformation is equivalent to a
significant transformation strain which is the key to the success of
the method.

 The volume (dilatational) change is ~ 4%, accompanied by a shear

strain of ~ 7%.

 An important consequence of the volume change on transformation

is that it leads to an elastic driving force that opposes the
transformation of particles embedded in a matrix of a different
material.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Transformation toughening

High temp  0.5m

phase

Consider the effect of the tensile stress in the vicinity of the crack tip: the
stress relieves the constraint on each particle, allowing it to transform.

The transformed particle was metastable, thermodynamically, and so

remains in the low T, monoclinic form.

The stress acting to cause the transformation strain performs work and so
energy is consumed in the phase transformation, thus increasing
toughness.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Eg: Zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA)

Microstructure of
ZTA

Tetragonal ZrO2
particles (bright
phase) embedded
(constrained) in an
Al2O3 matrix
Residual compression caused because of
transformation in the wake closes the crack

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Transformation toughening

 An equation that describes the toughening effect is as

follows, where T is the increment in toughness (units of
stress intensity):

∆T = C E Vtrans etrans √h / (1-)

C is a constant (of order 1), E = modulus, Vtrans = volume fraction

transformed, etrans = transformation strain (dilatation) h is the width of
the process zone, and  is Poisson’s ratio.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Spontaneous microcracking

 Suppose a body is heated uniformly to increase its

temperature by T, the response (strain) is a second
order tensor (eij).

eij = ij T

Linear coefficients of thermal

expansion – material property

Cubic crystals possess isotropic thermal expansion, where as non-cubic

crystals will have anisotropic thermal expansion.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Spontaneous microcracking
 A polycrystalline ceramic often contains a random array of single crystals. If
these crystals are non-cubic and temperature is changed, each crystal will
attempt to strain differently than its neighbors.

 Thus adjacent crystals will push or pull on each other, creating residual
strains in the material. These strains are termed residual because they
exists even in the absence of external applied stresses.

 Sometimes the residual strains can be as high as 1 – 2% (compared with

the macroscopic fracture strain) – this leads to spontaneous
microcracking in ceramic materials.

 Onset of microcracking depends on the grain (crystal) size. Thus,

microcrack-free ceramics can be fabricated with large thermal expansion
anisotropy, provided the grain size is kept below the critical grain size for
microcracking. (interesting effect to note)

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Micro-crack toughening

 Stress-induced microcracking give rise to crack tip shielding and is termed

microcrack toughening.

 Microcracking in the process zone is less effective than transformation

toughening.

 You know that ceramics contain localized residual stresses (for eg., due to
thermal expansion anisotropy), that result in microcracking. Regions of low
toughness, such as grain boundaries can also be attractive sites for
microcracking.

 You also now know that microcracks can form spontaneously if the grain
size (particle size) is above a critical value.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Microcrack toughening

 An attractive approach towards toughening would be “ to fabricate materials

with particle size below that produce spontaneous microcracking (Critical
value), but in which microcracks can be stress induced “.

 In terms of fracture, the microcracks would be expected to form a zone

around larger cracks, similar to a transformation zone.

 And, now- the creation of microcrack zone around a propagating crack is

expected to reduce the stresses near the crack tip – giving rise to shielding
(toughening).

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Microcrack toughening

An equation that describes the toughening C is a constant (of order 1), E =

effect is as follows, where T is the increment in modulus, ecrack = cracking strain
toughness (units of stress intensity): (dilatation) h is the width of the
process zone, and  is Poisson’s
∆T = C E ecrack √h / (1-) ratio.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack wedging/bridging
 Anything that results in a load bearing link across the crack (behind the tip)
decreases the stress (intensity) at the crack tip.

 Either rigid (elastic) fibers (ceramic matrix composites) or plastic particles

(ductile metal particles in an elastic matrix) are effective.
Unbroken
ligaments
Fibre
pull-out

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Crack bridging
Scanning electron micrographs of a SiC whisker bridging at various stages
of crack opening. From left to right, the stress intensity is increasing.

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V

 Toughening

 Toughening = f (bridge length, volume fraction of the

bridges, obstacle debond length/pull-out length)

MME, IIT Madras Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar N V