U.S.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OPEN-FILE REPORT 00-358

https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/of00-358/text/chapter1.htm

CHAPTER 1:  GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSIS OF MARINE

SEDIMENTS:  METHODOLOGY AND DATA PROCESSING
Poppe, L.J.1, Eliason, A.H.2,  Fredericks, J.J.3 , Rendigs, R.R.1, Blackwood
D.1 and Polloni, C.F.1

1
Coastal and Marine Geology Program, USGS, Woods Hole, MA 02543
2
 Eliason Data Services, 230 Meetinghouse Road, Mashpee, MA 02649
3
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543

INTRODUCTION
 
            Grain size is the most fundamental physical property of sediment.  Geologists and
sedimentologists use information on sediment grain size to study trends in surface
processes related to the dynamic conditions of transportation and deposition; engineers use
grain size to study sample permeability and stability under load; geochemists use grain size
to study kinetic reactions and the affinities of fine-grained particles and contaminants; and
hydrologists use it when studying the movement of subsurface fluids (Blatt and others,
1972; McCave and Syvitski, 1991).  Therefore, with these reasons in mind, the objectives
of a grain-size analysis are to accurately measure individual particle sizes or hydraulic
equivalents, to determine their frequency distribution, and to calculate a statistical
description that adequately characterizes the sample.
            The techniques and equipment used for particle-size analysis must be fast, accurate,
and yield highly reproducible results.  The accuracy of these measurements is limited by
sampling techniques,  storage conditions, analytical methods, equipment, and, especially,
the capability of the operator.  Care and attention to detail must be exercised to achieve the
best possible results. As with most types of sedimentological analyses there is no ultimate
technique or procedure that will produce the most desirable grain size data for all cases.
Several types of analyses have been developed over the years to accommodate the different
types and sizes of samples and the reasons for conducting the analysis.
            For many years, the size and distribution of the sand and gravel
fractions were determined solely by sieve analyses, and silt and clay
fractions were determined by pipette or hydrometer methods.  Later,
rapid sediment analyzers (RSA; 
            The commercial availability of
inexpensive personal computers allows
sedimentologists to construct complete
computerized particle-size analysis systems
(Poppe and others, 1985).  The major
advantage of using these systems is the
time-, labor-, and cost-saving functions
they afford. Most of the laboratory equipment and procedures,
and all of the data processing described herein may be adapted
to IBM-compatible personal computers.
             The purpose of this chapter is to describe some of the laboratory methods,
equipment, computer hardware, and data-acquisition and data-processing software
employed in the sedimentation laboratory at the Woods Hole Field Center of the Coastal
and Marine Geology Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.  The recommendations and
laboratory procedures given below are detailed, but are by no means complete. Serious
users are strongly encouraged to consult the original references and product manuals.
 
 
FIELD METHODS
 
Sampling Recommendations

 
            The results of grain-size analyses are sensitive to the manner in which the
original samples are collected, handled and stored.  For example, it is clear that the
introduction of foreign particulate matter into the sample through improper care or
cleaning of equipment, or through improper processing, can alter the texture.  The
growth of authigenic minerals because of improper storage can have a similar effect
and, although physical disturbance may not generally have a direct effect on
subsequent analyses, the trends of those data may be altered if sediment layering has
been disrupted.  In sum, analyses that follow improper field work may be
meaningless.
            To keep sampling artifacts and variation in data to a minimum, certain
precautions should be taken in the field during sampling and subsequent storage:
 
*  Records on sampling, including field measurements, should be painstakingly
maintained.  The appropriate field measurements and any information
peculiar to the sample should be supplied to the laboratory along with the
sample.
 
*  Particularly in the case where the top of the sediment section is of interest, care
must be exercised during sampling.  Over penetration by sampling device
and jarring or bumping during retrieval should be avoided.  Surficial
samples for grain size analyses are typically defined as having been
collected from 0-2 cm below the sediment/water interface.
 
*  If the samples are in cores with liners that need to be split, the device chosen for
cutting should not add plastic shards to the samples since contamination
from these shards affects the textural analysis.  Core halves should be stored
in well-sealed D-tubes with a piece of moist Oasis or sponge to retard
evaporation.  If the cores are split, it is recommended that one half should be
held in reserve as an archive until all analyses are complete and data quality
can be assured.
 
*  The subsamples should be stored in containers that are appropriate to the
individual analyses. Inert air-tight containers such as plastic jars, boxes, or
 bags are preferable to metal cans that could rust and contaminate the sample,
or cloth bags that allow evaporation and the loss of fines.
 
*  All sampling utensils and containers must be clean and free of contamination.  If
splits of the samples are to be used for geochemical analyses (e.g. trace
metals), the sampling gear should be plastic or Teflon coated and the
containers acid washed. 
 
*  Care must be taken to obtain a representative split when sampling in the field.  Be
aware of lateral and vertical variability in grab samples.  Collect larger
samples from poorly sorted sediment; smaller samples from well sorted
sediment.
 
*  Careful labeling is critical. Labels must be legible and permanent.  Test the
permanency of markers prior to fieldwork.
 
*  To prevent geochemical reactions, the growth of organics, or evaporation from
occurring within a sample, refrigeration or freezing is necessary.  Such
reactions may change the mineralogy and grain-size distributions,
complicate laboratory analyses, and increase costs.  For example, authigenic
minerals such as gypsum may form with individual gypsum crystals
growing up to sand and even gravel-sized particles.  Similarly, excessive
evaporation must also be avoided, especially if the samples are marine and it
is necessary to correct for salt content.
 
*  All analyses should be performed within a reasonable (<2 months) amount of
time.  The longer a sample is stored, the greater the opportunity for storage-
related alteration.
 
Gallery of Common Sediment Sampling Devices
 
Grab Samplers
 
Cambell Grab                                                 Emery and Schlee, 1963
Clamshell Grab                                              Lay, 1969
Orange Peel Grab                                          Lay, 1969
Petersen Grab                                                Pettersson, 1928
SEABOSS Grab                                             Blackwood and Parolski, 2000
Smith-McIntyre Grab                                    Smith and McIntyre, 1954
Shipek Grab                                                   North Carolina State
University, 1999
Van Veen Grab                                              Lay, 1969
 
Corers
 
Alpine Vibracorer                                           Sea Surveyor Inc, 2000
Electric Vibracorer                                         PVL Technologies Inc, 2000
 Gravity Corer                                                 Lee and Clausner, 1979
Hydraulically-Dampened Corer                    Bothner and others, 1997
Lamont Box Corer                                         Lee and Clausner, 1979
Phleger Corer             `                                  Phleger, 1951
Piston Corer                                                   Lee and Clausner, 1979
Spade Box Corer                                           Rosfelder and Marshall, 1967
 
Sediment Traps
 
            Cylindrical Sediment Trap                             Honjo and others, 1992
            Time-Series Sediment Trap                           McLane Research Laboratories, 2000

Dredges
 
            Rock Dredge                                                  Shepard, 1963
            Pipe Dredge                                                   Shepard, 1963
 
Bedload Samplers
 
            Helley-Smith Bedload Sampler                     Emmitt, 1980
            USGS Bedload Sampler                                Rickly Hydrological Company,
2000    
 
 
LABORATORY PROCEDURES
 
Records and Metadata
 .
            Figure 3 outlines the laboratory techniques and software sequence
of operation in a generalized flow diagram for those procedures used in
the sedimentation laboratory at the Woods Hole Field Center.  Because
the size data become part of a data base and as it is necessary to archive
the raw unprocessed data, there must be a formal system for recording
sample identifiers. Appropriate identifiers include: requestor, cruise
identification (id), project id, work requested, purpose of investigation,
sample id, latitude, longitude, water depth, top-depth, bottom-depth,
sample device, sampling area, and what analyses have been completed on
each sample.  To this end, the use of  standardized “request for analysis”
and “sample identification” forms (Figs. 4 and 5) are recommended as organizational
aids.  The completed forms should be included when samples are submitted for
analysis.  At this time a unique lab number should be assigned to each sample.  At the
Woods Hole Field Center, this number consists of two letters followed by three numbers
(e.g. AA795).  These identifiers are manually entered into a computer using the program
GSANV (Appendices A and C).
 
Preparatory Analysis
 
            If the whole sample is not to be used, the sample is typically split using one of three
methods: a micro-splitter, cone and quartering, or random bulk (Krumbein and Pettijohn,
1938).  Size of sample, its homogeneity, and the degree of accuracy that is required govern
which method is selected for a given size analysis.  Generally, the larger the analyzed
sample the more accurate the grain size analysis.  However, unless a sample contains
gravel, a 50-g split is usually sufficient.  Larger samples are more time consuming to
analyze and do not provide significantly more reliable results. If gravel is present, the
sample must contain enough material to give adequate representation of the largest sizes
present.  For example, approximately 250 g would be needed to texturally analyze a sample
containing -2 phi material.
            Place the split wet sample in a pre-weighed 100-ml
beaker,  weigh, and record the weight on a “grain-size
analysis” form (Fig. 6).  The beakers should be scribed with a
unique number and, therefore, should require no additional
labels, which would alter the weight of the beaker.  Gross
wet-sample weight minus the weight of the beaker gives the
net wet-sample weight.  Dry these samples in a convection
oven at, or slightly below, 100 C (Fig. 7). This temperature
will only drive off unbound water and should not affect the
grain size.  When the samples are dry (overnight is usually
sufficient), place them in a desiccator (Fig. 7) to cool. Weigh the samples as they are
removed from the desiccator or the sample will absorb water from the air and their weights
will be less accurate.  Gross dry-sample weight minus the weight of the beaker gives the net
dry sample weight; net wet sample weight minus the net dry sample weight gives the water
weight.  The weight of salt can be calculated from the salinity and the weight water.  The
net dry-sample weight minus the weight salt gives the corrected sample weight.  Inasmuch
as the weight of fines are typically determined by subtracting the coarse weight from the
net sample weight, the salt in marine samples must be determined to prevent an
overestimation in the amount of fines present.
            Whole or fragmented calcite secreting micro- and macro-organisms can bias the
grain size distribution if they occur in significantly high concentrations. Because biogenic
carbonates commonly form in situ, they usually are not considered to be hydraulically
representative of the depositional environment from a textural standpoint (Reineck and
Singh, 1980).  Their presence alters the textural data and complicates interpretation.   If
pervasive throughout the sand fraction, biogenic calcite or aragonite may be selectively
dissolved from the bulk sample using cold, dilute (10%) hydrochloric acid (HC1) or a 5-pH
Na0Ac buffer (Jackson, 1956; see section on insoluble residues below).  After the
carbonate has been dissolved, the HC1 or Na0Ac can be removed with multiple
decantations or centrifugations using distilled water to remove the salts and acid and (or)
buffer.  If limited to the gravel fraction, it is often easier to manually remove the fragments
of bivalve shells and other biogenic carbonate debris (see below) rather than treating the
whole sample.  Care must be taken to use dissolution techniques only when detrital
carbonate is absent.
            The removal of organic matter may be necessary to achieve complete dispersion of
the clay and, in sediments with an elevated organic content (>3%), to prevent the organics
from being counted as part of the sample, which would bias the grain-size distribution.  The
sample is placed in a 600-ml beaker and a small volume (~10 ml) of 30% hydrogen
peroxide is added.  The sample is stirred and, if necessary, water is added to slow the
reaction down and prevent bubbling over.  More hydrogen peroxide is added until the dark
color of the organic matter has largely disappeared; then the sample is washed three times
with a NaOAc buffer of pH 5 and once with methanol to remove the remaining released
cations (Jackson, 1956).
            If the samples have been treated with acid or hydrogen peroxide, they should be re-
dried and re-weighed to recalculate the post-treatment net sample weight.  Subtracting this
value from the original sample weight will determine the weight of the removed
constituent.
            Soluble salts and exchangable polyvalent cations can be removed by decantation or
centrifugation with distilled water to prevent flocculation of the sediment and to give
effective dispersion during pipette analysis.  However, this decantation may result in partial
loss of the colloidal-clay fraction.
            Wet sieve (Fig. 8) the sample through a 62-micron (American Society for Testing
and Materials (A.S.T.M). Number 230) sieve to separate the sample into coarse (sand and
gravel which are retained on the sieve) and fine (clay and silt) fractions (Fig. 9; Tab. 1).
Distilled water (Fig. 10) is used during wet sieving if the fine fraction
comprises greater than 5% of the sample. Samples will disaggregate more
easily if allowed to soak in a small amount of distilled water or electrolyte
solution prior to wet sieving. An approximately 3-5% solution of sodium
hexametaphosphate (800 g of purified (NaPO3)6, 80 ml of formaldehyde
to retard biogenic growth, and 20 liters of distilled water) is
recommended for wet sieving if an EMPSA (e.g. Coulter Counter or
Elzone) will be used in the fine-fraction
analysis and only small amounts of fines are
present.  This solution acts as an electrolyte,
which is necessary when EMPSAs are
used. Seawater may also be used for sample soaking and sieving
purposes and as an electrolyte for the Coulter Counter as
dictated by the objectives of the specific project. A 0.5% sodium
hexametaphosphate solution should be used if the fine fraction
is to be analyzed by pipette; at this concentration, the sodium
hexametaphosphate acts as a dispersant.  In any case, the solution must be filtered to 0.2
microns; a sequential submicron filtration system combining 5, 0.45, and 0.2 micron filters
works well (Fig. 11).  A rubber policeman and a squeeze bottle of distilled water or the
solution provide the best sieving results. The coarser sand and gravel fractions are retained
on the screen while the finer silt and clay fractions are collected in a catch pan or mason
jar.  Wash the coarse fraction into a pre-weighed 100-ml beaker and seal the fine fraction in
the mason jar.  Wet sieve using only enough liquid to fit in a single 32-ounce mason jar to
prevent any possible fractional biasing of the fine fraction.
  
Coarse Fraction Analysis  (Gravel Plus Sand)
 
            Dry the coarse fractions in a convection oven at, or slightly under 100 C.  When the
samples are dry (overnight is usually sufficient), place them in a desiccator to cool before
weighing them.  Gross coarse weight minus the weight of the beaker gives net coarse
weight.
            Much of the biogenic calcite found in a sample is commonly in the form of coarse
pelecypod or gastropod shell fragments.  Rather than treating the bulk sample with acid, it
is often easier and less time consuming to manually remove this carbonate from the washed
coarse fraction and to re-weigh the decalcified portion to determine the new net coarse
weight.  The weight of the carbonate must be subtracted from the net sample weight before
entering the data into the computer.
            The grain-size distribution within the coarse fraction can be determined by use of a
settling tube (Figs. 1, 12; Schlee, 1966).  However, if this fraction weighs less than 10 g or
if it contains greater than about 2% foraminifera, which will not settle properly in a
sedimentation column, then wire-mesh sieves must be employed.  If the
coarse-fraction grain-size distribution is to be determined by sieving,
assemble a bank of sieves, which generally consists of a cover, the -1, 0,
1, 2, and 3 phi sieves, and a catch pan (Table 1; Figs. 9, 13).  The bank of
sieves is agitated in a shaker (Fig. 13) for a minimum of at least 15
minutes.  Although Mizutani (1963) and McManus (1963, 1965)
recommend a sieving time of 35 minutes for 8-inch diameter sieves,
Royse (1970) suggests 10 minutes as an adequate sieving time.  After
sieving, weigh the individual sand and gravel phi fractions and record the
weights from each phi class.  Net coarse weight minus the gravel weight
gives the sand weight. If material coarser than 2 mm is present, assemble a bank of gravel-
fraction sieves (the cover, the -5 thru -2 phi sieves, and a catch pan); sieve to separate,
weigh each phi class, and record the weights.  Calculate the relative percentages of the
sand-fraction phi classes and the relative percentages of the gravel-fraction phi classes. The
sieve data are normally entered directly into a computer using the program RSAM
(Appendices A, and C) to obtain a complete grain-size distribution.
            Sieving efficiency increases with reduction in load (i.e. smaller sample size) and the
maximum sieve load diminishes with mesh size, but it is the quantity of finer near-mesh
size particles that actually determines sieving efficiency (Royse, 1970). Twenhofel and
Tyler (1941) recommended 40 g of sandy sediment as the maximum load for 8-inch
diameter sieves. When selecting a procedure, it is important to remember that sieves sort
material not only according to size, but also according to the shape and roundness of the
particles (Sahu, 1965; Kennedy and others, 1985).
            The settling tube, also called a rapid sediment analyzer (RSA, Figs. 1, 12; Zeigler
and others, 1960; Zeigler and others, 1964; Schlee, 1966, Syvitski and others, 1991)
provides a means for efficient analysis of sand-sized material by settling the grains through
a column of water.  One common settling tube design is based on using the pressure
differential between two columns of water that have a common head.  The pressure change
caused by the introduction of sediment within one of the columns is measured by a
Validyne DP-103 variable-reluctance wet-wet pressure transducer and amplified by a
Validyne Model CD-23 frequency demodulator. Results are relayed to a Dell Dimension
personal computer equipped with an ADAC Corporation 5500HR-1 analog-to-digital data
acquisition board and associated ADLIBWIN and ADLIBPC data acquisition software
drivers.  As the sediment settles past the pressure transducer port, the pressure differential
decreases with time.  Because the sedimentation rate, in accordance with Stoke's Law (Fig.
9), is a function of grain size, one can interpret the sand-fraction grain size distribution
from the variation in pressure differential. In addition to the settling tubes that use pressure
transducers, other devices incorporate a balance, and measure changing weight with time as
the sediment settles.
            If the sand-fraction grain-size distribution is to be determined by settling tube and
the program RSA2000 (Appendices A and C), the gravel-fraction distribution, if present,
must still be determined by sieve analysis.  To use a settling tube with a pressure
transducer, a warm-up and stabilization time of about an hour is required for the transducer
and associated electronics.  During warm-up the operator should check the system pressure
lines for air bubbles and the settling column water level and turn on the computer and
initialize the program RSA2000. Remove all air bubbles from the lines; raise the water
level to 3-5 mm above the actual settling tube  (Figs. 1, 12).  The operator has the option of
selecting either of two modes of sample introduction: an automated flipper or manually
with a tablespoon (this is generally true for most automated settling tubes). Both methods
require practice to achieve reproducibility, but the results of both methods are equally
accurate and comparable.
            A micro-splitter or cone-and-quartering is used to obtain a sample of about 10 g.
Smaller samples generate too weak a signal from the pressure transducer; a weak signal
may be diluted by electrical and mechanical noise causing greater error in the
reproducibility of the data. Samples larger than 10 g are more apt to form density currents
down the sides of the settling tube or, upon introduction, to form clumps of finer sediment
which act as much larger particles.
           Whether the automated flipper or manual spoon technique is employed, the sample
must be dampened with just enough water to  afford enough inter-grain cohesion to insure
simultaneous introduction of the sample, and to prevent air from becoming trapped in the
sample, which may slow the settling rate of the particles.
           If the automatic flipper technique is selected, place the sample on the flipper using a
tablespoon, flatten the top of the sample to <1 cm in height, and dampen the sample with an
eyedropper.  When the switch that controls the flipper is shifted, the sample will be
introduced into the settling tube.  When the flipper is halfway between the vertical and
contact with the settling tube, move the switch back to its original position.  This will
prevent the flipper from crashing into the settling tube and introducing noise into the
system.
            The manual spoon technique simply involves placing the sample split into a
tablespoon, dampening the sample with an eyedropper, and dumping the sample in one
smooth, rapid motion from a height of about 3 cm down the center of the settling tube.  If
the operator misses the center and introduces the sample near the wall of the tube, a density
current that flows down the side of the tube will form and the sample will appear to be
coarser than its true distribution.  The operator is encouraged to run a few standards to
check for equipment problems and practice sample introduction.  This exercise will help the
operator to produce more accurate and reproducible analytical results.  After the sample has
settled to the bottom of the tube and the pressure differential returns to approximately zero,
a hard copy of  the sand-fraction grain-size distribution can be generated (Fig. 14), and the
data can be saved to disk.
 
Fine Fraction Analysis  (Silt plus Clay)
 
            The fine-grained fraction of a sediment is defined as silt (particles with diameters
less than 62 microns down to 4 microns; Fig. 9) plus clay (particles with diameters less than
4 microns, with colloidal clay being less than 0.1 microns). Because of their small size,
fine-fraction particles are difficult to measure by sieving. Therefore, the classical
techniques to analyze the fine-grained portion of grain-size distributions are dominated by
sedimentation methods like the hydrometer and pipette methods (Krumbein and Pettijohn,
1938; Milner, 1962; Folk, 1974).  These methods involve preparing a dispersed,
homogeneous suspension of the fine fraction, dilution with a dispersant solution (usually
0.5% sodium hexametaphosphate) to 1000 ml, and allowing the particles to settle in a
graduated cylinder. As the settling of sediment particles continues according to Stoke’s
Law, samples are either withdrawn (pipette) or measurements made (hydrometer) of the
suspension at preset time intervals.  However, many sedimentation laboratories have
discontinued or limited the use of  pipette and hydrometer  techniques because of inherent
problems with settling (e.g. Brownian motion), thermal convection, irregular particle shape,
mass settling in density currents, rounding errors due to large multiplication factors, and,
especially, the time necessary to extend an analysis down into the clay range.  For example,
over 24 hours are required to extend a pipette analysis down to 11 phi at 20oC, room
temperature (Krumbein and Pettijohn, 1938; Milner, 1962).
            Although originally designed to count and size blood
cells (Coulter, 1957; Berg, 1958), EMPSAs have found other
applications because of the short time and small amount of
material required for analysis (Figs. 2, 15).  These devices,
which are currently manufactured by Coulter/Beckman
(Coulter Counter) and Particle Data (Elzone, now affiliated
with Micrometrics), are also used in industry, in the
biological sciences (Sheldon and Parsons, 1967), and in
geology, where they are used to measure the grain size of
sediments by measuring differences in electrical resistivity
produced by sediment particles  (McCave and Jarvis, 1973; Shideler, 1976; Kranck and
Milligan, 1979; Muerdter and others, 1981; Milligan and Kranck, 1991). Because the
aperture tubes used by EMPSAs can size particles of only 2-40% of the aperture diameter,
at least two aperture tubes with overlapping ranges are required to determine the size
distribution within the fine fraction of a marine sediment.  For example, during a standard
multi-aperture analysis using a Coulter Counter,  a  200-micron aperture tube would be
used to resolve the size distribution between 64 to 8 microns, and a 30-micron aperture tube
would be needed to resolve the size distribution between 12 microns down to
approximately 0.5-0.7 microns.  These individual analyses or passes through the respective
aperture tubes are then mathematically combined to produce the fine-fraction (silt plus
clay) distribution.  The fine fraction is, in turn, combined with the coarse fraction data to
generate a complete grain size distribution.
            An obvious limitation of this method is that an EMPSA, even if calibrated to
resolve down to about 0.6 microns (10.75 phi), can only resolve a portion of  the clay size
distribution.  The fine clay in the 0.6 to 0.1 micron range (some of the 11 phi and all of the
12 phi and 13 phi fractions that extend down to the colloidal clay boundary) is not
detected.  Although an analysis performed down to 0.6 microns is adequate for most
freshwater, estuarine, and shelf environments, the sediments from many deeper water
marine environments (e.g. rise and abyssal plain) may contain significant material in the
fine clay fraction.  By combining a double-point pipette analysis with the data from an
EMPSA analysis details of the fine-fraction can be extended through the fine clay range,
but this solution is less desirable because of the problems with pipette analyses cited above
and because the resultant data are no longer at whole-phi intervals.
            Earlier efforts to extrapolate grain size data beyond the limits of the analysis used
graphical methods (Schlee and Webster, 1967; Schlee, 1973).  For example, if Schlee
determined that more than 5% of the fine-grained sediment from a sample was less than 1
micron, additional data points were estimated for the finer sizes at whole-phi  intervals by
projecting the grain-size curve as plotted on probability paper and following the slope of
the line. While this is a practical solution, it is much more labor intensive than the computer
program CLAYES2K utilized as part of this system and provided herein.
            The fine fraction, which has been stored in mason jars with distilled water or
sodium hexametaphosphate solution, may be analyzed by pipette or EMPSA. The EMPSA
determines particle volume; the pipette method measures settling rates. The reason for
performing the analyses should determine which method is used (see Comments section).
               The pipette method consists of preparing a dispersed (by sonic probe),
homogeneous (by vigorous stirring) suspension of the fine fraction, dilution with a 0.5%
sodium hexametaphosphate solution to 1000 ml, and allowing the particles to settle in a
graduated cylinder (Royse, 1970; Folk, 1974). The optimum sample is approximately 20
cm3 (about 15 g dry weight). With more sample, the grains interfere with each other during
settling; with less sample, the effects of weighing errors on the analysis
increase.    Subsamples of 20 ml are withdrawn from the suspension at levels at 5, 10, or 20
cm below the water surface at standard intervals of time (Table 2A).  Because all particles
of' a given equivalent diameter (based on calculations using Stoke's Law; Fig. 9) will have
settled below that level after a standard interval of time, the samples should contain only
finer particles.  These aliquots are either suction-mounted on pre-weighed  filters and rinsed
in distilled water or placed in pre-weighed 100-ml beakers. If pre-weighed beakers are
used, the operator must remember to account for the weight of the dispersant when
calculating the phi-fraction weights.  The pipette is rinsed with distilled water after each
extraction and the rinse water is also passed through the filter or drained into the pre-
weighed beaker with the aliquot.  To begin the analysis, start the timer as soon as the
stirring rod emerges for the last time.  At the end of 20 seconds, insert the pipette to a depth
of 20 cm and withdraw the precise subsample (exactly 20 ml).  Inasmuch as the subsequent
analysis is based on this subsample, this is the most important single step.  If excess liquid
is accidently drawn into the pipette, do not attempt to return it to the cylinder. Remove the
pipette and discard the excess.
            Continue the withdrawals at the specified time intervals and depths.  The aliquots
are dried and weighed, the weights are recorded on an analysis form (Fig. 16), and the size
distribution is calculated from the weight of sediment.  The principle behind the
computation is this: if the fine sediment is uniformly distributed throughout the entire 1000-
ml column by stirring, and exactly 20 ml is drawn at each of the stated times, then the
amount of mud in each withdrawal is equal to 1/50 of the total amount of mud remaining
suspended in the column at that given time and at that given depth (i.e., the amount of mud
finer than the given diameter; all particles coarser than the given diameter will have settled
past the point of withdrawal).  The first withdrawal is made so quickly after stirring and at
such a depth that particles of all sizes are present in suspension. Therefore, if we multiply
the weight of the first withdrawal by 50, we will obtain the weight of the entire amount of
mud in the cylinder.  Then if we withdraw a sample at a settling time corresponding to a
diameter of 6 phi, and multiply by 50, then we know that the product represents the number
of grams of mud still in suspension at this new time, therefore the weight of mud finer than
6 phi.  Similarly, we can compute the weight percent at any size and obtain an entire
distribution.
            Because of the length of time required to complete a whole-phi interval analysis (16
hours, 24 minutes to 10 phi at 20oC; Table 2A) and because Brownian motion interferes
with the settling of particles less than 10 phi, the pipette method is now used 1) to
determine the silt/clay boundary in percent gravel-sand-silt-clay analyses and 2) when a
sample contains a significant amount of material smaller than 0.6 microns in
diameter.  This latter condition is important to consider because an EMPSA determines a
size distribution based solely on the grain-size range it has been calibrated to analyze (e.g.
0.062 mm >x>0.6 microns) and many low-energy and deepwater environments contain
significant amounts of very fine clay and colloidal clay-sized material that are undetected
by EMPSAs.  The time needed to perform a pipette analysis may be reduced by placing the
settling cylinders in a constant temperature bath and lowering the viscosity of the settling,
medium by increasing its temperature (Table 2B, C).
            The data from a pipette analysis can be converted into frequency or cumulative
frequency percentages. These percentages can subsequently be combined with the coarse-
fraction data using the programs ENTRY to generate a complete grain-size distribution,
statistics, and database files with the program GSTATM (Appendices B and C).
            To perform this silt/clay boundary analysis, aliquots are collected at 20 cm depth
after 20 seconds elapsed time to determine the concentration of  sample in suspension, and
at a depth of 10 cm after exactly 2 hours and 3  minutes to determine the concentration of
clay  in solution. Because only two aliquots are collected, the size of these aliquots are
usually enlarged to 50 ml to minimize analytical error. The percentages of silt and clay can
be determined from the weight of sediment in the aliquots.
            The Coulter Counter, a widely used EMPSA (Figs. 2, 15), permits easy, fast, and
accurate analysis of fine-fraction size distributions. The instrument's optimum precision, as
with all the above analyses, is realized only if the operator is conscientious in attention to
detail and consistently follows established procedures. The following procedure is by no
means complete and is intended solely as a set of guide lines. All operators are encouraged
to familiarize themselves with the complete instrument manual to achieve the best results.
            The Coulter Counter Multisizer IIe EMPSA is activated and operated according to
the following steps:
1)  The main Coulter Counter unit, sample stand, computer, and
printer are turned on and allowed to warm up for 15 minutes.
Initialize the computer program CLTRMS2K (Appendices A
and C).
2)  Using the menu select arrows and the numeric key pad enter the
proper information. The main setup menu should read:
ORIFICE DIAMETER - 200 microns, SETUP - manual,
ANALYSIS - Sample, CALIBRATION - Recall, and SIZE
UNITS - microns. The ORIFICE LENGTH, Kd, and SIZE
are set by the Multisizer.
3)  Step through the other setup screens, ensuring that the proper settings are
selected. The ANALYSIS SETUP-1 menu selections should read:
 CURRENT AND GAIN - Automatic, APERTURE CURRENT -
1600 micro-Amps, GAIN - 1 or 2, POLARITY - Alternate +/-,
INSTRUMENT CONTROL - Manual, and TIME - seconds. The
ANALYSIS SETUP-2 menu should read: CHANNELS - 256,
AUTOSCALING - On, EDIT - Off, COINCIDENCE
CORRECTION - Off, ANALYTICAL VOLUME - 0 micro-liters,
PARTICLE RELATIVE DENSITY - 1.00, DIFFERENTIAL
VALUES - %, and END TONE - On. The COMMUNICATIONS
SETUP screen should read BAUD RATE - 9600, DEVICE -
Computer, AUTO OUTPUT - No, CHANNEL DATA - No,
ANALOG PLOT - No, SCREEN DUMP - Yes, OVERLAY MODE
- No, FORMAT - Standard, SEND STX/ETX - Yes, END FIELD
CHARACTER - 59, END LINE CHARACTER 0 CR+LF, and
LEADING ZEROS - Yes.
4)  When the menu check is complete, ensure that the outside of the aperture
tube has been rinsed and immersed in a beaker of clean electrolyte,
and that the sample stand door is closed. The X-axis should be set to
linear diameter; the Y-axis should be set to number differential. Turn
the Reset/Count Control clockwise to Reset, applying a vacuum to
the aperture tube system, and, when the light in the sample stand turn
on, press the FULL key on the Multisizer to display the selected
range of particle analysis.
5)  Perform a noise check  using blank electrolyte. Acceptable cumulative
background counts for both the 200- and 30-micron tubes are less
than 500 counts per 10 seconds.
6)  Shake the fine-fraction portion of the sample in the mason jar vigorously,
sonify the bulk sample for about 2-4 minutes (probes typically work
much better than baths; Fig. 10), and use a stirrer to completely
suspend the sample.  While the sample is stirring, transfer a sub-
sample, drawn in a sweeping motion from the top, middle, and
bottom of the mason jar, to the clean beaker of filtered electrolyte in
the sample stand using a disposable pipette.  Never allow the tip of
the pipette to touch the side or bottom of the mason jar while sub-
sampling because it may break.  Set stirring motor to adequately mix
the sample without producing bubbles, close the door to the sampling
stand, turn the Reset/Count Control to reset, and press Full.
7)  Ensure that the concentration index meter reads  5-10%. If the
concentration is above 10%, add more electrolyte to dilute.  If the
concentration is below this, add more sample to the beaker until 5-
10% is reached.    Press the Reset button, wait 5 seconds, and then
Start Control buttons to check that the concentration is less than the
maximum for coincidence (<10,000 cts/10 s). Coincidence is the
occurrence of two or more particles in the sensing zone at one time
(Fig. 2). Exceeding coincidence limits will cause data loss in the
smaller size classes, thereby causing the observed grain-size
distribution to be coarser (Milligan and Kranck, 1991).  
 8)  When the concentration is within the correct limits, continue to
accumulate data for about 100 s, then press the Stop button.  If using
the program CLTRMS2K (Appendices A and C) to acquire the data,
press the OUTPUT/PRINTER button at the program’s “Please Send
Raw Data” prompt. Data will be sent to the computer and a hardcopy
will be generated (Fig. 17).
9) Check the output and, if acceptable, save the data to disk. To proceed to
the next sample remove the beaker from the sample stand, cover it
with cellophane to avoid contamination, and reserve the sample for
the 30-micron aperture tube analysis.  It is advisable to perform all of
the 200-micron analyses before proceeding to the 30-micron
analyses. Complete only enough 200-micron aperture tube analyses,
however, that will allow adequate time to perform the corresponding
30-micron aperture tube analyses on the same day.
10) When the 200-micron aperture tube analyses are complete, the
computer program and the Multisizer needs to be reset for the
30-micron aperture tube analyses. Change the aperture tube,
change the Setup menu to the proper settings, place a clean
beaker of electrolyte on the sample stand, and check for
acceptable cumulative background count.  Do not use the
stirrer motor during 30-micron aperture tube analyses.
11) Pour sample saved from 200-micron aperture tube analysis
through a clean 20-micron sieve into a clean electrolyte-
rinsed beaker. When the sample has passed through the sieve,
pass the sample back through the sieve into the original
beaker, and then through the sieve back into the new beaker.
This re-suspends the sample and ensures that all of the
sample has been scalped by the sieve.
12) Immediately place beaker in the sample stand, close the sample-
stand door, and turn the Reset/Count Control clockwise to
reset. Push the Start button, accumulate data for 100 s, push
the Stop button, and push the Print button to send the data to
the computer.
 
Additional suggestions:
 
a. Make sure bubbles are initially cleared  from the aperture tube by opening
both stopcocks. This will reduce system noise.
b. If the tube clogs, brush the aperture opening with a sweeping
motion. If the tube is still clogged, clear tube in a distilled-
water ultrasonic bath. If this fails, replace the distilled water
with 50 % nitric acid.
c. Always have aperture current off when not running an analysis or when
changing tubes.
 d. After the analyses are completed, the sample stand, Faraday cage, vacuum
and electrolyte reservoir flasks, and counter top should be rinsed in
distilled water and dried with paper towels.
e. When the analyses are complete remove the 30-micron aperture tube,
place the 200-micron aperture tube on the sample stand, and set all
switches to the proper settings for the 200-micron analysis.
f.  Keep the aperture tubes in a cleaning solution (e.g. Coulter Clenz) when
not in use.
g. With proficiency, an operator can speed up the analytical procedure by
sonifying (Fig. 10) the next sample while entering pertinent
identifiers into the computer for a sample that is being analyzed by
the EMPSA.
 
Descriptive and Interpretive Measures
 
            Raw grain-size data are typically in the form of weight percentages of sediment in
various size classes. Because many analyses and commonly more than one
data set are involved in geological studies, the method by which these data
are presented and compared becomes important when determining how
the distributions differ and the magnitude of these differences (Royse,
1970). Both graphical and statistical methods are available.   Of the
graphical techniques, one of the more common methods is to plot the basic
sand, silt and clay percentages on equilateral triangular diagrams
(Shepard, 1954; Folk, 1956). This means of data presentation is simple
and facilitates rapid classification of sediments and comparison of
samples. The USGS sediment lab at the Woods Hole Field Center uses a
modification of Shepard’s (1954) ternary classification system (Fig. 18).
            The statistical measures of size distributions used by
sedimentologists are most commonly based on quartile measures (Trask, 1932), phi
notation (Inman, 1952; Folk and Ward, 1957), or the method of moments (Kane and
Hubert, 1962; Folk, 1974; Sawyer, 1977).  Inclusive graphics statistics, the phi notation
method utilized by the programs provided herein (Folk, 1974), are graphical in that the data
are read directly from a computer-drawn cumulative-frequency curve at five points (the 5,
16, 50, 84, and 95 percentiles). Verbal equivalents for standard deviation, skewness, and
kurtosis based on the inclusive graphics statistics.  The percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and
clay, and the modified frequency percentages for size distributions ranging from 11 ph (or
13 phi using the program CLAYES2K) to -5 phi are also computed. Method of moments
statistics, which involve more complicated arithmetic calculations that account for every
grain in the distribution, have gained popularity with the increasing availability of fast,
inexpensive computers. The method of moments statistics generated with the programs
provided herein include modal classes, modal frequencies, arithmetic mean, median, and
standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis.  However, in open-ended distributions
(truncated distributions or where a lot of material of unkown size occurs in a pan fraction),
the method of moments is probably not justified (Folk, 1974).
 
Insoluble Residues
 
            The insoluble residue of a sediment is that portion which remains after digestion in
hydrochloric acid (HCL) of a prescribed strength under specific conditions.  Because
carbonate rocks may contain significant amounts of chert, anhydrite, and siliciclastic sand,
silt, and argillaceous material, the determination of insoluble residues is useful for
comparing sediments from different localities and for expressing their degree of purity or
contamination by detrital and authigenic constituents (Milner, 1962).
            To perform a typical analysis, approximately 15 g of wet sediment are placed in a
pre-weighed 600-ml beaker and dried at 100oC.  The beaker is placed in a desiccator to cool
and re-weighed to determine water content. Cool dilute HCL (10%) is slowly added in
stages till all effervescence has stopped. After effervescence has ceased, the excess acid is
carefully decanted. The insoluble residue is washed at least five times and each washing is
decanted. Alternately, the insoluble residue can be washed into a labeled pre-weighed paper
filter and throughly rinsed. In any case, the insoluble residue is dried at 100oC and is
calculated by weight as a percentage of the original bulk sample.  The difference between
100% and the value obtained is the percent calcium carbonate.  Grain-size analyses may be
performed on the residues, or they may be examined petrographically.
            This procedure will remove calcium carbonate. If significant amounts of dolomite
are present, 6N HCL should be used and the suspension must be heated to near boiling to
dissolve the dolomite.  The water content need be determined only if the samples are
marine and a salt correction must be applied, or if appreciable amounts of hygroscopic
water are present.  Although commercial grade HCL (muriatic acid) may be used, gypsum
formation due to the presence of sulfate ions is a concern (Krumbein and Pettijohn,
1938).  The acid digestion portion of this analysis should be performed under a fume hood;
gloves and safety glasses should be worn.
 
Comments
 
            The purpose for performing the analyses must be considered when selecting which
method will be used.  For example, the Coulter Counter determines particle volume as
opposed to the pipette method which measures settling rates.    Therefore, if a researcher is
studying flow regimes and hydraulic equivalents, the pipette method might produce more
applicable data.    Other settling-velocity analysis methods used for fine-grain sizes are the
hydrometer (Buoyocoz, 1928) and decantation methods.  However, these techniques are
more difficult and less accurate (Folk, 1974) and thus are generally not
recommended.  Numerous journal articles have compared the various techniques used for
size analyses of fine-grained suspended sediments.  All operators contemplating the use of
any of these methods are strongly encouraged to familiarize themselves with this
literature.  For example, Shideler (1976) and Behrens (1978) compared the Coulter Counter
with pipette techniques. Hydrophotometers have been compared with the pipette method
(Jordan and others, 1971; Singer and others, 1988) and with the Coulter Counter (Swift and
others, 1972).  The above fine-fraction considerations also apply to the coarse fraction.  The
coarse fraction is usually determined by settling-tube analysis.  However, if this fraction
weighs less than 10 g or contains greater than 2-5% foraminifera which will not settle
properly in a sedimentation column, the operator must utilize sieves, which will measure
nominal diameter.  These and other particle-size methods and considerations are discussed
in Barth (1984) and Syvitski (1991).
            Aggregates of clay-sized particles, which are difficult to break up, commonly form
when samples are dried. Because these aggregates or “bricks” cause the size distribution to
appear slightly (about 2-4%) coarser, care should be exercised to sonify samples with
appreciable clay-sized material for at least 4 minutes prior to EMPSA analysis to minimize
this effect.  Other techniques to determine the weight percentages of the coarse and fine
fractions that do not involve drying the fine fraction include pipette analyses and splitting
the sample. In the latter technique where the sample is split, half is dried to determine the
percentages of the coarse and fine fractions and the fine fraction from the other undried half
is analyzed by EMPSA.  Unfortunately, getting representative splits is difficult because of
intra-sample heterogeneity and the splitting process can commonly introduce an error much
greater than the original 2-4 percent. For those interested in a determination of the entire
clay fraction with the greatest accuracy, pipette analyses or the use of the computer
program CLAYES2K (Appendices B and C) are strongly recommended.
 
Quality Assurance
 
            Extensive textural analyses performed on standards have shown that the above
methods, with the possible exception of the hydrometer, will produce results with an
accuracy of better than plus or minus 10% (electro-resistance multichannel particle size
analyzer: about 3%; sieves: about 5%; pipette and sand-fraction settling tube: about
5%).  However, the optimum precision for the above analyses is realized only if the
operator is conscientious in attention to detail and consistently follows established
procedure.  To monitor precision, the operator should run replicates on at least every tenth
sample.
            The representativeness of any textural data set depends on the methods used to
obtain the data.  These methods must be chosen in accordance with the original purpose of
the study.  If the importance of knowing the actual size distribution outweighs the hydraulic
equivalence, the sieve and the particle-counter analyses should be performed rather than the
settling-tube and pipette analyses.
            The comparability problems between sets of data generated by different devices are
not as great as one might expect.  For example, the data produced by sieve and settling tube
analyses would be remarkably similar for a given sample because a settling tube is usually
calibrated using natural sediments sieved to known fractions.  On the other hand, pipette
and hydrometer analyses will usually produce data indicating a given sample is slightly
finer than the data produced on an EMPSA. This result occurs because fine-fraction
particles are generally plate shaped and do not settle as fast as the quartz spheres upon
which Stoke's Law, and therefore the pipette and hydrometer settling analyses, is based.
And again, an EMPSA can not typically be calibrated to analyze the very fine clay (less
than 0.6 microns) and colloidal-clay portions of the size distribution.
 
VIDEO DEMONSTRATIONS OF LABORATORY PROCEDURES
 
            Six videos with voice commentary were produced as a guide for laboratory
technicians and students in the earth-science and oceanographic communities who would
like to use the above described methods.  They are not intended to be detailed presentations
of the procedures, but to serve only as supplements to help familiarize users with the basic
principles.  Users are strongly encouraged to consult the original references cited above for
more detailed analytical descriptions.
 
Operational Procedures
 
            The free multi-media software, RealPlayer, must be installed on the user’s computer
with a web browser before the videos, which are stored as compressed streaming files, can
be viewed.  Once installed, if using Internet Explorer, the user can launch the
demonstration videos below by clicking on the respective links.  If the user's browser does
not connect properly to the links below, the user should get out of the browser, go directly
to the videos directory of chapter1 and open the respective .rm files with RealPlayer.
 
 
RealPlayer Video Files
 
Wet Sieving video Dry Sieving video
Rapid Sediment
Analyzer video Coulter Counter video

Constant Temperature
Pipette video
Bath video
            
LITHOLOGIC SYMBOLS
 
            The basic lithologic symbols shown in figure 19 are provided
as guidelines.  Symbols similar to these are generally acceptable for
use as patterns both on sediment distribution maps and in lithologic
columnar sections, such as on core description forms.  Although
these are the most commonly used symbols for each of the
respective lithologies, the patterns must still be explained separately
in a key.  As with most graphics, users should also be mindful of the
eventual publication scale when choosing line weights.
 
SOFTWARE
 
             Figure 20 outlines the software sequence of operation in a generalized flow
diagram for those programs used on the computers in the sedimentation laboratory at the
Woods Hole Field Center. The data-acquisition programs RSA2000, CLTRMS2K, and
SEDITY2K, and the data-processing program CLAYES2K, run in DOS 3.0 or later and in
DOS under Windows 3.1,/95/98. The data-acquisition programs GSANV, RSAM,
CLTRM, and ENTRY, and the data-processing programs JSORT, GSTAT, and GSTATM,
run under Windows 95/98 in the “Born-Again-Shell” (bash). This shell, which is part of the
GNU operating system (Hagerty and others, 1998) distributed by the Free Software
Foundation, creates a Unix-like environment under Microsoft Windows 95/98.
             Raw data records are created on IBM-compatible computers
interfaced with an RSA and EMPSA by using the programs RSA2000
and CLTRMS2K, respectively (Appendices A and C).  The user is
prompted for all the necessary identifiers, and, upon completion of a
satisfactory analysis, the data and identifiers can be written to both an
output file and a printer. Three raw data records are generated for each
sample: an RSA record, a 200-micron aperture tube EMPSA record, and
a 30-micron aperture tube  EMPSA record.  These records each contain a
lab number, equipment type, sample identification, project identification,
requestor, operator, and analysis date. The RSA data records include
sample weight, coarse weight, sand weight, and the relative percentages
of the-5 to -1 phi gravel and 0 to 4 phi sand fractions.  The EMPSA data records include
aperture diameter and tabulated micrometer diameters and the corresponding relative-
frequency percentages from the size-fraction channels collected by the Coulter Counter
Multisizer IIe. Although the Multisizer IIe generates 256 channels of data, this accuracy is
unnecessary when generating whole-phi grain-size distributions. The program CLTRMS2K
combines and reduces the data into a more manageable 16-channel format that is equivalent
to the data originally produced by the Coulter Counter Model TAII.
            The raw RSA and EMPSA data are archived into master files by using the program
SEDITY2K (Appendices A and C). This program also contains utilities to inspect, edit, and
print hard copies of the data generated by the RSA2000 and CLTRMS2K programs.
            Occasionally, distribution and statistics must be generated for samples which were
not analyzed or only partially analyzed with the RSA2000 and CLTRMS2K programs.  For
example, many fine-grained samples do not contain enough sand (< 10 g) to perform
settling-tube analyses, and the entire coarse fraction (>0.062 mm) must be determined by
sieving or approximated by visual estimates. When this occurs, a raw data master file may
be created or updated by keying the raw sediment data directly into a file using the
programs RSAM and CLTRM (Appendices A and C).  These programs prompt the user for
all necessary identifiers and data.  The data can then be processed as output from the
programs RSA2000 or CLTRMS2K.
            The field and navigation parameters are entered by using the program GSANV
(Appendix A and C). These parameters and their coding are described in the Request For
Analysis forms which have been completed by all personnel who submit samples for
particle-size analysis.  The field and navigation parameters include lab number, latitude,
longitude, area, sampling device, water depth, depth in section to the top of the sample, and
depth in section to the bottom of the sample.
            The data-processing program JSORT (Appendices B and C) is used to sort the
multi-line records according to lab numbers and to output the records that are complete (all
RSA and EMPSA data, and field and navigation parameters) to an output file for further
processing.  The program GSTAT (Appendices B and C) is used to retrieve data from the
complete, sorted, raw data files created by JSORT and to compute the modified frequency
percentages, method of moments statistics, textural nomenclature and classification
(Wentworth, 1929; Shepard, 1954; Figs. 9, 18), and percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and
clay.  The modified frequency percentages are given for size distributions up to and
including 11 phi to -5 phi.  The method of moments statistics includes arithmetic mean,
median, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, modal classes, and modal frequencies. If
requested by the user, a hardcopy of this output (Fig. 21), which also includes inclusive
graphics statistics and verbal equivalents for standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis
(Folk, 1974), can be produced. The frequency percentages for the corresponding phi classes
are computed by the subroutines MPVC, SUMRY, and WTFP (Appendix C). The
cumulative frequency-percent curve used in computing the inclusive graphics statistics is
approximated by using the International Mathematical and Statistical Library Inc. (IMSL)
routines IQHSCU and ICSEVU (Appendix C).
            The programs ENTRY and GSTATM (Appendices B and C) allow the user to
generate statistics for pre-existent grain-size data produced outside the software system
described above. The program ENTRY permits input of sediment data as relative frequency
percentages at whole-phi intervals; the program GSTATM performs the functions of the
program GSTAT on these data.  To correct the errors introduced by the assumption that
each value within a phi class is centered at the midpoint of that class, Shepard's Correction
(Kenny and Keeping, 1951) has been applied to the second and fourth moments about the
mean in the statistics generated by the programs GSTAT and GSTATM.
            When creation of a database file is specified in either GSTAT or GSTATM, the
cumulative frequency percentages, phi classes, method of moments statistics, and the
appropriate identifiers are written to a “pre-database” file in a comma-delimited free-field
format. Once the data are in a database, multi-variate analyses such as factor analysis or
cluster analysis may be applied to retrieved data to help interpret complicated
sedimentological phenomena.
            Because an EMPSA can detect only those particles for which it is calibrated, the tail
of the fine fraction produced by this instrumentation (below about 0.6-0.7 microns) is
commonly truncated.  The program CLAYES2K (Poppe and Eliason, 1999;
Appendices B and C) allows the user to extrapolate the grain-size distribution contained in
the “pre-database” file generated by the program GSTAT to the colloidal-clay
boundary.  The user may select solutions based on linear or exponential extrapolations, or
the mean of both.
            Figure 22 presents a stylized plot showing that portion of the grain-size distribution
typically truncated by EMPSAs. Also shown in this figure
are examples of linear, exponential, and averaged
extrapolations of the clay fraction to 0.1 microns, and the
clay-colloidal clay boundary.  Errors inherent in the linear
and exponential extrapolations have been exaggerated
within this figure to more clearly demonstrate their effect
on the grain-size distribution.  The linear extrapolation
tends to slightly overestimate the amount of clay present
in a typical distribution and may be used by operators to
account for some of the material within the colloidal
fraction.  The exponential extrapolation tends to slightly
underestimate the amount of clay present in a typical distribution and may be used by
operators who want data that represents the minimal amount of clay present.  Although an
operator may select linear or exponential extrapolation, the mean of both extrapolations
usually provides the most accurate estimate and is, therefore, the recommended solution for
most applications.
            RSA2000, CLTRMS2K, SEDITY2K, and CLAYES2K were written and compiled
in Microsoft QuickBASIC version 4.5; RSAM, CLTRM, GSANV, JSORT, GSTAT,
ENTRY, and GSTATM were originally written in RATFOR (Poppe and others, 1985), but
have been rewritten in “C” and compiled with the DJGPP Development System v. 2.01
(Walnut Creek CDROM).
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
            This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S.
Geological Survey editorial standards (or with the North American Stratigraphic Code).
Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not
imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. The software presented herein is provided as a
service; no warranty is given or implied.  Images on the title page and table of contents are
clipart from Corel XARA (v. 1.5).  We thank A. Robinson, J. Commeau, and D. Walsh, the
sediment lab analysts who assisted during preparation of this report.
 
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Inman, D.L., 1952, Measures for describing size of sediments: Journal Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 19, p. 51-70.
 
Jackson, M.L., 1956, Soil chemical analysis: advanced course: Published by the author,.
Madison, Wis., 895 p.
 
Jones, S.B., and Simpkin, P., 1970, A computer program for the calculation of  hydrometer
size analyses: Marine Geology, v. 9, p. M23-M29.
 
Jordan, C.F., Jr., Fryer, G.E., and Hemmen, E.H., 1971, Size analysis of silt and clay by
hydrophotometer- Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 41, no. 2, p. 489-4 96.
 
Kane, W.T., and Hubert, J.F., 1962, FORTRAN program for the calculation of grain-size
textural parameters on  the IBM 1620 computer: Sedimentology, no. 2, p. 87-90.
 
Kranck, K. and Milligan, T.G., 1979, The use of the Coulter Counter in studies of particle-
size distributions in aquatic environments: Bedford Institute Report Series B1-R, v.
79, p. 7.
 
Kennedy, S.K., Meloy, T.P., and Durney, T.E., 1985, Sieve data - size and shape
information: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 55, p. 356-360.
 
Kenny, J.F., and Keeping, E.S., 1954. Mathematics of statistics, Part 1: Princeton, N.J., D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 348 p.
 
Krumbein, W.C., and Pettijohn, F.J., 1938, Manual of Sedimentary Petrology, New York,
Appleton, Century, and Crofts, 549 p.
 
Lay, E.P., 1969, Core sampling techniques, Oceans Magazine,  v. 1, no. 3, p. 27-29.
 
Lee, H.J., and Clausner, J.E., 1979, Sea-floor sampling and geotechnical parameter
determination - handbook: Technical Report R873, Civil Engineering Laboratory,
Naval Construction Battalion Center, Port Hueneme, CA, 127 p.
 
McCave, I.N., and Jarvis, J., 1973, Use of the Model T Coulter Counter in size analysis of
fine to coarse sand: Sedimentology, v. 20, p. 305-315.
 
McCave, I.N., and Syvitski, J.P.M., 1991, Principles and methods of particle size analysis,
In J.P.M. Syvitski (ed.), Principles, Methods, and Applications of Particle Size
Analysis, New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 3-21.
 
McLane Research Laboratories, 2000, Mark 78G-21 Sediment Trap:
http://www.mclanelabs.com/
 
McManus, D.A., 1963, Sieve calibration: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 33, p. 953-954.
 
McManus, D.A., 1965, A study of maximum load for small diameter sieves,: Journal
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 35, p. 792-796.
 
Milligan, T.G., and Kranck, Kate, 1991, Electro-resistance particle size analyzers, In J.P.M.
Syvitski (ed.), Principles, Methods, and Applications of Particle Size Analysis, New
York, Cambridge University Press, p. 109-118.
 
Milner, H.B., 1962, Sedimentary Petrography: New York, Macmillan Company, 643 p.
 
Mizutani, S., 1963, A theoretical and experimental consideration on the accuracy of sieving
analysis: Journal Earth Science, v. 11, 27 p.
 
Muerdter, D.R., Dauphin, J.P., and Steele, G., 1981, An interactive computerized system
for grain size analysis of silt using electro-resistance: Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 51, p. 647-650.
 
North Carolina State University, 1999, Shipek grab sampler: Web Site,
http://www.ncsu.edu/coast/research/shipek/shipek5.jpg
 
PetterssonO., 1928, A new appartus for taking bottom samples: Svensk Hydrological
Biological Komm Skrift, v. 6, p. 1-7.
 
Phleger, F.B., 1951, Ecology of foraminifera, northwest Gulf of Mexico: Geological
Society America Memoir 46, Part 1, 88 p.
 
Poppe, L.J., Eliason, A.H., and Fredericks, J.J., 1985, APSAS: an automated particle-size
analysis system: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 963, 77 p.
 
Poppe, L.J., and Elisaon, A.H., 1999, An interactive computer program to extrapolate the
clay fraction distributions of truncated grain-size data: U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 99-27, 44 p.
 
PVL Technologies Inc., 2000, VC-3.5 vibracore: http://www.pvltech.com
 
Reineck, H.E., and Singh, I.B., 1980, Depositional sedimentary environments with
references to terrigenous clastics: 2d ed., Berlin and New York, Springer-Verlag,
549 p.
 
Rickly Hydrological Company, 2000, US BLM-84 --USGS-designed bedload samplers:
http://www.rickly.com/   
 
Rigler, J.K., Collins, M.B., and Williams, S.J., 1981, A high-precision digital-recording
sedimentation tower for sands: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 51, p. 642-644.
 
Rosfelder, A.M., and Marshall, N.F., 1967, Obtaining large, undisturbed and oriented
samples in deep water, In A.F. Richards (ed.) Marine Geotechnique, Proceedings of
1966 International Conference in Marine Geotechnique, University of Illinois Press,
p. 243-262.
 
Royse, C.F., 1970, An introduction to sediment analysis: Tempe, Arizona, Arizona State
University, 180 p.
 
Sahu, B.K., 1965, Theory of sieving: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 35, p. 750-753.
 
Sawyer, M.B., 1977, Computer program for the calculation of grain-size statistics by the
method of moments: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 77-580, 15 p.
 
Schlee, J., 1966, A modified Woods Hole Rapid Sediment Analyzer: Journal Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 30, p. 403-413.
 
Schlee, J., and Webster, J., 1967, A computer program for grain-size data: Sedimentology,
v. 8, p. 45-54.
 
Schlee, J., 1973, Atlantic continental shelf and slope of the United States -- sediment
texture of the northeastern part: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 529-L,
64 p.
 
Sea Surveyor Inc., 2000, Alpine vibracorer: http://www.seasurveyor.com
 
Sheldon, R.W., and Parsons, T.R., 1967, A practical manual on the use of the Coulter
Counter in marine research: Toronto, Coulter Electronics, 66 p.
 
Shepard, F.P., 1954, Nomenclature based on sand-silt-clay ratios: Journal Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 24, p. 151-158.
 
Shepard, F.P., 1963, Submarine Geology: New York, Harper and Row, 557 p.
 
Shideler, G.L., 1976, A comparison of electronic particle counting and pipette techniques in
routine mud analysis: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 46, no. 4, p. 1017-1025.
 
Singer, J.K., Anderson, J.B., Ledbetter, M.T., McCave, I.N., Jones, K.P.N., and Wright, R.,
1988, An assessment of analytical techniques for size analysis of fine-grained
sediments: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 58, p. 534-543.
 
Smith, W., and McIntyre, A.D., 1954, A spring-loaded bottom sampler: Journal Marine
Biological Association, v. 33, p. 257-264.
 
Swift, D.J.P., Schubel, J.R., and Sheldon, R.W., 1972, Size analysis of fine-grained
suspended Sediments--a review: Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 42, no. 1, p.
122-134.
 
Syvitski, J.P.M., Asprey, K.W., and Clattenburg, D.A., 1991, Principles, design, and
calibration of settling tubes: In J.P.M. Syvitski (ed.), Principles, Methods, and
Applications of Particle Size Analysis, New York, Cambridge University Press, p.
3-21.
 
Trask, P.D., 1932, Origin and environment of source sediments of petroleum: Houston, TX,
Gulf Publication Company, 323 p.
 
Twenhofel, W.H., and Tyler, S.A., 1941, Methods of study of sediments: McGraw Hill,
New York, 183 p.
 
Wentworth, C.K., 1929, Method of computing mechanical composition of sediments:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 40, p. 771-790.
 
Zeigler, J.M., Whitney, G.G., Jr., and Hayes, C.R., 1960, Woods Hole Rapid Sediment
Analyzer: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 30, p. 490-495.
 
Zeigler, J.M., Hayes, C.R., and Webb, D.C., 1964, Direct readout of sediment analyses by
settling tube for computer processing: Science, v. 145, p. 51.
 
 
FIGURE CAPTIONS
 
 
Figure 1.  Schematic diagram showing the basic design of a rapid sediment analyzer (RSA;
Schlee, 1966), a settling tube.
 
Figure 2.  Basic design of an electro-resistance multichannel particle size analyzer
(EMPSA).
 
Figure 3.  Generalized flow diagram outlining the laboratory techniques and the computer
software used in the sedimentation laboratory at the Woods Hole Field Center.
 
Figure 4.  A form used at the USGS Woods Hole Field Center to request grain-size
analyses. Form supplies sample identifiers and defines the purpose of the project and the
laboratory procedures to be employed.
 
Figure 5.  Form used to record sample identifiers and assign the corresponding lab
numbers. Information supplied includes: submitter, cruise id, project id, latitude, longitude,
water depth in meters, sampling device area, top depth within the sediment column in
centimeters, and bottom depth within the sediment column in centimeters. Information
from this form is entered into a computer using the programs GSANV or ENTRY.
 
Figure 6.  Form used to record and calculate analytical data during grain-size and carbonate
analyses. Grain size data from this form are entered into a computer using the programs
RSAM and RSA2000.
 
Figure 7.  Photograph showing a typical convection oven used to dry samples and a
desiccator used to store samples prior to weighing.
 
Figure 8.  Photograph showing an analyst in the process of wet sieving a sample.

Figure 9.  Correlation chart showing the relationships between phi sizes, millimeter
diameters, size classifications (Wentworth, 1929), and ASTM and Tyler sieve sizes. Chart
also shows the corresponding intermediate diameters, grains per milligram, settling
velocities, and threshold velocities for traction.

Figure 10.  Photograph showing a typical distillation system used to produce distilled water
and a sonic probe used to disaggregate particles prior to EMPSA and pipette analysis.

Figure 11.  Basic filtration system used to remove submicron-sized particles from the
electrolyte/dispersant used during EMPSA and pipette analyses.

Figure 12.  Photograph of a rapid sediment analyzer, a settling tube.  This instrument

(Schlee, 1966) uses a pressure transducer to monitor the settling of sediment with time. An
amplifier demodulator on the shelf next to the settling tube relays electrical information to
and analog-to-digital converter in the computer.
Figure 13.  Photograph of a bank of sieves mounted in a sieve shaker. The shaker sits in a
sound-proof cabinet.

Figure 14.  Hard copy of a coarse-fraction raw data record produced by the computer
program RSA2000.  Plot is stylized.
 
Figure 15.  Photograph of a Coulter Counter Multisizer IIe and associated computer
hardware.

Figure 16.  Form used to record and calculate sample identifiers and data generated during
a pipette analysis. Data from pipette analyses can be entered into a computer using the
program ENTRY.

Figure 17.  Hard copy of a fine-fraction raw data record produced by the computer program
CLTRMS2K.

Figure 18.  Sediment classification scheme modified from Shepard (1954) used by the
programs GSTAT and GSTATM.

Figure 19.  Basic lithologic symbols commonly used on sediment distribution maps and in
lithologic columnar sections.

Figure 20.  Generalized flow diagram showing the available grain-size analysis software
and its sequence of operation.

Figure 21.  Hard copy of  a data record produced by the computer programs GSTAT and
GSTATM. Hard copy shows sample identifiers, size distribution, method of moments and
inclusive graphics statistics, and verbal equivalents.

Figure 22.  Stylized plot showing that portion of the clay fraction typically truncated by
electro-resistance particle size analyzers.  Also shown are examples of linear, exponential,
and average of the linear and exponential extrapolations to 0.1 microns, the clay-colloidal
boundary by the program CLAYES2K.  Errors inherent in the linear and exponential
solutions have been exaggerated to show their effect.

Figure 23.  Raw data records produced by the computer program GSANV.

Figure 24.  Raw coarse-fraction data records from the Rapid Sediment Analyzer produced
by the computer program RSA2000 and output into a file by the program SEDITY2K.  The
first line, which is the master file name assigned by the operator with the program
SEDITY2K, must be deleted before further processing.
Figure 25.  Raw fine-fraction data records from the Coulter Counter (200- and 30-micron
analyses) produced by the computer program CLTRMS2K and output into a file by the
program SEDITY2K.  The first line, which is the master file name assigned by the operator
with the program SEDITY2K, must be deleted before further processing.

Figure 26.  Data file produced by the computer programs GSTAT and GSTATM and used
as input for the computer program CLAYES2K. Fields are delimited by commas; records
are delimited by dollar signs. A header file has been inserted as the first record to show the
field attributes and their order.

Figure 27.  Hard copy of a data record produced by the computer program CLAYES2K.
The sample identifiers and the original and revised data are shown.

Figure 28.  Data file produced by the computer program CLAYES2K. Fields are delimited
by commas; records are delimited by dollar signs.  A header file has been inserted on the
first line to show the field attributes.

 
APPENDICES
 
APPENDIX A.   SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION AND CODE FOR DATA-
ACQUISITION SOFTWARE
 
1.) GSANV
 
Name:  gsanv - to facilitate keyboard entry of navigation and descriptive information
associated with raw sediment data processed during grain-size analysis.
 
Synopsis
gsanv [-c] file_name
 
Description:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and compiled with
DJGPP (v. 2.01),  will run under Windows 95/98 in the Born-Again-Shell (Bash). The
program prompts the user for each of the parameters to be entered into the output file (Fig.
23). All prompts are self-explanatory.
 
When the “-c” option is specified on the run-line, the latitude and longitude are expected as
“deg min Q” where Q is N, S, E, or W. These values are then converted into decimal
degrees; S and W are converted to negative values. Otherwise, the navigation is expected as
plus/minus decimal degrees.
 
A “Control C” will cause immediate termination of the program. All data entered during
the current run will be lost.
 
A carriage return in response to the sampling device, area, depth, top depth, or bottom
depth prompts will cause the default value to be used as the response. The default value,
which after the first record is the previous response for a particular attribute, is displayed in
the parentheses of the prompt. A dash and carriage return in response to the prompt will
enter a blank as the response. The depth is expected in meters; the top and bottom depths
are expected in centimeters.
 
FILES
gsanv.c, sedlab.h, iolab.c
 
SEE ALSO
gstat
 
DIAGNOSTICS/BUGS
No imbedded commas or spaces are allowed in the responses
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
            Janet Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole, MA
 
 

2.) RSAM
 
NAME:  rsam - to enter sand-fraction (sieve and rapid sediment analyzer; Figs 1, 9,
and 12)  and gravel fraction data via the keyboard
 
SYNOPSIS
rsam afile_name
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and
compiled with DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the Born-Again-
Shell (Bash). For each file named, the user is prompted for a set of project
identifiers. These will remain constant for each file.  If the file named exists, data
are appended to the file.  Otherwise, the file will be created. All prompts are self-
explanatory.
 
Data are written to the file when all sand and gravel data have been entered. Data
are entered as two separate groups:  sand being phi 4 to phi 0, gravel being phi -1 to
phi -5. Each phi group must sum to 100 +- .1% . Otherwise, the user is prompted to
re-enter the phi group. When the sample weight is equal to the coarse weight,  the
user is not prompted to enter gravel data.
 
The program may be aborted at any time by hitting the “Control C” key.
 
FILES
sedlab.h
 
SEE ALSO
rsam.c getcoars.c getids.c rsetup.c rprint.c /utils/iolib.c
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
Each response will have a maximum field length as specified in sedlab.h . If the
user response is too long, the program will specify the maximum number of
characters allowed for the current response.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA
 

3) CLTRM
 
NAME:  cltrm - to enter 200 and/or 30 micron diameter tube elecrto-resistance
multichannel particle-size analyzer (EMPSA, e.g. Coulter Counter; Figs. 2, 15)
analyses via the keyboard
 
SYNOPSIS
            cltrm afile_name
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and
compiled with DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the Born-Again-
Shell (Bash). For each file named, the user is prompted for a set of project
identifiers. These will remain constant for each file.  If the file named exists, data
are appended to the file.  Otherwise, the file will be created.
 
Data are written to the file each time the user responds 'y' (in lower case) to the
prompt "Are data ok?". A “period and carriage return”  will terminate the data
correction mode. The program may be aborted at any time by hitting “Control C”
 
FILES
sedlab.h
 
SEE ALSO
cltrm.c getsam.c getids.c getopt.c csetup.c mprint./utils/iolib.c
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
Each response will have a maximum field length as specified in sedlab.h . If the
user response is too long, the program will specify the maximum number of
characters allowed for the current response.
 
 AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA

4.) RSA2000
 
NAME: RSA2000
 
TYPE: Main program
 
PURPOSE: To create raw rapid sediment analyzer (RSA; Figs. 1, 12) data records
 
OPERATING SYSTEM: DOS version 3.0 or later, or DOS under Windows
3.1/95/98
 
SOURCE LANGUAGE: Microsoft QuickBASIC
 
SOURCE CODE: RSA2000.BAS
 
COMPILED SOFTWARE: RSA2000.EXE
 
SEE ALSO: This program requires and/or generates the following associated data
files. The files contain only ASCII (viewable) data and reside in the same
directories (folders) as the associated executable.
 
            ADAC.DAT -- Initialization file required to set up ADAC a/d board. An
example file is included using IRQ 4. The IRQ must be reserved for the card. Please
see ADAC documentation for more information.
 
            RAWINDEX.DAT -- Required to run program. May be set initially to just
contain ASCII “0” (character zero).
 
            RawDat*.DAT -- *= 1,2,3 Intermediate data generated by the program
during successive runs.
 
            RSA.DAT -- Reduced data generated by the program. No initial file is
needed but the file contains data from all saved runs. It is maintained by the
program SEDITY2K.EXE.
 
            RSA.NDX -- Index file to RSA.DAT. An initial file will be created upon
first run.
 
            MIXED_AD.LIB  -- Library file needed in the development environment
(QuickBASIC) to compile the program
 
            MIXED_AD.QLB -- Quick library file needed in the development
environment to compile the program.
 
            RSA2000.MAK -- A MAK file that uses WINDOWS.BAS, BITS.BAS,
BIOSCALL.BAS, MOUSSUBS.BAS, and KEYS.BAS. These files are included in
Microsoft QuickBASIC Programmer’s Toolbox and are also needed in the
development environment to compile the program.
 
INPUT: At the beginning of each run, the operator will be prompted for the plotter
scale, operator, requestor, cruise id, project id, sample id, lab number, sample
weight, coarse weight, sand weight, and relative percentages of the phi classes from
the gravel fraction.
 
OUTPUT: A raw data record stored to disk and a hard copy (Fig. 14)
 
USAGE:  To use the program from DOS, change to the working directory and type:
RSA2000
To use the program from Windows 95/98, access it from the file manager or the
Run command
The user is prompted for all necessary identifiers and data. For each run enter the
plotter scale (program defaults to full scale). For each analysis enter:
            a) Operator
            b) Requestor
            c)Cruise id
            d) Project id
            e) Sample id
            f) Lab Number
            g) Sample weight
            h) Coarse weight
            i) Sand weight
            j) Relative percentages of the phi classes from the gravel fraction
The sample is introduced into the settling tube when the “Waiting For Sample
Introduction” prompt is given.
A copy of the identifiers, the data, and the cumulative frequency plot of the pressure
change versus time are generated on the printer (Fig. 14).
The operator may then save , reprint, smooth, or, if the analysis was no good, purge
the data. A default saves the data. Upon responding to a choice, the program
is recycled. 
A default (carriage return) to any of the prompted identifiers other than sample id or
Lab Number will enter the identifier from the previous analysis.
 
RESTRICTIONS:  Operator, requestor, cruise id, and project id may be up to 19
characters and have no imbedded spaces or commas. Speed requirements
necessitate the BASIC source code be compiled into machine language.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE:   Eliason Data Services, Mashpee, MA/L. Poppe,
USGS, Woods Hole, MA
 

5.) CLTRMS2K
 
NAME: CLTRMS2K
 
TYPE: Main program
 
PURPOSE: To create raw EMPSA (Coulter Counter; Figs. 2, 15) data records
 
OPERATING SYSTEM: DOS version 3.0 or later, or DOS under Windows
3.1/95/98
 
SOURCE LANGUAGE: Microsoft QuickBASIC
 
SOURCE CODE: CLTRMS2K.BAS
 
COMPILED SOFTWARE: CLTRMS2K.EXE
 
SEE ALSO:  This program requires and/or generates the following associated data
files. The files contain only ASCII (viewable) data and reside in the same
directories (folders) as the associated executable.
 
            CLTR.NDX -- Index file to CLTR.DAT. An initial file will be created in the
working directory upon first run.
 
            CLTR.DAT -- Reduced data generated by the program. The file contains
data from all saved runs. It is maintained by the program SEDITY2K.EXE.
 
            MS_LABEL.DAT -- Required. The filename is spelled that way. This is a
list of parameter names for the Multisizer II currently in use.
 
            MSII.DAT -- Required in order to use the test option (3) on the input port
option menu (MSII=msii in lowercase).
 
INPUT: At the beginning of the first run, the operator will be prompted for
diagnostics, printed output, and printer setup. Subsequently and for each sample
thereafter the operator will be prompted for operator, requestor, cruise id, project id,
sample id, lab number, and tube diameter.
 
OUTPUT: A raw data record stored to disk and a hard copy (Fig. 17)
 
USAGE:  To use the program from DOS, change to the working directory and type:
CLTRMS2K
To use the program from Windows 95/98, access it from the file manager or the
Run command
For each analysis enter:
            a) Operator
            b) Requestor
            c)Cruise id
            d) Project id
            e) Sample id
            f) Lab Number
            g) Tube diameter
            h) Initial micron diameter
Press the Print/Plot button on the EMPSA after the analysis is complete and the
“Waiting For Sample” prompt is given.
A copy of the identifiers and raw data are generated on the printer.
The operator may then save, reprint, or, if the data are no good, purge the data.
Upon responding to any of the three choices, the program is recycled.
A default (carriage return) to any of the prompted identifiers other than sample id or
Lab Number will enter the identifier from the previous analysis.
 
RESTRICTIONS: This program runs only with output from a Beckman-Coulter
Electronics Multisizer IIe EMPSA. Operator, requestor, cruise id, and project id
may be up to 19 characters and have no imbedded spaces or commas. Speed
requirements necessitate the BASIC source code be compiled into machine
language.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE:   Eliason Data Services, Mashpee, MA/L. Poppe,
USGS, Woods Hole, MA
 

6.) SEDITY2K
 
NAME: SEDITY2K
 
TYPE: Main program
 
PURPOSE: To archive the raw RSA and EMPSA data into master files
subsequently used by the processing programs. SEDITY2K also examines, edits,
and generates additional hard copies of  these records.
 
OPERATING SYSTEM: DOS version 3.0 or later, or DOS under Windows
3.1/95/98
 
SOURCE LANGUAGE: Microsoft QuickBASIC
 
SOURCE CODE: SEDITY2K.BAS
 
COMPILED SOFTWARE: SEDITY2K.EXE
 
SEE ALSO:  This program requires and/or generates the following associated data
files. The files contain only ASCII (viewable) data and reside in the same
directories (folders) as the associated executable. There are no required initialization
files.
 
            CLTR.DAT -- The user will specify the data file name & location.
 
            CLTR.NDX -- The program will modify the index file as appropriate to the
tasks performed.
 
            RSA.DAT -- The user will specify the data file name & location.
 
            RSA.DAT -- The program will modify the index file as appropriate to the
tasks performed.
 
            SEDXFER.DAT -- The program will create a new data transfer file.
 
            SEDXFER.OLD -- Before rewriting the transfer file, the program will
archive the last transfer file in case of problems.
 
INPUT: RSA and EMPSA raw data records, which are stored to disk during
operation of the RSA2000 and CLTRMS2K programs, are input into files accessed
by SEDITY2K
 
OUTPUT: Master files of  raw RSA (Fig. 24) and EMPSA (Fig. 25) data records
stored to disk or a hard copy of the raw-data records. Note: the first line of each
master file is a user-supplied project identifier that must be removed before the
sorting routines are applied.
 
USAGE: To use the program from DOS, change to the working directory and type:
SEDITY2K
To use the program from Windows 95/98, access it from the file manager or the
Run command
User is prompted for which raw data records (RSA, EMPSA, or both) are to be
accessed. Operations performed by the program are listed in and selected
from the main menu (Table 3). When a number 1 through 7 is entered, the
operator can use that utility to perform the corresponding task.
In the Display or Print mode, the user can scroll through the list of logged records.
This list is composed of Lab Numbers and letters (O: open, D: deleted, or A:
assigned) designating the records present status.
When options 3 or 4 are selected, the Assign and Edit/Display Mode menu (Table
4) appears and the data records scroll up from the bottom. The records may
be scroll as in the Display or Print modes, but, when O, D, or A commands
are given, the indicated record is tagged for that respective operation.
When the Edit command (E) is given, the raw data record for the corresponding Lab
Number appears. The user is then prompted for editing commands.
When all raw data records in the SEDITY2K files have been written to Master files
or deleted, the K key will permanently remove these records from disk.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE:  Eliason Data Services, Mashpee, MA/L. Poppe,
USGS, Woods Hole, MA
 
 
 

APPENDIX B.   SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION AND CODE  FOR

DATA-PROCESSING SOFTWARE
 
1.) JSORT 11/3/98
 
NAME:  jsort - to sort sediment analyses samples by lab number and retrieve
complete sets which will be appended to the complete data set file.
 
SYNOPSIS
jsort file_name
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and
compiled with DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the Born-Again-
Shell (Bash). The program jsort expects the input file to have a file-name suffix
with “.dat”.  The  “.dat” is not entered on the run line, but is used solely for file
management purposes.  The input file is produced by combining or concatenating
the raw data records from the GSANV, RSAM, CLTRM, and, through SEDITY2K,
the RSA2000 and CLTRMS2K programs.  The input file is reorganized by 'pack' to
contain one analysis type on only one physical record.  This 'packed' file is piped
into a) a temporary file "jsortnn" where nn is the process_id; and, b) into the
program 'dirct'.  A directory of which analyses were entered into the input file for
each lab number is listed on the terminal.  The listing is piped through 'more'. The
original data file “file_name.dat’ is left unaltered.  
 
Upon completion of the directory listing, the user is queried as to whether the file
should be split.  This refers to retrieving complete data sets from the sorted
temporary file. If the user responds 'y' to the prompt "Enter 'y' to split file:" the
complete samples will be copied to a file 'file_name.fin’. If incomplete samples
remain, an output file ('file_name.inc') will be created with only the incomplete
samples.  If the file exists, the data are appended to the file. The samples will be
sorted and contain only one physical record per analysis. 
 
The temporary file “jsortnn" will be purged from the system.
 
FILES
sedlab.h
 
SEE ALSO
backup, dirct, jsplit, sort, tee.
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
In the program 'dirct' the line length is checked.  The program will abort when a
packed line has become too large.  See MAXLINE of sedlab.h (2000 chars).
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA
 
 
 

2.) GSTAT
 
NAME:  gstat - to retrieve sediment analyses and the corresponding identifiers from
the sorted raw data files and compute standard textural parameters.
 
SYNOPSIS
gstat file_name.out <file_name.fin >file_name.txt
 
Alternately, using the provided script file:
dogstat file_name
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version, which  was written in “c” and compiled with
DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the BornAgainShell (Bash). For
each sample, the 200-micron tube Coulter data, 30-micron tube Coulter data, coarse
fraction data, and the sample identifiers are retrieved from the sorted raw data file
(file_name.fin) produced by the program JSORT.  From these data, the program
calculates the textural distributions (cumulative and frequency percentages);
statistics (method of moments and inclusive graphics; Folk, 1974); percentages
gravel, sand, silt, and clay; and the textural classification. Output is a digital pre-
database file (Fig. 26) and a hard copy (Fig. 21).  A header file has been inserted as
the first record in the pre-database file to show the field attributes and their
order.  Size nomenclature and the grade scale are based on the method proposed by
Wentworth (1929; Fig. 9); the classification scheme is modified from the one
proposed by Shepard (1954; Fig. 18).
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
A message is displayed which notifies user as each sample is retrieved. During the
inclusive graphics analyses, some distributions cause the last frequency percent to
be beyond 100.0%.  This will cause a message to be displayed, which may be
ignored.  But user should always "eye-ball" the data for any apparent error(s). If the
input file is out-of-sequence a message will be displayed.  This will be in reference
to the sample after the last successfully retrieved sample.
 
Other messages, such as core dumped, etc., come from gross errors in input. In such
a case, the input file should be carefully scanned.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA
 

3.) ENTRY
 
NAME:  entry - to enter sediment data as relative frequency percents at whole phi
intervals.
 
SYNOPSIS
entry [-cvgo] file_name
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and
compiled with DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the Born-Again-
Shell (Bash).The 'o' option allows the user to enter the data as cumulative frequency
percent (an ojive).  The data must be entered in decreasing values: i.e., phi [11] =
100%.
 
The 'g' option allows the user to enter the data in groups.  Each group (fines, sand or
gravel) must sum to 100%.
 
The default entry mode is to enter the absolute frequency percent of each phi
class.  These must sum to 100%.
 
The user is prompted for all input. The user will not be prompted for a given group
when no data are present for that group. (Eg., there is no sand in the sample.)
 
Entry for a given phi group may be restarted by typing in "re" in response to the phi
prompt. A 'RE' can be entered to restart at phi[11]. 
 
If the "v" option is selected, the phi with corresponding relative frequency percents
are displayed on the screen.  If the user responds "no" to the verification, the group
entries are discarded and the user may re-enter that phi group. 
 
A "." (period) in response to the phi prompt terminates entry for that phi group. 
 
If the "c" option is selected, latitude and longitude will be entered as degrees
minutes and hemisphere (N, S, E or W) and will internally be converted to decimal
degrees (+/-).  See GSANV write-up for description of allowed sampling devices
and areas.
 
The sample is written when all data have been entered for the current sample. 
 
The program may be aborted at any time by hitting “Control C”
 
FILES
sedlab.h gstat.h
 
SEE ALSO (make file = entry.m)
            LISTA = entry.o getdatm.o rsetup.o getids.o prhead.o getnavm.o output.o
            LISTB = getlin.o iolib.o
            entry:    $(LISTA) $(LISTB)
                        cc $(LISTA) $(LISTB)  -o entry -lm
            $(LISTA) $(LISTB): sedlab.h
            $(LISTA) $(LISTB): gstat.h
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
Each response will have a maximum field length as specified in sedlab.h . If the
user response is too long, the program will specify the maximum number of
characters allowed for the current response.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA
 
4.) GSTATM
 
NAME:  gstatm - to input frequency percent data entered by ENTRY and analyze as
described in GSTAT.
 
SYNOPSIS
gstatm file.out <file.dat >file.txt
 
DESCRIPTION:  This version of the program, which  was written in “c” and
compiled with DJGPP (v. 2.01), will run under Windows 95/98 in the
BornAgainShell (Bash). Data are read from stdin ("file.dat") which was created by
the program ENTRY.  The relative frequency percentages are normalized to 100%.
These are statistically analyzed by method of moments and inclusive graphics
methods, plotted, and output both in page format as a hard copy (Fig. 21) and as a
comma-delimited pre-database file (Fig. 26). The formatted statistical analyses and
printer plots are directed to stdout ("file.txt").  The pre-database formatted
identifiers and analyses are directed to a file ("file.out").  Size nomenclature and
grade scale are based on the method proposed by Wentworth (1929; Fig. 9).  The
verbal equivalents are calculated using the inclusive graphics statistical method
(Folk, 1974) and the classification scheme was modified from the one proposed by
Shepard (1954; Fig. 18).
 
FILES
sedlab.h gstat.h
 
SEE ALSO (make file = gstatm.m)
            LISTA = gstatm.o loadat.o loadids.o gprint.o prhead.o getnav.o
            LISTB = stats.o name.o momnts.o mode.o hplot.o pgprint.o igst.o iolib.o
            LISTC = median.o iqhscu.o icsevu.o
            gstatm:  $(LISTA) $(LISTB) $(LISTC)
                        cc $(LISTA) $(LISTB) $(LISTC)  -o gstatm -lm
            $(LISTA) $(LISTB): sedlab.h
            $(LISTA) $(LISTB): gstat.h
 
DIAGNOSTICS-BUGS
A message is displayed which notifies user as each sample is retrieved. During the
inclusive graphics analyses, some distributions cause the last frequency percent to
be beyond 100.0%.  This will cause a message to be displayed, which may be
ignored.  But user should always "eye-ball" the data for any apparent error(s). If the
input file is out-of-sequence a message will be displayed.  This will be in reference
to the sample after the last successfully retrieved sample.
 
Other messages, such as core dumped, etc., come from gross errors in input. In such
a case, the input file should be carefully scanned.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE
Janet J. Fredericks, WHOI, Woods Hole, MA/Larry Poppe, USGS, Woods Hole,
MA
 
 

5.) CLAYES2K
 
NAME:    CLAYES2K - to extrapolate the clay fraction to the colloidal clay
boundary
 
TYPE:   Main program
 
PURPOSE: This program will calculate that portion of the clay fraction not detected
during a particle-size analysis by a Coulter Counter (down to 13.0 phi).  The
operator may select linear or exponential extrapolation, or the mean of both
(Fig. 22).
 
OPERATING SYSTEM:   DOS version 3.0 or later, or DOS under Windows 3.1 or
Windows 95
 
SOURCE LANGUAGE:   Microsoft QuickBASIC version 4.0 or later
                                    Library-standard
 
SOURCE CODE: CLAYES2K.BAS
 
COMPILED SOFTWARE: CLAYES2K.EXE
 
INPUT: The pre-database file created by GSTAT, the main data processing and
statistics program used in the Sedimentation Laboratory of  the Coastal and
Marine Geology Program, Woods Hole Section. The format for this pre-
database file and an example of a typical file is shown in figure 26.
 
OUTPUT:   When specified, this program will generate a hard copy (Fig. 27) and/or
a data file (Fig. 28).
 
                                    The optional hard copy will contain: the sample identifiers;
the original and revised frequency percentages; the original and
revised percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay; a revised sediment
classification (verbal equivalent); and the revised statistics. All
sample identifiers of length greater than 11 characters will be
truncated.
 
                                    The optional data file will be comma delimited and contain:
the sample identifiers; the revised percentages of sand, gravel,
 silt, and clay; the revised verbal equivalent; the revised
statistics; and the revised frequency percentages (-5 to 13
phi).  The first line of this data file will contain a list of the
field attributes.
 
USAGE:  To use the program from DOS, change to the working directory and type:
CLAYES2K
To use the program from Windows 95/98, access it from the file manager or the
Run command.
 
            The program CLAYES2K is interactive and will prompt the operator for:
                        1.)  A printer output on LPT1 (the default is no).
                        2.)  Which to use: linear or exponential  interpolation or the mean of
both (the default is the mean).  Linear interpolation
may slightly over-estimate the amount of clay present;
exponential interpolation may slightly under-estimate
the amount of clay present.
.                       3.)  The smallest particle size in microns actually measured.
                        4.)  The drive where the data file is located (the default is C:).
                        5.)  The path name to the data file.
                         6.)  What filename to read. If none is entered, the program will
display a directory of the file names in the specified
drive and path.
                         7.)  The initial Lab Number. If no lab number is entered the program
will search for the first lab number in the specified
file.
                        8.)  Whether to write the revised data to disk (the default is yes).  The
program will add an “E_”, “L_”, or “M_” depending
on which interpolation is chosen to the beginning of
the filename assigned to the output file.  If the
resultant filename is too long (over eight characters),
the user will be warned and asked to enter a new file
path and name.
                          9.) Whether the operator wishes to pause the scrolling screen after
each record in order to examine the data.
 
AUTHOR/MAINTENANCE:   Eliason Data Services, Mashpee, MA/L. Poppe,
USGS, Woods Hole, MA
 

APPENDIX C. COMPUTER PROGRAMS

 
           
All programs are stored in a directory labeled software.  To access these
programs, go to the software directory, and down-load the desired software.
BASIC SOFTWARE
 
            The following programs were written and the executables compiled into
machine language with Microsoft QuickBasic (version 4.5). They will run under
DOS version 3.0 or later, or DOS under Windows 3.1/95/98. The source code
module names have a  BAS extension; the compiled executables have the
extension .EXE.
 
            Software Compilation and Source Code:
 
                        RSA2000.BAS
                        CLTRMS2K.BAS
                        SEDITY2K.BAS
                        CLAYES2K.BAS
 
            Executable Programs:
 
                        RSA2000.EXE
                        CLTRMS2K.EXE
                        SEDITY2K.EXE
                        CLAYES2K.EXE
 
            The above programs require the following data files. The files contain only
ASCII (viewable) data and reside in the same directories (folders) as the associated
executable.
 
                        ADAC.DAT
                        RAWINDEX.DAT
                        MIXED_AD.LIB
                        MIXED_AD.QLB
                        MS_LABEL.DAT
                        MSII.DAT
 
 C LANGUAGE SOFTWARE
 
            The following programs were written in “C” and compiled with DJGPP
(version 2.01) to run on Windows 98 with the GNU operating system installed and
run from the Born-Again-Shell (bash), which is run in a DOS-prompt window. 
These programs include the data-acquisition software: GSANV, RSAM, CLTRM,
and ENTRY, and the data-processing software: JSORT, GSTAT, and GSTATM. 
The DJGPP is a 32-bit protected-mode development system available from Walnut
Creek CD-ROM (ISBN 1-57176-228-0) that is suitable for porting Unix programs
to DOS.  GNU is a Unix-like operating environment distributed by the Free
Software Foundation (ISBN 1-882114-57-4).  The user must install the GNU
 package, and set their system to run in the bash environment before using these
programs.
 
            Software Code: Documentation files and source code are contained in the
compressed file:
                                                c_code.tar
 
Download the tar file to an appropriate directory. This tar file, which puts it’s
contents into a new directory called c_code, is expanded in the bash shell with the
command:
 
                                                tar xvf c_code.tar
 
            Executable Programs: Compiled versions of the code and a readme file are
contained in the compressed file:
 
                                                apsas_up.tar
 
Download the tar file to an appropriate directory. This tar file, which puts it’s
contents into a new directory called apsas, is expanded in the bash shell with the
command:
 
                                                tar xvf apsas_up.tar
 
The programs may be operated from this directory or can be copied to a directory
which is in the user’s path.
 
Questions regarding these utilities (not the DJGPP or Free Software Foundation
packages and the
Unix environment) should be directed to lpoppe@usgs.gov and include "regarding
Unix package" in the subject. Questions regarding installation and implementation
of DJGPP or the GNU utilities should be directed to Walnut CD-ROM and the Free
Software Foundation, respectively.
 
 
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