Communalisation of education

 The current controversy reflects two completely divergent views of the Indian nation
1. The authors of the NCERT textbooks who are now under attack share the vision
of an open, democratic, secular and civil libertarian state which was to promote a
modern scientific outlook in civil society in independent India
2. But now communal forces are attempting to use history textbooks as instruments
to further their vision of a narrow, sectarian and Talibanised Hindu nation.
 Communal forces have tried to poison the minds of young children with hatred and
distrust about other communities:
1. RSS has undertaken this project through its Saraswati Shishu Mandirs and Vidya
Bharati primary and secondary schools. Books published for classes four and five
have portrayed all communities other than the Hindus as foreigners in India.
Describing the medieval period(Muslim period) as one of great oppression and
decline.
2. Qutab Minar built by Samudragupta.
3. Alexander defeated by Porus
4. Tajmahal as hindu monument by P N Oak
5. Homer’s Eliot inspired by Ramayana and Mahabharata
6. Ashoka’s advocating of Ahimsa(non-violence) spread cowardice
7. Struggle for India’s freedom struggle became a religious war against Muslims
8. Mahatma Gandhi gets described as a Dushtatma
9. National Steering Committee on Textbook Evaluation appointed by NCERT-“the
main purpose which these books would serve is to gradually transform the young
children into bigoted morons in the garb of instilling in them patriotism”
 Attempt to use government institutions and state power to attack scientific and secular
history.
 In 1977, when the Hindu communal forces first came to share power (Jana Sangh
had merged with the Janata Party) an attempt made to ban school textbooks
written for the NCERT by some of the finest historians failed because of the
countrywide protest. Also take it from notes
 Govt to appoint Hindu communalists or those who had decided to serve their interests as
(NCERT or ICHR) Directors or Chairpersons. Uni, schools, colleges and even the UGC
with people who would not resist their communal agenda.
 NCERT- new National Curriculum Framework- to take history out of school textbooks
until class 10 in the name of reducing the weight of the current heavy schoolbag. Certain
themes from history to be integrated with civics and geography. Imitation of Pak which
made a similar move in the 1970s of keeping history out up to a particular level and then
prescribing a distorted, one sided version at the senior level.
 NCERT has violated both tradition and procedural requirements by bringing in such
major changes-education a concurrent subject-major initiative in education through
discussion in parliament and CABE(includes members the education ministers of all
states and the UTs)
 NCERT director J.S. Rajput, shishya of M.M Joshi attacked most eminent and
internationally acclaimed historians who wrote the history textbooks for the NCERT such
as R.S. Sharma, Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar and Bipan Chandra.
 Allegation of monopolising official patronage
 Tarun Vijay the Editor of Panchjanya(a mouthpiece for the RSS) says these historians go
for the three P’s, i.e. Paisa, Power and prestige ( counter argument-prestige because of
their works and the writings not because of official patronage, power cannot be acquired
by writing textbooks, paisa-Romila Thapar received 650 Rs. For one of the books written
by her for the NCERT)
 These historians write out of a sense of social commitment
 Charge- They are Marxists(counter- All India Panel for History which entrusted the task
of writing textbooks to Romila and Bipin in the early 1960s was constituted of the
nationalist historians; if any influence of Marxism- it was not due to textbook writing but
because of the scholarly works)
 RSS to be direct descendants of James Mill- the colonial and communal historiography
has been critiqued by large no. of historians since Independence
 Now the situation today is that historians have abandoned communal history only the
communalists believe in it.
 NCERT instructed the CBSE to delete passages from history books written by Romila,
Satish Chandra, R.S. Sharma and Arjun Dev-violation of copyright agreement as they
were not consulted nor their permission sought. Further this was done secretly and
arbitrarily without taking suggestions and recommendations from well known nationally
and internationally recognized historians
 It is claimed that deletions were in deference to the religious sentiments of minorities-
claim appears spurious as the books from which deletions have been made are being
withdrawn from March 2002-immediate purpose was to try and garner votes in the
Punjab and UP elections by putting forward claims of protecting religious and caste
sentiments.
 Most of the deletions were made from the books prescribed from Class 11 and 12 –read
by children between 16 and 18 as they are said to be unfit to handle multiplicity of
opinions and controversial data
 Another dangerous trend has been started with the NCERT director asserting that he
would consult with religious experts before including references to any religion in the
textbooks to avoid hurting the sentiments of the community concerned. Deletions have
been made for pointing out the oppressive nature of the caste system because some
sentiments were hurt. Amartya Sen talked about the tradition of skepticism in matters of
 religion and epistemic orthodoxy. Can groups with hurt sentiments demand his arrest as
yet another son of ‘Macaulay, Marx and Madarsa’ (synonyms for western educated
liberal or leftist Indians, Christians and Muslims) Is it justified- sentiments have been hurt
when sati was criticized, theory of origin not in consonance with the beliefs associated
with most religions, if science lessons questioned the immaculate conception
 Calling the historians anti-Hindu and anti- national if they don’t agree with the kind of
interpretations or fabrications promoted by the Hindu Communal forces. A group of Arya
Samajis demanded arrest of these historians. HRD Minister Murli Manohar Joshi-
branding the history written by them as intellectual terrorism unleashed by the left which
was more dangerous than cross border terrorism
 Civilised societies cannot ban the teaching of unsavoury aspects of their past on the
grounds that it would hurt sentiments or confuse children or it would diminish patriotic
feelings among its children. Should America remove slavery from its textbooks or
Europe the saga of witch hunting and Hitler’s genocide of the jews? Let us stand tall
among civilized nations and not join the Taliban in suppressing history as well as
historians.

Refugee Bengal

 The division of India was acco to Mountbatten Plan (3 rd June Plan). On July 18,
1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act for transfer of
power. The border between India and Pak was determined by Radcliffe Award.
 Pak came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves-East Pak (today
Bangladesh) and West Pak, separated geographically by 1000 miles.
 For Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission comprised of 2 Muslim and 2
non-Muslim judges headed by Cyril Radcliffe who had no previous experience of
India and its territory. Demarcation of the boundary line on the basis of
ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims.
 Demarcation of boundary line between East and West Bengal was arbitrary since
it cut across water channels, pilgrimage centers, location of industries and other
strategic locations.
 The partition of Punjab was a one-time event with mayhem and forced migration
restricted primarily to the first three years (1947-50) but the partition of Bengal
has turned out to be a continuing process. Hindus who constituted around 31% of
East Pak, by 1951only 24% remained there due to large-scale migration.
 PM Jawaharlal Nehru remarked that Punjab suffered more in the sense of mass
killing of the people, while economically West Bengal had suffered more.
 Hindus migrating from East Pak settled across Eastern India and North Eastern
India in the states of West Bengal, Assam and Tripura. Some sent to the
Andaman.
 Traditional partition historiography explored the causes of India’s Partition and
the inherent politics, responsibilities, etc behind it.
 New partition historiography highlighted the experience of the common people
and human dimension.
i) Ritu Menon and Urvashi Butalia tried interview method to add new
dimensions in the partition narratives (focus being on a gender approach)
ii) Kanti Pakrasi’s sociological study on the refugees of West Bengal. He
evaluated the impact of partition on Bengal, trying to understand the
process and pattern of migration, impact of migration on family structure,
caste and occupation. One of the earliest systematic attempts to understand
the impact of partition on West Bengal.
iii) Prafulla Chakrabarti opined that the refugees who were initially drawn
towards the Indian National Congress, got disillusioned about its initiative
in refugee rehabilitation and actively joined the opposition. Thus Left
parties built their organizational base among the refugees.
iv) Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudaisya provided a comprehensive account
of the aftermath of partition and its continuing legacy in the landscape and
psyche of various communities in South Asia (effects on state and society
in South Asia)
 The Great Exodus in Eastern India:
i) Indian Statistical Institute collected data on the displaced families in the
West Bengal
ii) Major diff. in the migration between Eastern and Western India- exodus
from East Pak continued during the 1950s, 1960s and even after the
creation of Bang in 1971 and not balanced by a corresponding influx from
India into East Pak.
iii) Govt faced the task of absorbing these displaced people into an area which
was almost saturated, both from demography and employment.
iv) Partition left 12 million non-Muslim population of the undivided Bengal
in East Pak and sizeable part of this minority was forced to seek refuge in
eastern India. In 1981, West Bengal’s Refugee Rehabilitation Committee
estimated that no less than 8 million i.e. about one-sixth of this state
consists of displaced persons from East Bengal.
v) Among the first to leave East Bengal (due to 1946 riot in Noakhali and
Tippera) were the Hindu upper middle class people (Bhadralok refugees),
they left due to the combined fear of violent riots, a downturn in economic
opportunities (had contacts in Calcutta, so easy to pick up professions and
trade in new surroundings) and perceived loss of social standing and
power. Policy of Indian govt.-not to evacuate the minorities but negotiate
with Pak for creating conditions of security to prevent mass exodus. But
 these measures including Nehru-Liaquat Pact proved futile. Did not want
to go to the relief camps-hence squatters’ colonies dotted Calcutta.
vi) Following 1949-50 massacre in several districts of East Bengal, refugees
arriving to West Bengal were very poor and belonged to agricultural
laborers. Fled from violence.
vii) More people when ‘passport system’ introduced on Oct. 15, 1952 for
travel from Pak to India. All the hindu govt servants in East Bengal fled to
India.
viii) In the 1950s millions of displaced peasants and agricultural laborers
belonging to the lower caste Namasudra and Mahisya communities
ix) Between 1946 and 1970, about 4.28 million refugees to West Bengal. The
peak of the refugee inflow in 1956 when Pak adopted an Islamic
Constitution
x) As a result of Nehru-Liaquat Pact, 1950 a large no. of Muslims who had
left West Bengal before 31 March, 1951 came back to West Bengal but no
reverse population flow of the Hindus from West Bengal to East Pak.
xi) Decided to settle in 24 parganas and in and around Calcutta. Vast majority
approx 70% moved to Kolkata.
 Initial Phase of Settlement and Govt Policy:
i) During the initial phase, GOI concerned about the resettlement of the
refugees from West Pak and it was ambivalent regarding its
responsibilities towards the Bengali Hindu refugees from East Pak.
ii) Nehru’s letter to Bidhan Chandra Roy (the then CM of West Bengal)-
large scale migration from East Bengal not to be encouraged as it puts
pressure on the state and Indian union, but if they have come then they
need to be looked after.
iii) The out-migration to East Bengal was merely 0.70 million from West
Bengal and Bihar.
iv) Central govt insisted-vast tracts of wasteland in Assam be utilized for
production to accommodate the refugees and indigenous landless people.
v) GOI set up a Ministry of Relief and Rehabilitation in early Sep 1947.
Refugees were organized into camps and given rations and military
protection against harassment. Until 1950, relief on a temporary basis
vi) Rehab schemes divided into 2 sections-rural and urban:
 For agriculturists-allotment of agricultural land or financial help
for the purchase of tools, farming implements such as bullocks,
etc. and allotment of a household plot or loan for such purchase. A
maintenance grant for 9 months upto the harvest.
  Non agriculturists-loan to start their business or purchase
homestead plot and house-building along with a grant for 3
months.
vii) Most pre-1950 refugees from middle class and relied on their own
resources. Less than 10% depended on govt assistance and sought
accommodation in the govt-run refugee camps. After 1950, most were
agriculture class, coming with few possessions, capital or skills.
viii) In 1949-refugee activists emerged, mobilized their communities in order
to provide shelter and livelihoods for themselves rather than relying on
govt aid
ix) By 1950, there were close to 150 refugee colonies around the southeastern
portion of Kolkata- gave access to a range of livelihoods including
aquaculture, farming and work in the industrial sector.
x) Some of the camps were converted into townships to ensure transition
from relief to rehab
xi) Refugees given identity cards and placed in one of the two types of
housing-refugee colonies and refugee camps. In the former received some
level of resettlement and rehab while in the latter were less privileged.
xii) GOI defined ‘displaced’ as the one who had entered India on or after Oct.
15, 1947
xiii) After 1955, more pragmatic approach. Second Five Year Plan provided Rs
187mn for the rehab of refugees from West Pak and Rs 668mn for
refugees from East Pak. Funds for completion of housing projects and for
mitigating unemployment through setting up industries. The training and
education schemes got crucial attention.
 Govt Policy of Rehab and Settlement since 1958:
i) On March 31, 1958, WB govt decided to close the work of relief and
rehab in the transit camps and not to recognize any immigrant as displaced
in need of relief and rehab beyond that date. Criticsm-no proper
categorizations before sending to diff states and by that way refugees not
able to preserve their language and culture
ii) In 1958, Dandakaranya Dvlpt Authority (DDA) was estd. The DDA
scheme- develop the 78000 sq. miles of area in Koraput and Kalahandi
district of Orissa and Bastar district of MP for rehab of the refugees.
Criticism-topography is hilly, unfamiliar indigenous tribal population,
poor external and internal accessibility, unfavourable climatic conditions,
less fertile soil made irrigation difficult, no hope for paddy cultivation.
 When some refugees moved to this region, each family provided 7
acres of land.
  Loans for house construction, purchase of agriculture tools and
equipments
 Maintenance grant for 12 months
 By 1978, large no. of refugees sold off their property and
belongings to return to West Bengal due to problems with the
region (highlighted below). They moved to the Sunderbans delta,
parts of Tripura and Assam where they created their own
settlement.
 In 1981, over 70% of the registered displaced (8 million) still lived
below the poverty line.
 Communists strengthened by appealing to the problems of the
refugees
 Sucheta kriplani, MP said refugee situation in WB is a national
problem-hence justification for sending them to diff parts outside
WB
 Assam reluctant to accept Bengali refugees due to cultural and
ethnic factors.
 Hence DDA for rehab of the East Bengal refugees and the
civilization of a local tribal group through enforced contact with
the newcomers was failure with conflicts between refugees and the
tribes and inability of the Bengalis from agricultural backgrounds
(belonging to lower castes like namasudras, kshatriyas, poundra
khatriyas-reluctant to move as they were original inhabitants of the
rich deltaic plains) to adjust to cultivation in a very diff
environment and resource base.
 Criticism and Protest Movement against the Govt Policy:
i) In 1948, the provincial govt of West Bengal issued press note-they would
discontinue registering East Bengalis as there was hardly any communal
disturbance in East Pak and the present exodus was due to economic
causes. Challenged by the president of the East Bengal Minority Welfare
Committee in Calcutta stating the eco causes were the direct consequence
of partition on a communal basis.
ii) In Dec 1948, provincial govt made public its decision to shut down
registration offices by Jan 15, 1949 claiming that ample time was given to
register.
iii) Refugees surviving on the barest rations, govt representing its relief as
charity and making them realize that charity is not a matter of right
iv) Refugee leaders blaming the govt for adopting the divide and rule policy
by dividing them into haves and have-nots. Such attempts challenged with
 strikes in camps. They were also waging a war against their own aid-
receiving brothers who took what they could and looked the other way.
v) Objection-govt divided refugees into several categories like able-bodied
males, widows, the handicapped, govt servants, medical practitioners,
lawyers, etc and offer each category a diff package. Demand for equal
rights.
vi) Procession under the communist factions against the govt. Influence of
left-wing parties.
vii) Demands:
 All refugees must be rehabilitated within West Bengal
 Families to be given adequate notice before moved to rehab
colonies and should not be sent there against their will
 Basic eco rights: the provision of relief to all, full rehab, and
entitlement to relief grants until full rehab
 Free education for children, free medical care, clothing and clean
camps
 Rehab means brick-built house for each refugee household and
regular, paid employment (against govt policy of self-employment)
 Free rations
 Called for radical land reforms, for the abolition of the zamindaris
and for more equitable laws.
 Refugees started occupying vacant and unused plots when camps
were closed. Eviction Bill was drafted to evict them from the
unused land. Later WB govt redrafted it by remarking that a
displaced person in unauthorized occupation of land would not be
disturbed until the govt provides him other land or house in an area
which enables him earning his livelihood. Hailed as major victory
as it acknowledged the right to shelter and emphasized the
circumstances in which the right to private property could be non
enforceable.
viii) Left parties demanded rights to food, shelter and employment for
refugees-once govt coerced to accept these rights then same rights for
everybody-thus their role had been seen as a ‘Trojan Horse” tactics to
build up the party base among the masses
ix) GOI decided to wind up the camps by July 1959 as it realized that it
would be difficult for the cash-starved WB to give shelter to all the
refugees-decision to send some of them to other parts of the country-
camp-dwellers of Bettiah in Bihar launched peaceful satyagraha-
massive civil disobedience movement in the Gandhian way by the
refugees in WB and more than 30000 camp refugees arrested.
 x) Leaders like Jogen Mondal, Hemanta Biswas, P R Thakur came to the
forefront (camp-dwellers-lower caste Namasudra)
xi) CPI, Proja Socialist Party led All Bengal Refugee Conference and
Revolutionary CPI led Refugee Welfare Council-dominant role. Rallies
and demonstrations followed the peaceful satyagraha as the form of
protest and mobilization against the govt.- refugee movement got
politicized and grouped as unions.
xii) Complaints-govt treated them badly, meager rations and no efforts to
create employment opportunities
xiii) Pressures used to drive them to Dandakaranya. Failure-
 Policies-resorted to big hydroelectric projects (big projects-
problems-large gestation period, project delays) instead of setting
up small irrigation projects-poor policy implementation had toll on
agriculture production and even subsistence agriculture not
possible
 No efforts made to raise cottage and small scale industries or other
semi-urban employment.
 Refugees not given the title deed to the land allotted to them
 Shortage of drinking water, lack of adequate health facilities, lack
of facilities for fish culture and increasing incidence of infant
mortality
 Wild animals and fear of indigenous Gond tribal
 Interference with the normal tribal way of life-tribes survived on
forests-encroachment on the forest land by the refugees-
30%decline in the population of tribals in the Dandakaranya region
 Legacy of culture and territory:
i) Effects-culture, mind and territory
ii) Nehru-striking diff in per capita expenditure on refugees in the West and East
iii) Traditional middle class Bengali families-conservative and reluctant to allow their
women folk to take up jobs even if in distress. Refugee women broke the
tradition-their presence in the job market influenced other sectors of the Bengali
society-emergence of urban working women class-economic independence made
them self conscious and confident to fight to against patriarchial society-led to
their empowerment
iv) No. of new towns emerged in diff parts of West Bengal-1971 census identified 43
new towns making the total no. to 223.
v) Calcutta emerged as one of the most congested mega cities with high level of
urban concentration. WB-food deficit region. Tremendous drain on social services
and impact on political and eco structure
 vi) For middle and lower middle class from EP, not easy to reconstruct their lives in
WB-spend years in refugee camps-could never return to the traditional family
occupation-sense of alienation
vii) By 1970s ‘refugee’ and ‘displaced’ replaced in official language by migrants.
Distinction between new and old migrants-migrated before Oct 1946 and 31
March, 1958-old and those came between Jan 1, 1964 and March 25, 1971-new

E.H. Carr
The historian and his Facts

HISTORY – III

WHAT IS HISTORY?
 Book: 'What is History?' by E.H. Carr.
 Traditionally, 'history' has been understood as being synonymous to 'past'.
 History comes in through a filtration of the past, and history has been defined as
'an unending dialogue between past and present'. This is because history is a
selective study of the past.
 
PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY
 

 'Past' is infinite. The observer has observed a limited portion of this past, and a
selected part of this observed past is ingrained in one's memory. Only part of this is
remmebered and recorded, and even then, it is filtered into history that has
temporal value, and history which survives the test of time. Out of this, the part
that comes to the historians' notice is grasped. Whatever is understood is then
checked/verified for credibility, and then expounded and narrated.
 
 PAST
|
OBSERVED
|
REMEMBERED
|
RECORDED
|
SURVIVE THE TEST OF TIME
|
PART THAT COMES TO THE HISTORIANS' ATTENTION
|
GRASPED PORTION
|
CREDIBILITY
|
EXPOUNDED AND NARRATED
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
 
WHAT IS FACT?
 

 'Fact is the datum of experience as distinct from conclusions’. This is what may be
called the commonsense view of the history
 There are two types of fact: Hard and soft facts. Hard facts are verifiable, and
undisputed. Soft facts are the facts subject to interpretation, and have an element
of understanding.
  
FACT AND HISTORICAL FACT: DISTINCTION
 

 What is a historical fact?- According to the commonsense view there are

certain basic facts which are the same for all historians and which form the
backbone of history- For e.g. Battle of Hastings was fought in 1066. But this
view calls for two observations-
1. These basic facts which are same for all historians commonly belong to
the category of raw material of the historian rather than history itself
2. The necessity to establish these facts rests not on any quality in the
facts themselves but on a priori decision of the historian. The facts
speak only when historian calls on them. The historian is necessarily
selective. The only reason why we are interested to know that the
battle was fought at Hastings in 1066 is that historians regard it as a
major historical event. Similarly Caesar’s crossing of the petty stream,
the Rubicon is a fact of history. Hence the status of the fact as a
historical fact will turn on a question of interpretation.
 Hence historian has the dual task of discovering the few significant facts
and turning them into facts of history. History cannot be objective.
 To give an example, when the facts about Cleopatra are to be noted, whether
Cleopatra has a sharp or round nose is irrelevant as a historical fact. Historical facts
are historical due to their relevance and importance.
 The phrase 'Crossing the Rubicon' can be used to understand what distinguishes
historical fact from other facts. Example, while there were princesses even in the
past, Princess Meghan Markle was the first half-black Princess, and this is a
historical fact as it crosses the Rubicon because of its uniqueness.
 
POSITIVISM AND EMPIRICISM
 

 Positivism: Positivism talks about an emphasis on science. What positivists

believe, is that fact is sacred. Facts are, by themselves, inherently explanatory.
They believe that history is a science, and historical facts are as pure and as true as
scientific facts.
"Fact is sacred but opinion is free" - C.P. Scott
  Empiricism: Fact by themselves, is not history. Historians dig out facts, and their
interpretation becomes history. This school focuses on interpretation as the basic
tenet of history.
 
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
"All history is contemporary history" - E.H. Carr

 What Carr means here, is seeing the past through the eyes of the present. The
interpretation of the past is therefore, made by understanding the tendencies that
the present provides. An understanding of the society in which one exists, allows
for a better understanding of the society that existed earlier, and the changes in
this society as opposed to the earlier one.
 Technological tools further aid in the understanding of the past.
 
"All history is the history of thought" - E.H. Carr

 The views of Collingwood- The philosophy of history is concerned neither

with ‘the past by itself’ nor with ‘historian’s thought about it by itself’ but
with ‘the two things in their mutual relations’.
 This means that ideology is shaped by historical events, and the understanding of
historical events is necessarily an understanding of the inherent ideology and
thought that inspired such events. The legacies of the events in history can be seen
in due course of time.
 E.H. Carr critique:
1. Facts of history never come to us pure
2. Historian’s need of imaginative understanding for the minds of the
people with whom he is dealing, for the thought behind their acts.
History cannot be written unless the historian can achieve some kind of
contact with mind of those about whom he is writing.
3. View past through the eyes of the present. The function of the historian
is neither to love the past nor to emancipate himself from the past, but
to master and understand it as key to the understanding of the present.

TYPES OF HISTORY
 1. Social History: This is linked to sociology, and talks about the societal structure
and functions, and their evolution over time.
2. Political History: The history of kings, evolution of understanding of State, and
political developments on ruling.
3. Economic History: History of the understanding of economics, growth of the
subject and trade history, history of how trade interactions shaped historical facts.
4. Intellectual History: Intellectual history emerged in the 1960s and 70s. This is the
history of ideas.
5. Environmental History: This emerged in the 60s and 70s, and talks about the
history of the environmental structure, and changes over time.
6. Military History: Winston Churchill's 'History of the Second World War' is good
for both military and diplomatic history. This talks about the evolution of military
regimes and strategies.
7. Diplomatic History: This talks about the history of diplomacy.
 

 Voltaire inspired a term 'Philosophy of History'. He spoke about how history was
to be written, what history was and why it was necessary.
The Renaissance model, which Voltaire emphasized upon of historical writing
emphasized how history was to be scientific, objectively interpreted. This is known
as 'historiography'.

INTER-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO HISTORY

1. Geography: History has a very close interaction with geography.

Cartography and maps have an important role to play in the understanding of
territorial extent and borders. There are two branches of history in this
respect, military and diplomatic history. For these types of history, a proper
understanding of geography is necessary.
Eg. For writing the history of the Kargil War, the topography of the region, the
people residing there, the weather and meteorological conditions have to be
looked into in order to get a complete understanding of diplomatic history. A
field study may further be necessitated for this purpose.
Geographical dominance: England played an important role for three
centuries, and enjoyed a dominant position in world politics. This historical
dominance was caused because of their geographical separation from
mainland Europe, and the English Channel as a geographic feature became an
indispensable part which helped them assert their continued dominance.
 Similarly, America and its geographical isolation resulted in no military attack
to the American mainland before 9/11.
However, because of technological developments, the use of geographical
advantages has diminished with the use of ICBMs, etc. Still, geography has an
important role to play in the development of history.
National Character Formation: Geography has often caused the divide and
national character formation, resulting in protectionist tendencies because
one feels a sense of togetherness with these people. This inspires a nationalist
ideology, because of a feeling of oneness. Geography acts as a basic feature
for the creation of 'State' and 'nation' in concept for this purpose. Eg.
Separatist tendencies in the U.S., separatist tendencies in the North-East or in
Pakistan, the Naga separatist movement.
History of the Distant Past: For eras for which there is no written record or
documented evidence, history is oft written by looking at the landscapes,
artefacts through archaeological excavation and geographical features play an
important role in the understanding in the same.
Climate and its impact: Tropical climatic conditions, which cause little to no
variations in weather conditions in the year, aid the existence of civilizations.
Population growth is higher in the tropical regions, and climate definitely in
that sense, has an impact on civilization growth over time.
Geopolitics: Geopolitics means the interaction of geography with politics. The
development of national foreign policies is inextricably linked with both
history and geography eg. Israel-Palestine divide, North Korea-South Korea
divide.
Resources: The discovery of Australia as a 'gold-mine', is an important
example of the geographical and historical example of resources.
 
2. Economics:
Economic history: Economics essentially studies humans' economic activity,
while history is an overall understanding of human activity over a period of
time. This creates an obvious link between the two disciplines. Some of the
great economic events have shaped history and are an important part even in
the study of economics eg. The Great Depression, Liberalization, Capitalism.
Econometrics also further allows for a data analysis of historic problems.
Colonial Legacy: Colonialism in essence was influenced by economics, because
even the British initially started out as traders in the economy. The problem of
lop-sided development in certain parts of India, is also a consequence of the
British, and is an economic development influenced by history. Furthermore,
 tax policies given by the British are historically given, some have been
abandoned in due course while the rest have survived the test of time.
Naxalism, imposed by Lord Cornwallis, had a further economic and historical
impact.
3. Psychology: Psychology again has an interaction with history, in terms of
how psychology is about motives and reasons behind human actions.
Psychology is useful in understanding those heroes in history, who impacted
the world in their own way. However, looking at the psyche of those in
history, can help us understand the ideology and historical development with
the help of psychology.
Certain ideologies like jingoism or mass hysteria could be understood better
through psychological studies, and in this sense, history has an undeniable link
with the study of psychology. Understanding a mob effect or a superiority
complex in a historical context, can be aided by a study of psychology with
history. How behaviour shapes a revolution, or creates movements, can be
better understood by a psychological study of history. The change in
psychological perspective over time can be better understood over time with a
connected study between history and psychology.
Writing Biographies and Autobiographies: Knowledge of a person in-depth
has to be acquired so that a better insight into a person's work can be
obtained. Information in this way, has to be collected in order to understand
the psychology of the person. Freudian and post-Freudian psychology is
helpful in understanding the person about whom the biography is to be
written.
4. Sociology: The relationship of history with sociology is long-standing, in
how sociology found it's origin in history. This is because sociology studies the
development of society and social institutions, and a historical perspective
allows for the chronological evolutionary understanding of this particular
subject. This interaction is therefore, patently evident in the application of the
theories in sociology. The development of sociological methods is also
influenced by trial and error in history. Sociology by itself, cannot exist without
social history.
5. Political Science: A British scholar, John Seeley, said that history without
political science has no fruit, while political science without history has no
root. This is the intricate connection between history and political science.
During the Renaissance, political science emerged out of history when the new
discussions about the idea of State emerged in political rhetoric. Political
science as a discipline, emerged from political history. Political history, which
is a narration of the history of political institutions and ideologies. Political
 science emerged because if a need to understand political institutions in
detail, and the need for the formulation of theories. Political science is the
analytical and theoretical understanding of political history. International
relations emerged as an independent study in the 20th Century, as a result of
history.
6. Law: Legal history itself shows the development of legal institutions as a
result of history. The Constitution of India for instance, also came out as a
result of the development of legal institutions. The development of court
system, can also be understood with a joint study for history and law. The
background and evolution of law can also be understood in a historical
context.
7. Philosophy: Philosophy of history itself provides a methodology for
historians to craft, write history. This craft is known as historigraphy. The
Renaissance model also pl

HISTORY AS PROGRESS
 There are many different dimensions and understandings of what progress is. The
understanding of history is undeniably and closely linked to the idea of progress.
 The basic question that has to be asked in this respect is: What are the criteria to
determine the "progressiveness" of a person or policy?
 
ELEMENTS OF PROGRESSIVENESS
 

 There has to be a goal, which is intended to lead society towards development of

some kind [social, economic, political, etc.]. Acceptability is another criteria of
determining progress. Economics adds another idea and dimension to
progressiveness [GDP growth]. Development of science and technology adds a
fourth dimension. Development has to be sustainable over a considerably long
period of time.
 
a. Accumulation of material resources;
b. Scientific advancement;
c. Mastery over the environment;
d. The Level of Consciousness;
 
  History is progress with trough and peak. History is progress with the
accumulated experience of the past. Fire and wheel

OBJECTIVITY, SUBJECTIVITY AND BIAS IN HISTORY

 There is a relation between objectivity, subjectivity and bias. While the terms
have been used otherwise.
 Objectivity indicates absolute truth as to a particular statement or fact.
 "Objectivity is the capacity to rise above the limited vision of one's own situation
in society and in history, and a capacity to project one's vision in the future".
This definition can be related to certain examples, such as Galileo, when he said
that the earth revolved around the sun. For this, he was charged for apostacy and
eventually punished to death [Cue: capacity to rise above the limited vision of one's
own situation].
 "Objectivity means how subjective history is to be viewed and presented"
-E.H. Carr

 Subjectivity is an interpretation of the different instances that happen in history.

 Bias is deliberate, and intrinsic. When bias is present, one looks at things in a
restrictive manner, only in terms of what he can prove. Bias can be equated with
pattern writing, and something which is coloured with opinion and ideology over
fact. Eg. Arun Sawhney, who authored "Missionary in India", on the basis of the RSS
ideology, thereby disregarding the positive aspect of missionaries in favour of
advocating solely the negatives that they presented. I response to this book, a
missionary wrote a point by point rebuttal of Arun Sawhney's book.
 
Why is there subjectivity in history?
 

 An objective history is impossible, as it merely delves into facts. Interpretation of

historical facts is necessary, as a historian brings into history an analysis which is
inherent to the understanding of the facts. However, the possibility of bias
necessitates a focus on objectivity in history.
 History is how we evaluate events, personalities, cultures and ideas. Subjectivity
in interpretation for these particular aspects is natural, as historians tend to view
these from different perspectives or lenses. These lenses could be Cultural,
Political, Marxist, Rightist, Feminist.
 
1. Personality: A historian is not firstly a historian. He is a member of society. And
over time, he has passed through a process of socialization, and his personality has
been moulded by the socialization and community that he has lived in through his
life. As one lives with his parents, his personality is shaped by his interactions and
conflicts. Naturally, this personality would reflect in that person's writing [For
instance, the notion that liberalism is the ideology for the millennial population].
2. Ideology: Ideology, like personality, is intrinsic to a person. Generally,
intellectuals for instance, portray a Leftist lineation. They are accordingly
influenced by a Marxist approach.
Marxist approach to history: Marxist approach mainly tends to enter economics
and trade. He believes that economics is the base for wars and conflicts in the
world. Economic undertones can be seen in every sphere of interaction and
conflict. Problem is that if a rational approach is taken, economics cannot be taken
as the sole factor. Religion, social statuses, culture, ethnicity are some other driving
factors which influence humans to move or be involved in economic activity. Marx
believed religion to be opium, and therefore disregarded the importance of
religion as an important driving factor for human beings. Marxism, because of this,
has come into conflict with the Political Right. Marxism again talks about history
from the Renaissance model, focusing on a historical and scientific inquiry. Living
historians at present also have a Marxist approach to history, requiring hard
evidence for justification.
3. Religion: The historian's religion, for instance, J.N. Sarkar and Faruqqi, you would
find that Sarkar is very critical of Aurangzeb and his policies. But Faruqqi tends to
defend Aurangzeb. He did not deny that Aurangzeb was destructive, he simply said
that he had his reasons for the same. He justified Aurangzeb's destruction of
temples, by stating that the Mughal empire was at its largest during the period of
Aurangzeb. Throughout his period, Aurangzeb was involved in wars. For financing
the wars, he needed money, and the Southern temples which were great
repositories of wealth, were destroyed in order to acquire said wealth. According
to him, religious fanaticism was not the reason for the destruction of temples, the
reason for a 'show of glory'. Even Hindus destroyed other temples when they
attacked each other. Both arguments are credible and well-reasoned, but their
religion has influenced his subjectivity. Although religion is not that widespread a
factor.
4. Inference: Inference is intuition, or intelligent guessing. 'Where there is smoke,
there is a fire'. Archive positivism, is a phenomena where the historian attempts to
fill gaps in history. E.g., if the history of the Mauryan period is to be written, and a
certain 20-30 years' evidence is not found, then those 20-30 years' history is filled
out by inference.
 5. Interest: A historian who chooses to working a particular field of study, chooses
the same out of interest. If someone chooses something with a particular interest,
it brings a natural subjectivity to the interpretation.
 

 We cannot have objective history, as mere fact without analysis cannot make
history. Subjectivity by itself, is not a problem. But subjectivity should not descend
to the level of prejudice or bias. If historians are using their work solely to
propagate their ideology, they should be boycotted by the academic community.
 Subjectivity could also be contained by adopting the Renaissance model of
history writing. First, facts have to be straight, then there has to be rational and
scientific interpretation of the facts. This model could minimize subjectivity in
history. Otherwise, perspective in any field, plays a very important role.

HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
 This refers to the role and process of taking and applying of evidence in history.
 
SOURCES OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
 
1. Archaeological sources;
In this criteria, inscriptions by Ashoka for instance, can be classified. Inscriptions
can be found in several forms. Numismatics or coins, are also evidenced as
historical evidence. Coins show very unique characteristics. For instance, Akbar, in
the Mughal period, issued a Vishnu-Lakshmi coin. This allowed for the
interpretation that Akbar was a liberal who was all-accepting of the Hindu culture.
By the Gupta period, there was a debasement of the gold content, this shows the
then decline of the Indian economy.
Artefacts which come out of excavations also act as archaeological sources. A
dancing bronze statue of a dancing girl, for instance, when it came into the light of
the historians, led to the idea that the society was materialistic and utilitarian. The
statue was depicted as nude, and this led to the interpretation as to whether the
dancing girl was a prostitute or whether nudism was sanctioned in society.
National archives and the archives of the India House in London, show the
evidences of history.
2. Literary sources;
They could be primary or secondary sources. Biographies etc., are secondary
sources. Letters, diaries, speeches are primary sources. Literary sources have
 existed for a long period of time, and Vedic history was documented in the early
ages. India has a very rich past in this regard, in how a lot of our artefacts have
been smuggled to European markets. The Nalanda University library burning, or
foreign travellers who carried Indian manuscripts to China. This had a positive
effect, in how Buddhism spread to China and Japan.
3. Foreign sources;
 
USE OF EVIDENCE IN THE WRITING OF HISTORY
 
Myth and History: Myth might have come across for centuries, but there is no tangible
evidence to justify the same. Eg. Mahabharata, Ramayana. Problem is that when one
tries to justify such events, they do not find any evidence. So it is considered mythology
and not history. E.g., the history of Dwarka. Historians do not deny its happening, but
they do not accept it in the absence of hard evidence.
 
Criteria for the Credibility of Historical Evidence
 
1. Was the primary witness able to tell the truth?
This can be understood through a number of parameters.
Spatial and temporal closeness: When the incident is happening, whether or not
the witness was present on the scene or whether he was observing from 100
metres. A better perspective is obviously found closer. His proximity with the
incident is an important aspect. Temporal closeness, refers to whether he was
there at the time of the incident, or whether he came in minutes, days months or
years after.
Competence of the observer: The aspects of the observer, like his professionalism
or role in the incident, is an important factor in determining whether or not the
observer was able to tell the truth about the historical fact.
Degree of attention: Whether the primary witness was paying complete attention,
allows for a determination of the level of truth.
2. Willingness to tell the truth
This talks about the intention of the observer in putting forward evidence. The
observer may pervert the truth, for different reasons. He may hide the truth, or
may put forward a partial truth. The truth would in this case, be compromised and
influenced by bias.
Bias: Observer bias may be biased towards the object of his observations. This bias
 may be deliberate or unintentional.
Literary Style: Furthermore, a literary style difference may in turn, impact the
truth. A lot of such observers have written in a poetic style, giving scope for
interpretation. Literary style, in this context, becomes very important.
Formalities and conventions: Formalities and conventions also pose a problem
behind the ascertaining the real truth. Example of the American War of
Independence, whose declaration was only signed on August 2, 1776 but which is
still celebrated on July 4.
3. Independent corroboration
Pulkesan II defeated King Harshvardhan. This means to test the witness from other
sources, in order to let go of any exaggeration or misguidance that one source
provides.
4. Reputation of the author
The reputation of the person/observer who has written the report works in his
favour or against him. If he is known for writing the truth, it becomes significant in
determining whether or not such a person's evidence would be considered
credible.
5. Lack of self-contradiction
The work in the document has to be free from self-contradiction. Refuting
something that has been stated by you, is something that reduces the credibility of
the evidence. E.g., Manusmriti was full of self-contradiction. Therefore, people
found out that Manusmriti was not written by Manu, and that it was compiled over
several ages by someone named Bhrigu.
6. Contradiction from other sources
It becomes disputable and less credible if there are other sources which directly
contradict the proposition so put forth.
7. Freedom from anachronism
The work should be free of anachronism. It should not be chronicled wrongly, and
it should be exact in its chronology.

CONTROVERSIES IN HISTORY
BACKGROUND
 

 There was no official writing in India, until the British period. The first historical
writing in India came from James Mill, who made an account, "History of India" in
the 1820s was the first official account of the history of India.
  What good would they have found in rewriting history? The idea of a benevolent
despot, in order to promote the idea that they were reformists. The connotation
which could be brought from the White Man's Burden, the Civilization Project, etc.,
and they accordingly wanted to promote ideological hegemony. This was the
reason James Mill wrote the history of India. This helped prolong their rule.
Legitimacy to a ruling class can be provided by alteration of history.
 Hitler and Napoleon similarly, also altered history. Everywhere, James Mill wrote
of the ridicule of the Indian Gods and culture. One of the problems of Mill's work,
was periodization. He divided the history of India into three periods. He called
these periods Hindu India, Muslim India and British India.
 Historians found this periodization to be a root of communal history.
Communalization crept into the writing of history, and it impacted history at its
very root. Gandhi accordingly said, "It is better to not teach history than to teach a
coloured history". Accordingly, Hindu India was shown as thriving, while medieval
Muslim India was classified as having slaughtered the initial thriving.
 The seeping into a person's consciousness that it took place was perhaps not
envisaged to have been to such a great degree.
 Macaulay, Wilson Smith and the Cambridge School's views on Indian history,
which denied the existence of the Indian Freedom Struggle, calling the movement
the 'charge of rebels against the benevolent British Raj'.
 The Muslim rulers' medieval period was called the 'Dark Age'. While medieval
India had great expansion of art, culture and lifestyle, these aspects were not
highlighted. In the Mughal period, the Rajputs were the right hand of the Mughal
rulers. Terming all suppressed as Hindus and all the oppressors as Muslims was
factually incorrect, as for a small bribe, the Rajputs were allowed to autonomously
run administration.
 
POST-1947 INDIA
 

 The nationalist and Marxist sc

 There was no true historical account at this point. The Government of India,
under Nehru, felt the need to write a history of India. R.C. Majumdar was given the
task to write the official history of India.
 At this point, since colonial rule had just ended, there was a tendency to glorify
Indian history. Majumdar realized that due to governmental interference and their
desire to write history a certain way, he would not be able to write history
properly. He therefore, resigned. Majumdar was a nationalist.
  In 1977-80, the altering of history textbooks took place. This happened due to the
Janata Dal government, led by Morarji Desai. Most of the textbooks authored by
RomillaThapar for instance, said that they did not criticized the Mughal period as a
dark age, and they did not talk about the policies of Aurangzeb.
 Another criticism was that the textbooks did not talk about Aurobindo Ghosh and
LokmanyaTilak and their achievements much, in the sense that their achievements
had not been emphasized. Based on this, they sought to change the textbook. RSS
and other rightist groups supported the rewriting textbooks. They could not make
substantial change however, because they raised controversy in India.
 In the 1990s, after the Babri Masjid demolition on December 6, 1992, the BJP
came to power in a number of states. Around 1993, the National Steering
Committee on Textbook Evaluation submitted its report that in a number of states
where BJP came to power, the textbook was changed and reflected a communal
view of the past. Thousands of RSS-run schools like Sarasvati Shishumandir and
AdarshVidyamandir taught a very narrow communalized history of India. This
report explained the gravity of the situation in India. In such schools, it was taught
for instance, that The Iliad was inspired by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It
also said that Alexander was defeated by Porus. It also stated that Samudragupta
built the QutubMinar.
 
POST-2000 CONTROVERSIES IN HISTORY
 
1. The Beef-Eating Issue: Section IV of the book sent, has a reference by
RomillaThapar. This talks about for special guests, beef was served as a manner of
honour. Man's life was valued as much as a hundred cows, and she said that cow
was not a holy animal in the Vedas. Beef-eating was not attacked by her, and the
Aryans, who ate beef, ate the same only when the cows became old. Milch cows
were not slaughtered. Around 2nd to 3rd century BC, the cow started to be
perceived as a holy animal. Before that, while the cow was important, it was not
holy. Godhulivedaand terms such as these have been derived in the Vedas from
cows. The rightist view even today, rides on the idea that the cow was always
considered a holy animal.
2. Take notes for 16/01/2019
 
3. Reference of Jainism:
4. Harappan Horse/Origins of Aryans: The Rightist groups had claims that the
Aryans were indigenous people. This issue has inspired politics. A German scholar
Friedrich Maxmillan gave this theory that the Aryans came from Central Asia. This
Maxmillantheory was accepted by most historians, as there is historical evidence to
support the same. Evidences for the same were:
a. The Boghaz Koi Inscription: The Boghaz Koi Inscription is located at Asia
Minor. This inscription is available today, and it is mentioned therein that in
1500 BC, five different branches of the people went to five different parts of
the world. One of these branches went to Meluha. Before Megasthenes wrote
'Indica', Meluha was the term used to refer to India. This inscription has also
been tested by the Carbon Testing method. Therefore, this is clinching
evidence of the origin of the Aryans.
b. Nature of Civilization: The Indus civilization, which was before the
Harappan civilization, is claimed by the Rightist groups to have eventually
become the Aryans. The Vedic civilization was rural, while the Aryans were an
urbanized civilization. How would it become possible that an urban Aryan
civilization became a rural Vedic civilization? This contrast in civilization
debunks this theory that the Indus civilization eventually became the Aryans.
c. Philological Evidence: The science of phonetics is philology. Scholars have
shown philology to understand different words. Due to the languages, and
dialects, similarities can be found in different languages. AA dictionary of such
phonetic similarities between Sanskrit and English has been developed.
d. Horse Evidence: This horse evidence has become extremely controversial
in present times. The Indus Valley civilization has no evidence of horses
whatsoever. There are different depictions, but none of these depictions have
any horses. Horses were absent in the Indus Valley civilization. Mules were
present, but horses are usually even now, imported. This horse evidence is
significant, as horses were an important part of future Aryan success. The
Aryans from Central Asia defeated the indigenous population because of their
horses.
In recent times, the NDA Government changed the NCERT Director and N.S.
Rajaram was made the NCERT Director. He claimed to have found a seal from the
Indus Valley civilization that contained a depiction of horses. This news reached the
media, but when the seal was carbon tested, it was found to be fake. He (Rajaram)
sought to artificially change history.
The reason they did this, was because their thesis was that outsiders were the
enemy. It was this thesis, that would be in dispute if Aryans were considered
outsiders. In order to prevent or cure this dispute, they were hellbent on trying to
prove that the Aryans were an indigenous population. The Vedic Aryans came to
India because of the scope for exploitation. Their understanding personified
natural phenomena, and was anthropomorphic. The Vedic religion emerged as a
result of this anthropomorphism.
In modern times, the Aryan Maxmillan theory has become the Aryan Migration
Theory. This theory merely states that the Aryans were not a violent population,
and that they peacefully migrated to India. The Aryans had matrimonial relations
with the indigenous population. Pathans, Jats for instance, depict Aryan features
like fair faces, tall and handsome, etc.

AMARTYA SEN – THE ENTERPRISE OF KNOWLEDGE

(ISHRITA TA)
 The newspapers were full of articles on history. In this background,
Amartya Sen was invited to give an address.
 In the very first sentence, he states that history could be made bunk
through motivated manipulation. The title herein talks about the
interdependence of history with other sciences. In this regard, it becomes a
significant enterprise of knowledge.
 He has underlined three different aspects or utilities of historic interest.
a. Epistemic Interest;
b. Practical Reasons; [In order to address existing problems, we have
to look to the past]
c. Idea Scrutiny; [In understanding a natural enquiry into the history of
self. In the fights about nation and nationalism, and in the development
of an 'us and them' philosophy. Today, identity politics like politics of
caste, religion, region are invoked on the basis of history][Khan Abdul
Gaffar Khan is the only Pakistani to win the Bharat Ratna. His son once
said that his Muslim identity was 1500 years old but his Pakistani identity
was only 50 years old. The interplay of this identity of Muslim and
Pakistani for instance, in different contexts, is identity scrutiny].
 Heterodoxy in his article talks about the approach which a professional
should have. A person's beliefs should not influence his work. Categorical
simplification has been used as a term here, referring to 'duty for duty's sake'.
Heterodoxy has been described as a view which allows for objectivity and
history which is free from bias and in that sense, truly scientific.
 'Meta-history' has been referred to as the history of histories. The way
history is written in India, has been described. Then, he refers to James Mill
and his history-writing traditions.
 In the end, he talks about the references to a number of personalities.
Brahmagupta, Al-Beruni, Tagore, Aryabhata, Mill as been referred to.
 a. Aryabhata: He discovered zero and the calculation for eclipses was
given by him. Aryabhata was during the Gupta period.
b. Brahmagupta: He was influenced by the orthodox approach. The
belief of Rahu and Ketu and Rahu eating the sun which caused eclipses,
was believed.
c. Al-Beruni: He gave his reasoned criticism on both Aryabhata and
Brahmagupta. He praised Aryabhata and criticized Brahmagupta. Al-
Beruni gave a very objective.
d. James Mill: James Mill never came to India, and he gave
observations about India while sitting in Britain. He demeaned India while
never having actually visited India. He almost calls Indians good-for-
nothing, without ever having met them. This was un-objective and
prejudiced interpretation.
 Sen also talks about positional objectivity, and brings up a discussion on
the same. However, this is subjectivity.

A Valley Bloody and Beautiful

Part I:

 Jammu and Kahmir-5 regions-unified by dogra rajputs in the 19th century-1947 hari singh
ruler of Kashmir-not a good ruler-spending time at the racecourse and hunting in the
forest-sheikh Abdullah major critic-he despite having master’s degree-not givent govt
job in Kashmir-question-why muslims despite being in majority are singled out and
oppressed-in 1932-all jammu Kashmir muslim conference-1938-national conference-
demand representative govt based on universal suffrage-his friendhip with Nehru-hari
singh wanted independence-first mountbatten then Gandhi met him-on 15 aug not
acceded-standstill agreement with both countries which would allow the free
movement of people and goods across the border-pak signed-in sep rail service
between Sialkot and jammu suspended and lorry traffic was stopped by pak-maharaja
appointed Mehr chand mahajan as his pm who had better relations with Nehru and
patel-patel inclined to allow the state to join pak later changed his mind when pak
accepted the accession of junagadh-sheikh Abdullah released and demanded complete
transfer of power which would lead to a joint govt of hindu, sikh and muslim-he was
known to be non sectarian and pro congress

Part II

 Tribal invasion of Kashmir-poonch-estd a abase in town murree-abkar khan 4000 rifles

from army supplies-tribals tactica pillage, loot and rapine-Muzaffarabad on kishenganga
7 miles from the border-battalion of jandk was stationed but fell as half the men
muslims from poonch-few men escaped and phoned Srinagar-brigadier rajinder singh
towards uri first-blew up the bridge that linked to the north-48 hrs were crossed the
river and mahuta-power station –baramula-convent of st joseph, burnt shops by hindus
and shikhs-no jihad anymore-invaded and looted peace loving kahmiri muslims, raped,
killed cristian priests doing good worksand british correspondent-hari singhfor military
assistance-v p menon sent to Srinagar-maharaj refuge in jammu-instrument of
accession-27 oct –troops sent to Srinagar-jinnah ordered generals to march with their
troops into Kashmir-refused by his british commander in chief-but officers in touch with
the raiders-volunteersof nc stood fuard at street corners and bridges and supervised
movement of men and goods-army secured the city-nehru letter to maharaj to head of
the administration –sheikhliaquat khan pak pm met with Nehru-plebiscite rejected-first
new admin should be set up-nehru wanted quick decisions-letter to maharaj-4 options-
plebiscite-independent-jammu with india and rest with pak and poonch and beyond
with pak and jammu and valley with india