The Sinusoidal Function

The sinusoid is described by the expression

f(t) = Fm cos(ωt + α)
AC Circuit Analysis where
Fm = amplitude or peak value
ω = angular frequency, rad/sec
α = phase angle at t=0, rad

T
Fm

ωt, rad
α π 2π
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering -Fm
University of the Philippines - Diliman

Originally: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis (EEE33) by Prof. A.P.Magabo

The sinusoid is generally plotted in terms of ωt,

Outline expressed either in radians or degrees. Consider
the plot of the sinusoidal function f(t)=Fmcos ωt.

The Sinusoidal Function T

Fm
Effective value of a sinusoid
π 2π ωt, rad
Complex Algebra
180 360 ωt, deg
Impedance and Admittance in AC Circuits -Fm
Network Reduction 2π
When ωt=2π, t=T. Thus we get ωT=2π or ω= .
T
Power in AC Circuits The function may also be written as
Phasor Transformation 2π
f(t) = Fm cos ωt = Fm cos t
Balanced Three-Phase Systems T

1
Define: The frequency of the sinusoid The Resistor
iR R
1 Consider a resistor. Let the
f= sec-1 or cycles/sec or Hertz (Hz)
current be described by
T + vR -

Then, the sinusoid may also be expressed as iR = Im cos ωt

f(t) = Fm cos ωt = Fm cos 2πft From Ohm’s law, we get vR = RiR = RIm cos ωt

Note:: The nominal voltage in the Philippines is a vR

sinusoid described by iR
v(t) = 311 cos(377 t + α) V ωt, deg
-90 90 180 270 360
The peak value of the voltage is Vm=311 volts. The
angular frequency is ω=377 rad/sec. The frequency
is f=60 Hz. The period is T=16.67 msec. Note: The current is in phase with the voltage.

Leading and Lagging Sinusoids The Inductor

iL L
Consider the plot of the sinusoidal functions Consider an inductor. Let the
f1(t) = Fm cos(ωt + 60°) current be described by + vL -
and
f2 (t) = Fm cos(ωt + 30°) iL = Im cos ωt
diL
From vL= L , we get vL = − ωLIm sin ωt
f1(t) dt
vL
-60 60 iL
ωt, deg
-90 -30 30 90 180 270 360
ωt, deg
f2(t) -90 90 180 270 360

Note: We say either “f1(t) leads f2(t) by an angle

of 30°” or that “f2(t) lags f1(t) by an angle of 30°.” Note: The current lags the voltage by 90o.

2
 The Capacitor Effective Value of a Sinusoid
iC C
Consider a capacitor. Let the Consider a DC (constant) current I and an AC
current be described by (sinusoidal) current i(t)=Imcos ωt.
+ vC -
iC = Im cos ωt The sinusoidal current i(t) is said to be as effective
1 I as the constant current I if i(t) dissipates the same
From vC= ∫ iC dt , we get v C = m sin ωt average power in the same resistor R.
C ωC
R
iC vC Consider R with the DC current I.
The power dissipated by R is I
ωt, deg
-90 90 180 270 360 P=IR 2

Since the current I is constant, then PAV,DC = I2R.

Note: The current leads the voltage by 90o.

Summary: Consider next R with the AC R

current i(t). The instantaneous
1. In a resistor, iR and vR are in phase. power dissipated by R is i(t)
2
2. In an inductor, iL lags vL by 90o. In a capacitor, p(t) = i2R = Im R cos2 ωt
iC leads vC by 90o (ELI the ICE man).
Simplifying, we get
Note: We will show later that: 2  1 + cos 2ωt 
p(t) = Im R  
 2 
1. For an RL network, the current lags the 2 2
voltage by an angle between 0 and 90°. = 2 Im R + 2 Im R cos 2ωt
1 1

2. For an RC network, the current leads the The average value of any sinusoidal function can be
voltage by an angle between 0 and 90°. shown to be equal to zero. Thus
2
3. For an RLC network, either 1 or 2 will hold. PAV,AC = 12 Im R

3
Equating average power, we get Algebra of Complex Numbers
2
I 2R = 1
2
Im R Definition: A complex number consists of a real
part and an imaginary part. For example, given
or Im
I= ≈ 0.707 Im A = a + jb
2
Definition: The effective value of a sinusoidal A is a complex number with real part equal to a
current with an amplitude Im is equal to and an imaginary part equal to b. Note: j= −1 .
Im Example: The following complex numbers are
IEFF =
2 expressed in the rectangular-coordinate form.

Note: The same definition applies to a sinusoidal A = 3 + j4 B = 2.5 − j3.5

voltage v(t)=Vm cos ωt.
C = −0.5 − j3 D = −6 + j4.25

The effective value of a periodic function is also The Complex Plane

called the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value.
Definition: The complex plane is a Cartesian
That is, given a periodic function f(t), we get coordinate system where the abscissa is for real
numbers and the ordinate is for imaginary numbers.
1 T
∫
Imaginary
FEFF = FRMS = f(t)2 dt Axis
T 0
j4 A=3+j4
E=-4+j3
Note:: The nominal voltage in the Philippines is a j2 D=0+j2
sinusoid described by C=4+j0
v(t) = 311 cos(377 t + α) V -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 Real Axis
-j2
The effective or RMS value of the voltage is F=-3-j3
B=2.5-j3.5
-j4
V = 0 .707(311) = 220 V

4
 Polar-Coordinate Form Addition or Subtraction
Definition: In the polar-coordinate form, the Addition or subtraction of complex numbers can
magnitude and angle of the complex number is only be done in the rectangular-coordinate form.
specified.
Given A = a+jb and B = c+jd, then
Consider the complex number A=a+jb.
A + B = (a + c ) + j(b + d)
From the figure, we get
Imag A − B = (a − c ) + j(b − d)
A = a2 + b2
jb A
b For example, given A=8+j6 and B=4+j10
θ = tan−1
a A + B = (8 + 4) + j (6 + 10) = 12 + j 16
Thus, θ

A = a + jb = A ∠θ
a + Real A − B = (8 − 4) + j (6 − 10) = 4 − j 4

Trigonometric Form Multiplication

Consider the complex number A = a + jb = A ∠θ . Multiplication of complex numbers can be done
using the rectangular-coordinate or polar form.
From the figure, we get Imag
jb Given A = a+jb =||A||∠θA and B = c+jd =||B||∠θB, then
A
a = A cos θ in the rectangular-coordinate form, we get
b = A sin θ θ AB = (a + jb)(c + jd)
Thus, we can also write a + Real = a(c + jd) + jb(c + jd)
A = A (cos θ + j sin θ) = ac + jad + jbc + j2bd
∠36.87° can be expressed as
For example, A=10∠ Since j2=-1, the product is

A = 10(cos 36.87° + j sin 36.87°) = 8 + j6 AB = (ac − bd) + j(ad + bc)

5
Given A = a+jb =||A|∠θ
|∠θA and B = c+jd =||B|∠θ
|∠θB, then Division
AB = ( A ∠θ A )( B ∠θB ) Division of complex numbers can be done using the
rectangular-coordinate or polar form.
The rule is “multiply magnitude and add angles.”
Given A = a+jb =||A||∠θA and B = c+jd =||B||∠θB, then
We get
in the rectangular-coordinate form, we get
AB = A B ∠(θ A + θB )
∠53.13o and
A a + jb c − jd
For example, given A=3+j4=5∠ = •
B=4+j3=5∠∠36.87o B c + jd c − jd
AB = (3 + j4)(4 + j3) ac − jad + jbc + bd
=
= 12 + j9 + j16 + j212 = j25 = 25∠90o or c 2 + d2
or A ac + bd bc − ad
= 2 + j 2
AB = 5(5)∠(53 .13 o + 36 .87 o ) = 25 ∠90 o B c +d 2
c + d2

Conjugate of a Complex Number Given A = a+jb =||A|∠θ

|∠θA and B = c+jd =||B|∠θ
|∠θB, then
Definition: The conjugate Imag A A ∠θ A
of a complex number =
A=a+jb=||A|∠θ
|∠θA is defined
jb A B B ∠θB
as The rule is “divide magnitude and subtract angles.”
A* = a − jb = A ∠ − θA a Real We get
A A
-jb A* = ∠(θ A − θB )
B B
∠53.13o and
For example, given A=3+j4=5∠ ∠53.13o and
For example, given A=3+j4=5∠
B=-4-j3=5∠∠-143.13o B=4-j3=5∠∠-36.87o
A * = 3 − j4 = 5∠ − 53 .13 o A 5∠53 .13o
= = 1∠90 o = j1
B* = − 4 + j3 = 5∠143 .13 o B 5∠ − 36 .87 o

6
 Phasor Transformation The Inductor
iL L
Define a transformation from the time domain to Consider an inductor. Let the
the complex frequency domain such that current be described by + vL -
iL = Im cos ωt
f(t) = Fm cos(ωt + α)
diL
Fm From vL= L , we get v L = − ωLIm sin ωt
F( jω) = ∠α dt
2 =ωLImcos(ωt+90o)
Transformation gives
For example, given f1(t)=311 cos (377t+60o) volts
Im ωLIm
and F2(jω)=10∠∠20o Amps IL ( jω) = ∠0o and VL ( jω) = ∠90o
2 2
F1 ( jω) = 220 ∠60 o V VL ( j ω)
Dividing, we get = ω L ∠90 o = j ω L Ω
f2 (t) = 14.14 cos(ωt + 20o ) A IL ( jω)

The Resistor The Capacitor

iR R iC C
Consider a resistor. Let the Consider a capacitor. Let the
current be described by + vR - current be described by
+ vC -
iR = Im cos ωt iC = Im cos ωt
1 I
From Ohm’s law, we get vR = RiR = RIm cos ωt From vC= ∫ iC dt , we get v C = m sin ωt
C ωC
Transformation gives Transformation gives
Im RIm Im Im
IR (jω) = ∠0o and VR (jω) = ∠0o IC ( jω) = ∠0o and VC ( jω) = ∠ − 90o
2 2 2 2ωC
VR(jω) VC ( jω) 1 1
Dividing, we get =RΩ Dividing, we get = = Ω
IR(jω) IC ( jω) ωC∠90 o
jω C

7
 Impedance Summary
Definition: The ratio of transformed voltage to 1. The equation describing any impedance is
transformed current is defined as impedance. algebraic; i.e. no integrals, no derivatives.
V ( jω) V( jω) = Z I( jω) (Ohm’s Law)
Z =
I( j ω )
Note: 2. All the methods of analysis developed for
resistive networks (e.g. Mesh Analysis, Nodal
(1) For a resistor, ZR = R in Ω
Analysis, Superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s
(2) For an inductor, ZL = jωL = jXL in Ω Theorems) apply to the transformed network.

(3) For a capacitor, ZC = 1/jωC = -jXC in Ω 3. The phasor transformation was defined for a
cosine function. The magnitude is based on the
(4) XL and XC are the reactance of L and C, RMS value. Other phasor transformations exist.
respectively.

Admittance Network Reduction

Definition: The ratio of transformed current to Impedances in Series:
transformed voltage is defined as admittance.
Z1 Z2
+
1 I( j ω ) V( jω)
Y = = V( jω) I( jω) Zeq = = Z1 + Z2
Z V ( jω) - I( jω)
Note:
(1) For a resistor, YR = 1/R in Ω-1 Impedances in Parallel:

(2) For an inductor, YL = 1/jωL =-jBL in Ω-1 I( jω) V( jω) Z1Z2

Zeq = =
+ I( jω) Z1 + Z2
(3) For a capacitor, YC = jωC = jBC in Ω-1
V( jω) Z1 Z2
I( jω)
(4) BL and BC are the susceptance of L and - Yeq = = Y1 + Y2
C, respectively. V( jω)

8
 8Ω
Example: Given From Ohm’s Law, we get the inductor voltage.
v(t)=100 cos 10t volts. + +
Find i(t) and vL(t). v(t) i vL 0.6H VL ( jω) = I( jω)(ZL )
- - = (7.071∠ − 36.87o )(j6)
Transform the source
= (7.071∠ − 36.87o )(6∠90o )
100 = 42.43∠53.13o V
V( jω) = ∠0° = 70.71∠0° volts
2 From the inverse transformation, we get

Convert R and L to impedances vL (t) = 42 .43 2 cos (10t + 53.13 o )

ZR = R = 8 Ω = 60 cos (10t + 53.13 o ) V
ZL = jωL = j(10)(0.6) = j6 Ω Note: The current i(t) lags the source voltage v(t)
by an angle of 36.87°.

ZR
Transformed Network We can also apply voltage division to get the
+ +
voltage across the inductor.
The total impedance is
V(jω) I(jω) VL(jω) ZL ZL
Z T = ZR + ZL = 8 + j6 Ω VL ( jω) = V( jω)
- - ZL + Z R
The transformed current is j6
Division of = (70 .71∠0 o )
V(jω) 70.71 ∠0o 8 + j6
I(jω) = = complex
ZT 8 + j6 numbers 6 ∠90 o
= (70 .71∠0 o )
70.71∠0o 10 ∠36 .87 o
= = 7.071∠ - 36.87o A
10∠36.87o = 42 .43∠53 .13 ° V
We get
Note: Voltage division is applied to the transformed
i(t) = 10 cos(10t − 36.87° ) A network.

9
 6Ω 1.2H
Example: Given Solve for current I1(jω).
v(t)=200cos10t volts. i2 i3 V(jω) 141.42∠0o 141.42∠0o
+ i1 5Ω
Find i1, i2 and i3. v(t) 0.01F
I1(jω) = = =
- 0.5H Zin 16 + j12 20∠36.87°
Transform the network. = 7.071∠ − 36.87° A
200 Apply current division to get I2(jω).
V( jω) = ∠0 o = 141 .42∠0o V
2 ZC − j10
I2 ( jω) = I1( jω) = (7.071∠ − 36.87o )
ZL1 = jω L 1 = j(10 ) (1 .2 ) = j12 Ω Z2 + ZC 5 − j5
ZL 2 = jωL 2 = j(10 ) (0 .5 ) = j5 Ω (10∠ − 90o )(7.071∠ − 36.87o )
=
1 1 7.071∠ − 45o
ZC = = = − j10 Ω
jω C j(10 ) (0 .01) = 10.0∠ − 81.87o A

Z1
Transformed network Use KCL to get I3(jω).
Z1 = 6 + j12 Ω + I1(jω) I3( jω) I3(jω) = I1(jω) − I2(jω)
Z2 = 5 + j5 Ω
V(jω) Z2 ZC
- I2(jω) = 7.07∠ − 36.87o − 10.0∠ − 81.87o
ZC = − j10 Ω
= (5.66 − j4.24) − (1.41 − j9.9)
Solution 1: Use network reduction to get the input
impedance. = 4.24 + j5.66 = 7.07∠53.13o A
Z2ZC − j10(5 + j5)
Zeq = = ω), I2(jω
Inverse transform I1(jω ω), and I3(jω
ω).
Z2 + ZC 5 + j5 − j10
i1(t) = 10 cos (10t - 36.87 o ) A
50 − j50
= = 10Ω
5 − j5 i2 (t) = 14.14 cos (10t - 81.87 o ) A
Zin = Z1 + Zeq = 16 + j12 Ω i3 (t) = 10 cos (10t + 53.13o ) A

10
 Z1
Solution 2: Use mesh Solve for I1(jω). We get
analysis. +
141.2 = (16 + j12) I1(jω)
Z1 = 6 + j12 Ω V(jω) I1(jω) Z2 I3(jω) ZC or
Z2 = 5 + j5 Ω -
141.2 141.2
I1( jω) = =
ZC = − j10 Ω 16 + j12 20∠36.87o
mesh 1: V( jω) = Z1I1( jω) + Z2[I1( jω) − I3(jω)] = 7.071∠ − 36.87o A
mesh 2: 0 = ZC I3(jω) + Z2 [I3(jω) - I1(jω)] Solve for I3(jω). We get

Substitution gives I3 ( jω) = jI1( jω) = (1∠90o ) I1(jω)

141.2 = (6 + j12)I1(jω) + (5 + j5)[I1(jω) − I3(jω)] = (1∠90o )(7.071∠ − 36.87o )
0 = − j10I3(jω) + (5 + j5)[I3(jω) − I1(jω)] = 7.071∠53.1o A

Simplifying the equations, we get Finally, I2(jω) can be found using KCL.

141.2 = (11 + j17) I1(jω) − (5 + j5) I3(jω) (1) I2(jω) = I1(jω) − I3(jω)
0 = −(5 + j5) I1( jω) + (5 − j5) I3 ( jω) (2) = 7.071∠ − 36 .87 o - 7.071∠53.13 o

From (2), we get = (5.66 − j4.24) − (4.24 + j5.66)

5 + j5 7.071∠45o = 1.41 − j9.90 = 10.0∠ − 81.87o A
I3 ( jω) = I1( jω) = I1( jω)
5 − j5 7.071∠ − 45o ω), I2(jω
Inverse transform I1(jω ω), and I3(jω
ω).

= 1∠90o I1( jω) = j1 I1( jω) i1(t) = 10 cos (10t - 36.87 o ) A

Substitute in (1) i2 (t) = 14.14 cos (10t - 81.87 o ) A
141.2 = (11 + j17) I1(jω) − (5 + j5) jI1(jω) i3 (t) = 10 cos (10t + 53.13 o ) A

11
 5Ω 0.5H
Example: Given Evaluate the coefficient of VX(jω)
vs=100cos10t volts + iX 1 5 − j5 5 − j5
is=10cos(10t+30o) v
10Ω .01F is ⋅ + 0.1 + j0.1 = + 0.1 + j0.1
amps. Find iX.
s
-
5 + j5 5 − j5 50
= 0.2
Transform the network Evaluate the constant term
VS ( jω) = 70.71∠0 V o
70 .71∠0o 70 .71∠0o
= = 10∠ − 45o
IS ( jω) = 7.071∠30o A 5 + j5 7.071∠45o
Substitution gives
ZL = jω L = j(10)(0.5) = j5 Ω
1 1 7.071∠30o = 0.2VX (jω) − 10∠ − 45o
ZC = = = − j10 Ω or
jω C j(10)(0.01)
VX (jω) = 1
0.2
[7.071∠30o + 10∠ − 45o ]

Transformed network Z1 + VX(jω) Simplifying, we get

Z1=5+j5Ω + Ix(jω) Vx (j ω) = 5[6 .12 + j3 .54 + 7 .07 − j7 .07]
Z2=10Ω Vs(jω) Z2 Z3 Is(jω)
- = 66.0 − j17.7 = 68.33∠ − 15o V
Z3=-j10Ω
Solve for Ix(jω).
REF
Solution 1: Nodal Analysis
VX ( jω)
V ( jω) − VS( jω) VX ( jω) VX ( jω) IX ( jω) = = 6.83∠ − 15o A
IS( jω) = X + + 10
Z1 Z2 Z3
Substitution gives Thus, using inverse transformation, we get

 1 1 1  70.71 iX (t) = 9 .66 cos (10t - 15 o ) A

7.071∠30 = 
o
+ +  VX ( jω) −
5 + j5 10 − j10  5 + j5

12
Solution 2: Superposition Z1 Consider the current Z1 + VX(jω)
source alone.
Consider the voltage + Is1(jω) Ix1(jω) Ix2(jω)
source alone. Vs(jω) Z2 Z3 Z2 Z3 Is(jω)
-
Get the input impedance. From KCL, we get

Z2Z3 10(− j10) REF

Zeq = =  1 1 1 
Z2 + Z3 10 − j10 IS ( jω) =  + +  VX ( jω)
5 + j5 10 − j10 
− j10 1 + j1 Substitution gives
= ⋅ = 5 − j5Ω
1 − j1 1 + j1 7.071∠30 o = 0.2VX ( jω)
Thus,
or
Zin = Z1 + 5 − j5 = 10Ω VX ( jω) = 35 .36∠30 o V

The source current is Solving for the current, we get

Vs ( jω) 70 .71∠0 o
VX ( jω) 35 .36 ∠30 o
Is1( jω) = = = 7.071∠0o A Ix 2 ( jω) = =
Zin 10 Z2 10
Using current division, we get = 3 .54 ∠30 o = 3 .06 + j1 .77 A
Z3
IX1(jω) = Is1(jω) Applying, superposition, we get
Z2 + Z3
Ix ( jω) = IX1 ( jω) + IX2 ( jω)
10∠ − 90o
= (7.071∠0o ) = 3 .54 − j3 .54 + 3 .06 + j1 .77 A
14.14∠ − 45o
= 6.6 − j1.77 = 6.83∠ − 15o A
= 5∠ − 45o = 3.54 − j3.54 A Thus,
iX (t) = 9 .66 cos (10t - 15 o ) A

13
 Z1
Solution 3: Simplifying, we get
Thevenin’s Theorem + +
Vth(jω) = − j10(−2.59 + j9.66 + 6.12 + j3.54)
Vs(jω) Vth(jω) Z3 Is(jω)
For mesh 1, - I1(jω) - = 131.94 − j35.36 = 136.6∠ − 15o V
we get
Vs ( jω) = Z1I1( jω) + Z3[I1(jω) + Is (jω)] Find the Thevenin
Z1 a
impedance
Substitution gives Z3
Zth = Zab b
Vs ( jω) = (5 + j5)I1 ( jω) − j10 [I1 (jω) + Is (jω)]
Solve for I1(jω). We get Z1Z3 (5 + j5)(− j10)
Zth = = = 10 Ω
Vs ( jω) + j10Is ( jω) Z1 + Z3 5 − j5
I1( jω) =
5 − j5

Simplifying, we get The Thevenin equivalent network

Zth
70 .71∠0 + j10(7 .07∠30 )
o o
Vth(jω) = 136.6∠ − 15 o
V
I1( jω) =
5 − j5
Zth = 10 Ω +
35 .36 + j 61 .24 Vth(jω) IX ( jω) 10Ω
= -
5 − j5 Finally, we put back the 10Ω
70.71∠60 o resistor and solve for the
= = 10∠105o current.
7.071∠ − 45o
Vth ( jω)
The Thevenin voltage is
IX ( jω) =
Zth + 10
Vth(jω) = − j10 [I1(jω) + Is (jω)] 136 .6∠ − 15o
= = 6.83∠ − 15o A
= − j10[10∠105o + 7.07∠30o ] 20

14
 Power Equations From (1) and (2), we get
Consider a voltage source, a current source or a cos α cos β = 12 [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)]
network of passive elements (R, L and/or C). Let
i(t)=Im cos (ωt+ θI) and v(t)= Vm cos (ωt+θV). The instantaneous power can be expressed as

p= 1
2
VmIm[cos(2ωt + θ V + θI ) + cos(θ V − θI )]
+ + +
v(t) i(t) i(t) v(t) i(t) v(t) = 1
2
VmIm cos[(2ωt + 2θI ) + (θV − θI )]
- - -
+ 1
2
VmIm cos(θ V − θI )
Voltage Current Passive Simplify using trigonometric identity (1). We get
Source Source Network
p = 12 Vm I m [cos(2ωt + θ I ) cos(θ V − θ I )
Note: The current flows from positive to negative
terminal for the passive network. − sin(2ωt + θ I ) sin(θ V − θ I ) + cos(θ V − θ I )]

The instantaneous power supplied by the voltage Collecting common terms, we get
or current source or delivered to the passive
network is p= 1
2
VmIm cos(θ V − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
p = v(t)i(t) = VmIm cos(ωt + θV ) cos(ωt + θI ) − 12 VmIm sin(θV − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )

Trigonometric Identities: Using the RMS values of the voltage and current,
we get
(1) cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
(2) cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
− VI sin(θ V − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )
(3) sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
(4) cos2 α = 12 (1 + cos 2α) Note: The instantaneous power consists of a
constant term plus two sinusoidal components.

15
 The Resistor The Capacitor
iR R iC C
Consider a resistor. Let the Consider a capacitor. Let the
current be described by + vR - current be described by
+ vC -
iR = Im cos(ωt + θI ) iC = Im cos(ωt + θI )
From Ohm’s law, we get 1 I
iC dt , we get v C = m sin( ωt + θI )
C∫
From vC=
vR = RiR = RIm cos( ωt + θI ) ωC
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor
The instantaneous power delivered to (dissipated
is I2
by) the resistor is
pC = m
sin( ωt + θI ) cos( ωt + θI )
pR = RI cos (ωt + θI ) = RI [1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
2 2 1 2 ωC
m 2 m

or or
p R = I2R[1 + cos 2(ω t + θ I )] p C = I2 X C sin 2(ω t + θI )

The Inductor Real or Active Power

iL L
Consider an inductor. Let the Definition: Real or active power is defined as the
current be described by + vL - average value of the instantaneous power. It is the
power that is converted to useful work or heat.
iL = Im cos(ωt + θI )
Recall the instantaneous power supplied by a
diL
From vL= L , we get v L = − ωLIm sin( ωt + θI ) source or delivered to a passive network.
dt
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor
is − VI sin(θ V − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI )
pL = − ωLIm sin( ω t + θI ) cos( ωt + θ I )
2

Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real

= − 12 ω LI2m sin 2(ωt + θ I ) or active power is
or
pL = −I2 X L sin 2(ωt + θI ) P = VI cos(θV − θI ) in Watts

16
Recall the instantaneous power delivered to a The energy stored in the magnetic and electric
resistor, inductor or capacitor. fields are
p R = I2R[1 + cos 2(ω t + θ I )] WL = 1
2
Li L2 ∝ cos 2 ( ω t + θ I )
pL = −I2 X L sin 2(ωt + θI ) WC = 1
2
Cv 2C ∝ sin 2 ( ω t + θ I )
p C = I2 X C sin 2(ω t + θI ) Plots of the energy are shown below.
Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real WL WC
or active power delivered to R, L and C are
PR = I2R in Watts i
ωt, deg
PL = 0 -90 90 180 270 360
PC = 0 θI

Reactive Power Comments:

i L C 1. When the magnitude of the capacitor voltage
Consider a series LC circuit. Let
the current be described by + vL - + vC - is increasing, the magnitude of the inductor
i=Im cos (ωt+θI). The voltages current is decreasing, and vice versa.
vL and vC can be shown to be 2. When the capacitor is storing energy, the
vL = −ωLIm sin(ωt + θI ) inductor is supplying energy, and vice versa.
I The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor
v C = m sin( ωt + θI )
ωC vL and capacitor are
vC i pL = −I2 X L sin 2(ωt + θI )
ωt, deg p C = I2 X C sin 2(ω t + θI )
-90 90 180 270 360
Definition: The negative of the coefficient of
θI sin2(ωt+θI) is defined as the reactive power Q.

17
Thus, the reactive power delivered to L and C are The power factor must be specified as lagging or
leading:
Q L = ω LI = I X L in Vars (volt-ampere reactive)
2 2

I2 1. The power factor is lagging when the

QC = − = −I2 X C in Vars current lags the voltage.
ωC
2. The power factor is leading when the
Recall the expression for the instantaneous power
current leads the voltage.
supplied by a source or delivered to a passive
network. Note:
p = VI cos(θV − θI )[1 + cos 2(ωt + θI )]
1. The reactive power is positive when the
− VI sin(θ V − θI ) sin 2(ωt + θI ) power factor is lagging.
The reactive power is 2. The reactive power is negative when the
power factor is leading.
Q = VI sin(θ V − θI ) in Vars

Apparent Power and Power Factor Summary of Power Equations

Definition: The product of the RMS voltage and 1. Real Power: P = VI cos(θ V − θI ) Watts
the RMS current is defined as the apparent power.
It is also called the volt-ampere. PR = I2R for a resistor
VA = VI in Volt-Amperes 2. Reactive Power: Q = VI sin(θ V − θI ) Vars
Note: Electrical equipment rating is expressed in Q L = I2 X L for an inductor
terms of the apparent power.
Q C = −I2 X C for a capacitor
Definition: The ratio of the real or active power to
the apparent power is defined as the power factor. 3. Apparent Power: VA = VI Volt-Amperes
P
P 4. Power Factor: PF = = cos( θ V − θ I )
PF = = cos( θ V − θ I ) VA lagging or leading
VA

18
 Power Triangle Example: In the circuit shown, v(t) = 311 cos377t
volts. Find the power and reactive power delivered
The power triangle is a right triangle whose sides
to the load. 0.5Ω 3.06 mH
correspond to the real and reactive power.

P = VI cos( θ V − θ I ) + i(t) 7.5Ω

Q v(t) Load
Q = VI sin( θ V − θ I ) 12.854 mH
θ -

VA = VI P
θ = θV − θI Transform the network.
From the power triangle, we get v
V = 220∠0o volts
(1) VA = P 2 + Q2
ZL1 = j377(0.00306) = j1.154Ω
(2) Q = P tan θ
ZL 2 = j377(0.012854) = j4.846Ω

Complex Power Transformed 0.5Ω j1.154Ω

Network v
Definition: The product of the phasor voltage and + 7.5Ω
the conjugate of the phasor v+ I v
v current is defined
v as
V Vx
the complex power S. Let V = V ∠ θ V and I = I∠ θ I . - j4.846Ω
vv -
Get the total
S = V I* = ( V ∠ θ V )(I∠ − θ I ) = VI ∠(θ V − θ I ) impedance.
= VI cos( θ V − θ I ) + jVI sin( θ V − θ I ) Zeq = 0.5 + j1.154 + 7.5 + j4.846
or = 8 + j6 = 10.0∠36.87 o Ω
S = P + jQ
Find the current
Note: The complex power S is a complex number v
whose real and imaginary components are the real v V 220∠0o
and reactive power, respectively. I= = = 22∠ − 36.87o A
Zeq 10∠36.87o

19
Find the voltage across the load Power and Reactive Power delivered to R and L
v v
VX = I(7.5 + j4.846) PR = I2R = 7.0712 (8) = 400 watts
= (22∠ − 36.87 ) (8.929∠32.87
o o
QL = I2XL = 7.0712(6) = 300 vars
= 196.45∠ − 4.0o volts
Power and reactive power supplied by the source
Find the complex power delivered to the load.
v v Ps = VI cos( θ V − θI ) = 70 .71(7.071) cos 36 .87 o
PL + jQL = VX I* = (196.45∠ − 4o ) (22∠36.87o ) = 400 watts
= 4321 .8∠32.87 o Q s = 70 .71(7 .071) sin 36 .87 o = 300 Vars
= 3,630 + j2,346 or vv
S = V I* = (70 .71∠0 o )(7 .071 ∠36 .87 o )
Thus, PL=3,630 Watts and QL=2,346 Vars.
= 500∠36.87 o = 400 + j300

8Ω
R1=6Ω L1=1.2H
Example: Given Example: Given
+ i(t)
v(t)=100 cos 10t volts, v=200 cos 10t + i1 i2 R2=5Ω i3
find all Ps and Qs. v(t) 0.6H Volts. Find all
- v 0.01F
real power and - L2=0.5H
reactive power.
Transform the network 8Ω
v v The transformed network
V = 70.71∠0o V v+ I v
V j6Ω V = 141.42∠0o V 6Ω j12Ω
Z = 8 + j6 = 10∠36.87 Ω o
- v
ZL1 = j12Ω v v
Solve for the current v +
I1 I2 5Ω I3
v ZL2 = j5Ω V -j10Ω
v V 70.71∠0o - j5Ω
I= = = 7.071∠ − 36.87o A
Z 10∠36.87 o ZC = − j10Ω

20
In a previous example, we found We can also use the complex power formula
v vv*
I = 7.071∠ − 36.87o A PS + jQS = V I1
v1
I2 = 10∠ − 81.87o A = (141.42∠0o )(7.07∠36.87o )
v
I3 = 7.071∠53.13o A = 1000 ∠36 .87 o = 800 + j600
Average power dissipated by the resistors Thus, PS=800 watts and QS=600 vars.
2
PR 1 = I1 R 1 = 7 .071 (6) = 300 watts
2
Note: Real and reactive power must always be
2 balanced. That is,
PR 2 = I2 R 2 = 10 2 (5) = 500 watts
PS = PR1 + PR 2 = 800 watts
Reactive Power delivered to the capacitor
2
QS = QL1 + QL 2 + QC = 600 vars
Q C = −I3 X C = − 7 .071 2 (10 ) = −500 vars

v
Z1 + VX
Reactive Power delivered to the inductors Example: Given
v
2
Q L 1 = I1 X L 1 = 7 .071 (12 ) = 600 vars
2 Z1 = 5 + j5Ω v + I1 v
2 Z2 = 10Ω VS Z2 v Zv3 IS
Q L 2 = I2 X L 2 = 10 2 (5) = 500 v ars Z3 = − j10Ω
-
IX IC
v
Power and reactive power supplied by the source V S = 70 . 71 ∠ 0 o V REF
v
θ = θV − θI = 0 − (−36.87 ) = 36.87
o o
IS = 7 .071 ∠30 o A Find all P and Q.

PS = VI1 cos θ = 141.42(7.071) cos 36.87o From a previous example, we found

v
= 800 watts VX = 68.3∠ − 15o V
and
QS = VI1 sin θ = 600 vars v
IX = 6 .83∠ − 15 o A

21
 v v v
We can also find I1 and IC . Power and reactive power supplied by VS
v v v v*
v VS − VX 70 .71 − (65 .97 − j17 .68 ) PV + jQ V = VS I1 = (70.71)(2.59∠ − 30o )
I1 = =
Z1 Z1 = 183 ∠ − 30 o = 158 .5 − j91 .5
4 . 737 + j17 . 68 18 . 3 ∠ 75 o PV = 158 .5 watts QV = −91.5 vars
= = v
5 + j5 7 . 071 ∠ 45 o Power and reactive power supplied by I S
v v*
= 2 .59 ∠30 o A PI + jQI = VX IS = (68.3∠ − 15o )(7.071∠ − 30o )
v
v VX 68 .3∠ − 15 o = 4 82 . 95 ∠ - 45 o= 341.5 − j341.5
IC = =
ZC 10 ∠ − 90 o
PI = 341 .5 watts QI = −341 .5 vars
= 6.83∠75o A

Example: Find 0.3+j0.4Ω 0.2+j0.2Ω

Power and reactive power delivered to Z1
2 the power and v + v
PZ1 = I1 R Z1 = 2 .59 2 (5) = 33 .5 watts power factor v + I1 v v I2
+
v
2 V
of generator 2. 1 - VL IL V2
QZ1 = I XZ1 = 33.5 vars
1 - -
Assume
v
Power dissipated by the resistor R2 V1 = 220 ∠0o V Gen. 1 Load Gen. 2
2
PR 2 = IX R 2 = 6 .83 (10) = 466 .5 watts
2 P1=5 kW PL=10 kW
pf1=0.85 lag pfL=0.8 lag

Reactive power delivered to the capacitor For generator 1,

2
Q C = − I C X C = − 466 . 5 vars P1 = 5,000 watts

Q1 = P1 tan (cos−1 pf1 ) = 3,100 vars

22
From the complex power formula, we get From the complex power formula, we get
v * P1 + jQ1 v * P + jQ
I1 = v IL = L v L
V1 VL
5,000 + j3,100 10,000 + j7,500
= = 22.73 + j14.08 =
220 207 .6∠ − 1 .34 o
Thus, v
I1 = 22 .73 − j 14 .08 12 ,500 ∠ 36 . 87 o
=
= 26 .74 ∠ − 31 .79 o A 207 . 6 ∠ − 1 . 34 o
Thus,
From KVL, we get the voltage at the load v
v v v IL = 60 . 21 ∠ − 38 . 21 o A
VL = V1 − (0.3 + j0.4)I1
= 47.31 − j37.24 A

Substitution gives From KCL, we get the current supplied by Gen 2.

v v v v v
VL = V1 − (0.5∠53.13o )(26.74∠ - 31.79o ) I2 = IL − I1
v
= V1 − 13.37∠21.34o = (47.31 − j37.24) − (22.73 − j14.08)
= 220 − (12.45 + j4.86) = 24.58 − j23.16
Thus,
= 207.55 − j4.86 v
v I2 = 33.77∠ − 43.3o A
VL = 207.6∠ − 1.34o V
At the load, From KVL, we get the voltage of Generator 2
v v v
PL = 10,000 watts V 2 = ( 0 . 2 + j0 . 2 ) I2 + VL
v
QL = 10,000 tan(cos -1 0.8) = 7,500 vars = (0 .2 + j0 .2)(24 .58 − j23 .16 ) + VL

23
Simplifying, we get For load L1, P1=2,000 watts, pf1=0.85 lag
v
V2 = 9.55 + j0.28 + 207.55 − j4.86 Q1 = 2,000 tan (cos-10.85) = 1,240 vars
= 217.1 − j4.58 = 217.15∠ − 1.21 V o
From the complex power formula, we get
Applying the complex power formula, v P − jQ 2,000 − j1,240
v v* I1 = 1 v * 1 =
P2 + jQ2 = V2 I2 V1 220
= (217 .15∠ − 1.21o )(33 .77 ∠43 .3o ) = 9.09 − j5.63 = 10.7∠ − 31.79o A

= 7,334 ∠ 42 .1o = 5,443 + j4,915 For load L2, P2=3,000 watts. Since pf2=1, then
Q2=0. Thus
The power is 5,443 watts while the power factor is
v 3,000 − j0
Q2 I2 = = 13.64∠0o A
pf2 = cos(tan −1 ) = 0 .74 lag 220
P2

Example: A small industrial shop has the following For load L3, P3=500 watts, pf3=0.90 lag
connected load:
Q3 = 500 tan (cos-1 0.9) = 242 vars
Load L1: Induction motor 2 kW, 0.85 pf lag
Load L2: Electric Heater 3 kW, 1.0 pf v 500 − j242
I3 =
Load L3: Lighting Load 500 W, 0.9 pf lag 220
Load L4: Outlets 1 kW, 0.95 pf lag
= 2.27 − j1.1 = 2.52∠ − 25.84o A
The voltage across the load is 220 V RMS. Find the
current through each load and the total current For load L4, P4=1,000 watts, pf4=0.95 lag
supplied to the shop.
v v v v Q 4 = 1,000 tan(cos -1 0.95) = 329 vars
+ v I1 I2 I3 I4
It v 1000 − j329
220V L1 L2 L3 L4 I4 =
220
-
= 4.54 − j1.49 = 4.78∠ − 18 .19 o A

24
From KCL, the total current is Solve for the phasor current and voltages. We get
v v v v v v
It = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 v V 70.71∠α 70 .71∠α
I= = =
= (9.09 − j5.63) + (13.64 − j0) ZT 8 + j6 10∠36.87 o
+ (2.27 − j1.1) + (4.54 − j1.49) = 7.07∠(α − 36.87o ) A
= 29.54 − j8.22 = 30.66∠ − 15.55o A v v
or VR = I ZR = [7.071∠(α − 36.87o )](8)
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = 6 ,500 watts = 56.57∠(α − 36.87o ) V
Q t = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 = 1,811 vars v v
VL = I ZL = [7.071∠(α − 36.87o )](6∠90o )
v 6,500 − j1,811
It = = 29 . 54 − j8 . 22 A = 42.43∠(α + 53.13o ) V
220

Phasor Diagrams Assume α=0o. We get

v v
Phasor diagrams show graphically how KVL and V = 70.71∠0o V I = 7.07∠ − 36 .87 o A
KCL equations are satisfied in a given circuit. v
8Ω
VR = 56.57 ∠ - 36.87 o V
Consider the circuit shown. v v
Let v=100 cos(10t+α) V. + + vR - + VL = 42.43 ∠53.13 o V V L
v(t) i(t) vL 0.6H The phasor diagram
The transformed network - - is shown.
v v v v
ZR Note: V = VR + VL 53.13o
v v v V
V = 70.71∠α V v v 36.87o
+ -
v+ v VR v+ I is in phase with VR I
V I VL ZL ZR = 8Ω v v
- - I lags VL by 90o
ZL = j6Ω v
VR

25
Assume α=60o. We get Power and reactive power supplied by the source
v v
V = 70.71∠60o V I = 7.07∠23 .13o A PS = VS IS cos θ S
v
VR = 56.57 ∠23.13 o V = 70 .71(7 .071) cos 36 .87 o = 400 W
v
VL = 42.43 ∠11 3.13 o V QS = 70.71(7.071) sin 36.87o = 300 vars
v
The phasor diagram V Power dissipated by the resistor
is shown.
v PR = I2R = (7 .071 )2 (8) = 400 watts
VL
Note: The entire phasor Reactive power delivered to the inductor
diagram was rotated by
an angle of 60o.
v Q L = I2 X = (7 .071 )2 (6) = 300 vars
v VR
I

6Ω j12Ω
Assume α=120o. We get Example: v v
v + -
v V1 + I3
V = 70.71∠120o V I = 7.07∠83.13o A Z1 = 6 + j 12 Ω v+ v v 5Ω v
v Z2 = 5 + j 5 Ω V I1 I2 V2 -j10Ω
VR = 56.57 ∠83.13 o V v v - j5Ω
-
v V
v V = 141.42∠0o V
VL = 42.43 ∠17 3.13 o V V R The total impedance seen by the source
The phasor diagram is shown.
ZT = Z1 + Z2 // ZC
Note: The entire phasor v
v − j10(5 + j5)
diagram was rotated by VL I = 6 + j12 +
another 60o. 5 + j5 − j10
Note: The magnitude and phase displacement = 16 + j12 = 20∠36 .87 o Ω
between the phasors is unchanged. The phasors
are rotating in the counterclockwise direction. Note: Refer to a previous problem.

26
Source current Power supplied by the source
v vv*
v V 141.42∠0o
I1 = = = 7.07∠ − 36.87o A PS + jQ S = V I1
ZT 20∠36.87o
= (141 .42 ∠0 o )(7 .071 ∠36 .87 o )
Apply current division to get
v = 1000∠36.87o = 800 + j600
I2 = 10 .0∠ − 81 .87 o A or
v
I3 = 7 .07 ∠53 .13 o A PS = 141 .42(7.071) cos 36 .87 o = 800 watts
v
Solve for the voltage V1 QS = 141 .42(7.071) sin 36 .87 o = 600 vars
v v
V1 = I1Z1 = (7.07∠ − 36 .87 o )(6 + j12)
Power delivered to ZC
= 94.87∠26.56o V 2
QC = −IC XC = −(7.07)2(10) = −500 vars

v
Solve for the voltage V2 Power delivered to Z1
v v 2
V2 = I2Z 2 = (10 ∠ − 81 .87 o )(5 + j5) P1 = I1 R1 = (7.071)2 (6) = 300 watts
2
= 70 .71∠ − 36 .87 o V Q1 = I1 X1 = (7.071)2 (12) = 600 vars
v
Phasor Diagram V1
We can also use the complex-power formula
v v v*
I3 P1 + jQ1 = V1I1
Note: v
v v v v V = (94.87∠26.56 o )(7.071∠36.87o )
V = V1 + V2 I1
v v v = 670 .82 ∠63 .43 o = 300 + j600
I1 = I2 + I3 v
v
I2
V2

27
Power delivered to Z2 Note: (1) Since the network is capacitive, iS must
2 lead vS.
P2 = I2 R 2 = (10)2 (5) = 500 watts v v v
2
(2) From KVL, VS = VR + VC
Q 2 = I2 X 2 = (10 ) (5) = 500 vars
2
v v
Phasor Diagram
or IS VR
v v* α
P2 + jQ 2 = V2 I2 γ
= (70.71∠ − 36.87 )(10∠81.87 )
o o v
v VS
= 707.1∠45o = 500 + j500 Apply the cosine law VC

Note: It can be shown that power balance is 150 2 = 220 2 + 120 2 - 2 (220)(120)cos α
satisfied.
We get cos α = 0.763 or α = 40 .25o

Example: A voltmeter reads these voltages for the Apply the cosine law again
network shown below:
v
VR
VS = 220 V RMS
+ -
1202 = 2202 + 1502 -2(220)(150)cosγ
20Ω + We get cos γ = 0.86 or γ = 31.12o
VR = 120 V RMS v + v v
VS IS R VC C v
VC = 150 V RMS - -
Thus
VR = 120 ∠0 o volts
a) Find R and ωC. v
VS = 220 ∠ − 40.25o volts
b) Find P and Q supplied by the source. v
v VC = 150 ∠ − 71 .37 o volts
Let VR = 120 ∠0 volts, the reference
o v v
phasor
Check: VR + VC = 120 + 47.92 − j142 .14
v
v VR 120∠0o = 167.92 − j142 .14
Then IS = = = 6∠0o A v
20 20 = 220∠ − 40 .25o = VS

28
The admittance for the parallel RC branch
v
IS 6∠0o Balanced Three Phase Voltages
v = = 0.04∠71 .37 o
VC 150∠ − 71.37 o Transforming to phasors, we get
1 r
= 0.013 + j0.038 = + jωC Va = V ∠θ Vc
r
R Va
Vb = V ∠θ-120°
We get R=78.26Ω and ωC=0.04Ω-1.
Vc = V ∠θ+120° θ
Power supplied by the source
v v* Note: The synchronous
PS + jQS = VS IS = (220∠ − 40.25o )(6∠0o )
generator is a three phase
= 1320∠ − 40.25o machine that is designed to
generate balanced three-
= 1008 − j853 phase voltages. r
Vb

Balanced Three Phase Voltages Balanced Three-Phase Currents

Three sinusoidal voltages whose amplitudes are The currents ia = Im cos (ω t + δ)
equal and whose phase angles are displaced by
ib = Im cos(ωt + δ − 120 °)
120o are three-phase balanced.
v a (t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ) ic = Im cos(ωt + δ + 120 °)
r r
vb (t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ − 120) are three-phase balanced.
Ic Ia
In phasor form, we get
v c (t) = Vmcos(ωt + θ + 120) r δ
The RMS value of the voltages is I = I∠δ
ra
Vm Ib = I∠ δ − 120 o
V= ≈ 0.71Vm r
2 Ic = I∠δ + 120o r
Ib

29
Balanced Three-Phase System
A balanced three-phase system consists of :
1. Balanced three-phase sinusoidal sources;
2. Balanced three-phase loads; and
3. The connecting wires have equal impedances.
A balanced three-phase load has:
a) Equal impedances per phase or
b) Equal P and Q per phase
Note: The load may be connected in wye or delta.
Example
Mesh equations using loop currents I1 and I2.
Va – Vb = 2(Zf + ZL)I1 – (Zf + ZL)I2
Vb – Vc = -(Zf + ZL)I1 + 2(Zf + ZL)I2
Substitution gives
300 + j173.2 = (16 + j12)I1 – (8 + j6)I2
- j346.4 = -(8 + j6)I1 + (16 + j12)I2
Solving simultaneously we get
I1 = 20∠-36.87° A
I2 = 20∠-96.87° A

Example Example
Example: Given Va=200/0o volts, Vb=200/-120o Solving for currents Ia, Ib and Ic, we get
volts and Vc=200/120o volts. Find the phasor Ia = I1 = 20∠-36.87° A
currents Ia, Ib and Ic. Also, find P and Q supplied to Ib = I2 – I1 = 20∠-156.87° A
Za, Zb and Zc. Ic = -I2 = 20∠83.13° A
ZF
r r Note: Currents Ia, Ib and Ic are balanced.
r Za
r Va I1 Ia
Vc Power and Reactive Power supplied to load impedances
Zb Zc Za, Zb and Zc.
n ZF n'
r r r Pa = Pb = Pc = (20)2(7) = 2800 Watts
Vb r Ib Ic
Qa = Qb = Qc = (20)2(5) = 2000 Var
I2

ZF=1+j1 Ω Za=Zb=Zc=7+j5 Ω

30
Comments Line-to-line and Phase Voltages
1. The sum of 3 balanced phasors is zero. Consider a 3-phase wye-connected generator or a
2. If a neutral wire is connected between n and n’, no 3-phase wye-connected load.
currents will flow through the neutral wire. a
3. The nodes n and n’ are at the same potential.
4. We can analyze the circuit using single-phase
analysis.
ZF=1+j1 Ω n n
b
r r
Va Ia Za=7+j5 Ω
c
Van, Vbn and Vcn are line-to-neutral (or phase) voltages
n neutral line n' Vab, Vbc and Vca are line-to-line (or line) voltages

Comments Line-to-line and Phase Voltages

Using KVL, we get From KVL, Vab = Van + Vnb = Van – Vbn
Va = (Zf + Za)Ia + Vn’n Vbc = Vbn + Vnc = Vbn – Vcn
Vca = Vcn + Vna = Vcn – Van
Since Vn’n = 0, we get for phase a
Vcn Vab
Va 200∠0°
Ia = = = 20∠-36.87°A Vca
Zf + Za 8 + j6 If Van, Vbn and Vcn
are balanced
Pa = (20)2(7) = 2800 Watts Van
3-phase voltages,
Qa = (20)2(5) = 2000 Watts we get the phasor
For phases b and c, we get diagram shown. Vbn
Ib = Ia∠-120° = 20∠-156.87° A
Ic = Ia∠120° = 20∠83.13° A
Vbc

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Comments ∆-Y Conversion for Loads
1. The line-to-line voltages Vab, Vbc and Vca are also If the impedance of the delta load is specified,
balanced 3-phase voltages; convert the impedance to wye.
a a
2. The magnitude of the line-to-line voltage is 1
square root of three times the magnitude of the ZY = Z∆
line-to-neutral voltage; and 3 ZY
Z∆ Z∆
ZY ZY
3. Vab leads Van by 30°, Vbc leads Vbn by 30° and Vca
leads Vcn by 30°. c b c b
r r Z∆
Vab = 3 Van ∠30 o r r
r r Vca = 3 Vcn∠30 o Note: For equivalence, Zab, Zbc and Zca must be
Vbc = 3 Vbn ∠30 o the same for both networks.

∆-Y Conversion for Generators Power Equations

Given a balanced 3-phase delta connected For a single-phase system
generator, what is its equivalent wye ? Pp = VpIp cos θ Qp = VpIp sin θ
a a VAp = VpIp
Van
Vca Vab Vcn For a three-phase system
P3Φ = 3Pp = 3VpIp cos θ = 3VLIp cos θ
b
Vbn
b Q3Φ = 3Qp = 3VpIp sin θ = 3VLIp sin θ
Vbc VA3Φ = 3VAp = 3VpIp = 3VLIp
c c where
Note: The line-to-line voltages must be the same. Vp = magnitude of voltage per phase
Ip = magnitude of current per phase
If Vab = VL∠α, then Van = (1/√3) VL∠α-30°
θ = angle of Vp minus angle of Ip

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Example Example
A balanced 3-phase load draws a total power of 75 The total volt-ampere is
KW at 0.85 pf lag from a 440-volt line-to-line supply.
2 2
Find the current drawn by the load? VA T = PT + Q T = 154 .7 kva
From
P3φ = 3 VL IP cos θ Since
we get P3φ VA 3φ = 3VL IP
IP =
3 VL cos θ we get
75,000 154,700
= IP = = 203 A
3 (440)(0.85 ) 3 (440)
IP = 115.8 A
or

Single-Phase Analysis of a Balanced

Three-Phase System
Example
Another 3-phase load rated 60 KW at 0.9 pf lag is
A balanced three-phase system can be
connected in parallel with the load in the previous
example. Find the total current drawn. replaced by a single-phase equivalent circuit
provided:
For load 1, P1=75 kw
Q1 = P1 tan(cos −1 0 .85) = 46 .48 kvars
1. All generators are connected in wye; and
For load 2, P2=60 kw 2. All loads are connected in wye.
Q2 = P2 tan(cos −1 0.9) = 29 .06 kvars
Get P and Q drawn by combined load
PT = P1 + P2 = 135 kw Note: To get the single-phase equivalent,
Q T = Q1 + Q2 = 75 .54 kvars draw the neutral line and isolate one phase.

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Example Example
Find the phasor current Is, I1 and I2 and the total power and For load 2,
reactive power supplied by the three-phase voltage source. Van 120 ∠0°
a I2 = Z = 120 ∠0°
Is = 12 ∠-36.87° = 9.6 – j7.2 A
I1 I2 Z
For the source,
Z Is = I1 + I2 = 22.1 – j12.5 A = 25.4 ∠-29.5°
Z Ps + jQs = VanIs* = 120 (25.4 ∠-29.5°)
= 2652 + j1503
b For the three phase source

Source c Load 1 Load 2 P3 φ = 3(2,652 ) = 7,956 watts

Van = 120 /0o V PT = 4.5 kW Z = 8 + j6Ω Q 3 φ = 3(1,503 ) = 4,509 v ars
at 0.92 pf lag

Example
Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit

Is
Van I1 I2 Z

Van = 120∠0º V P1=1,500 W Z=8+j6Ω

0.92 pf lag
For load 1, P1 = 1,500 watts = 13.6∠ − 23.1 A o

Q1 = P1tan(cos-1 0.92) = 639 vars

I1 = 1500 – j369 = 12.5 – j5.3 A

120 = 13.6∠-23.1° A

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