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Wolfshtien Original Article
Wolfshtien Original Article
Imperial College of Science and Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Exhibition Road, London, S.W.7
Firstly because in this mathematically simpler assumed to be related to the geometry of the
configuration it is easier to formulate turbulent flow. Therefore we can not prescribe the turbu-
viscosity hypotheses, and compare their impli- lence level, nor investigate turbulence aug-
cations with experimental data. Secondly be- mentation when we use the mixing-length
cause we can save a considerable amount of hypothesis.
computer time in the computation of two- In the present paper the Kolmogorov [4]
dimensional flows, ifwe employ one-dimensional Prandtl [5] turbulence-energy hypothesis will
Fsolutions in the vicinity of solid walls, where, be used. In this hypothesis the local state of
due to the existence of a boundary-layer, a turbulence of the fluid is assumed to depend on a
large number of mesh points is otherwise length scale and on the kinetic energy of the
necessary (Wolfshtein [l]). turbulent velocity fluctuations.* The hypothesis
Another advantage of the present investiga- has already been used for the solution of one-
tion is that one-dimensional flows are frequently dimensional and boundary-layer problems in a
met in engineering. The turbulent “logarithmic number of cases. Emmons [6] presented the
law of the wall” is the most common of such hypothesis in a very straightforward manner,
flows, but in fact all fully developed flows in and obtained some solutions for flows away
plane or axially-symmetrical ducts with uniform from walls. Glushko [7] used two different
cross section are one-dimensional ; and in length scales for turbulence generation and
many cases important regions of more complex dissipation near walls, but his expressions were
flows are very nearly one-dimensional as well. somewhat obscure. He did not try to investigate
In the past the Prandtl mixing-length hypo- turbulence augmentation. Spalding [8, 91 tried
thesis was extensively used in treatment of such to obtain analytical solutions by the use of a
flows. Its application in the fully turbulent distinct boundary between the laminar sublayer
region results in the logarithmic law of the wall. and the fully turbulent region, and a discontinu-
Van-Driest [2] suggested a way to extend the ous eddy viscosity.
mixing-length hypothesis to the laminar sub- The purpose of the present paper is two-fold :
layer, and Patankar [3] used an extended form Firstly, to present the implications of the hypo-
of van-Driest’s proposal to obtain a generalised thesis, for one-dimensional flow, in a convenient
solution of one-dimensional flows. However, and general form, applicable to both the laminar
the mixing-length hypothesis, even in its most sublayer and the fully turbulent region. Secondly,
developed form, suffers from a number of to study the effects of turbulence augmentation
drawbacks, the most important of them are: on one-dimensional flows.
The present paper is restricted to steady
(i) It is valid only when local equilibrium incompressible turbulent flow with uniform
exists between generation and dissipation of properties. We shall be concerned with the three
turbulence. second order differential equations for the
(ii) It implies zero turbulent exchange coeffi- velocity, u, a conserved property, cp, and the
cients in regions of zero velocity gradients. turbulence energy, k. Of these, the first two may
(iii) It has not been proven to be an effective be analytically integrated once. The second
tool in two-dimensional situations. order turbulence energy equation will be solved
Obviously, the above limitations are a direct by a numerical iterative method. The two first
consequence of the inflexibility of the mixing-
length hypothesis, by which the state of turbu- * An implication of this hypothesis is that the turbulent
lence of the fluid is assumed to be dependent viscosity is a scalar. This is true in one-dimensional flows,
but not in two- and three-dimensional ones. However,
on the velocity field, and one additional quantity, the hypothesis is usually assumed to be a reasonable
the mixing length. The mixing length is usually approximation also in two-dimensional flows.
VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 303
wfiere
6, gk+ C,,, C, are empirical constants,
and tP and l, are the length scales for turbulent
(2.3) diffusion and dissipation respectively.
It is more convenient to define effective trans-
port properties, as follows :
Non-dimensional quantities
(2.17) Equations (2.15), (2.16) and (2.17) may be non-
dimensionalised by the use of the following
The turbulence length scales dimensionless groups :
We shall not, at present, write a differential
equation for I, and 1,. Instead, we shall devise (2.24)
empirical functions to describe them. Near solid
walls both are known to be proportional to y.
It was also suggested (e.g. by Glushko [7] and (2.25)
Spalding [8]) that in the laminar sublayer both
these quantities should be proportional to
(2.26)
R . y, where R, the Reynolds number of turbu-
lence, is defined as
k + ,kp (2.27)
k*Yp
RE----. 7s
(2.18)
p
(2.28)
An examination of equations (2.4), (2.10) and
(2.11) reveals that, without any loss of generality,
we may choose the empirical coefftcients C, and (2.29)
CD in such a way that, in the fully turbulent
region (2.30)
1, = 1, = y (2.19)
(2.31)
1, is proportional to 1, also in the laminar sub-
layer, but we cannot expect them to be equal
there. Therefore, in the laminar sublayer The equations then are
1, = A,Ry (2.20)
(1 + s)2 = 1 + p+y, (2.32)
1, = Apy. (2.21) +
Information about the intermediate region 1 (2.33)
where both equation (2.19) and equation (2.20)
VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 305
’ t
(2.34) A I
u+ P*
8= C&,(,/k+)y+ (2.35)
4v
with the following conditions
at y, = 0 U+ = rp, = k, = 0 (2.36)
We _.-I._-
RG. 1. The finite-difference mesh.
at y+ = YG+ k+ = kG+ (2.37)
L, = C-4&/k+h.l
1 - exp (2.38)
where
LD= 1 - expb&A./k+) y.1. (2.39)
(2.44)
It should be noted that many of the above
quantities contain zs. When zs vanishes, y, and
40+ will, therefore, vanish as well, while u + and
k, will become infinite. In order to avoid such (2.45)
c~c~st~~s, it is preferable to present the
results in terms of the following dimensionless
groups (2.46)
0
CD ln [WC,G)*l
(3.5)
It also follows that
s= ~l~o(C,G)*
R E = C,ApAh(y+)A (3.13)
P + C$C;* In [E(C,C,)* R] (3’6)
1 R
where E is an integration constant, and P is the -cl+%,, (3.14)
S
resistance of the laminar-sublayer to q-transfer,
described by Spalding and Jayatillaka [ 111. s = 1. (3.15)
(3.18)
c,, CD ak, t, A,, and A,; we also used one These may be deduced from a paper by Spalding
empirical constant crV,tin the conserved prop- and Jayatillaka [ll] as a = 8.85 x 10e5 and
erty equation. Obviously these constants must a = 4.
be determined from experimental results. How- (iv) The empirical P function describing the
ever, there may be, in principle at least, more resistance of the laminar sublayer to heat
than six different sources of appropriate data, transfer in a uniform-shear layer. This function
and our success to correlate with the present was reported by Spalding and Jayatillaka [ll].
hypothesis as many of these data as possible The relation (iii) is derived from the asymptotic
will be also a measure of the validity of the relation for the “Y-function at high Prandtl
hypothesis. Such a critical review is beyond the numbers, but we may still use the P-function
scope of the present paper, mainly because the correlation at low Prandtl numbers.
amount of reliable experimental data available Summing up all the above data, we note that
is very limited. Instead, the author tried to they are not known accurately and without any
demonstrate that once a set of data is available doubt. However, we shall use them to obtain
the constants may be fixed fairly simply and tentative values of the constants used in the
reproduction of experimental results is possible theory. When the data of (i) to (iv) is used, a
then. For this purpose the following data was good fit is obtained for the following values of
used : the constants
(i) The constants E and x in the logarithmic
c, = 0.220
law of the wall (see Schlichting [12])
c, = 0.416
m+ = ln(Ey+) (4.1) 0 k,t = 1.53
where x = 0.4, E = 9. A, = 0.016
(ii) The constant K, in the veloicity profile in
A,, = 0.263
the linear shear layer
fl,,, = 0.9.
2 ’
24= - + const.
Q (4.2) Equations (4.2) and (4.3) are automatically
&I d P >
satisfied by these values. The tit of the logarith-
This constant was recommended by Townsend mic law of the wall and the P-function are
[13] as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively, and is good.
K,, = 0.48. It is of interest to compare these constants
with those deduced from earlier work. We shall
(iii) The constants a and c1 in the turbulent compare the results to those recommended by
viscosity profile for the laminar sublayer : Wieghardt in an appendix to Prandtl’s [5]
paper, those recommended by Glushko [7],
Pt
- = u(y+)a. (4.3) and two proposals by Spalding [S, 91, as given
p in Table 1.
Table 1
the figure. An interesting feature of the figure is describing the non-diffusional layer, each line is
that when the turbulence level in the Iayer satisfying equation (3.19) in the upper right-hand
increases, the flow approaches that of a no- side of the figure. Therefore, the constant in
generation layer, presumably because the turbu- equation (3.19), now denoted “Q”, may serve as
lence generation vanishes, together with the the scale of the degree of turbulence of the layer.
velocity gradient. We may now turn our attention to Fig. 6, where
We still have to attribute a convenient scale the s N R relations are displayed for varying a.
of the turbulence level to each of the lines in Again, the asymptotic solutions, equation (3.5),
Fig, 5. We notice that apart from the single line (3.14) and (3.21) are evident. The interesting
feature of this figure is the fact that when a is near the wall and, as we shall soon see, in the
increased beyond, say, 0.5 the s N R relation middle of the layer, but not near its outer edge);
does not change any more. (ii) when an ~uilib~um boundary condition is
In Fig. 7 the S N R relation is shown for specified (this amounts to the use of equation
c = 0.7. The effect of increasing the Prandtl (3.7) as a boundary condition for the turbulence
number is mainly to shift the S w R lines to the energy equation in very large distances from the
left. In all other respects Fig. 7 is similar to wall). In order to demonstrate that an equi-
Fig. 6. librium flow does exist, various solutions for
A more conventional represen~tion of the the same pressure gradient p+ = O-05 were
s N R relation is in the form of U+ w y+ plotted in Fig. 9. It is clearly seen that as long as
relation, shown in Fig. 8. As may be expected, the boundary value of the turbulence energy is
an increased level of turbulence flattens the lower or slightly higher than the equilibrium
velocity profile. value the turbulence energy profile approaches
its equilibrium state quite rapidly. This is not
true, however, for very high boundary values of
The term equilibrium is used in the present the turbulence energy, which result in a turbu-
section to describe a Couette flow in which the lence energy profile higher than the equilibrium
bruundary condition in the outer edge of the one. There is no equilibrium state for negative
fIkv has no influence on the flow. Such be- pressure gradients.
haviour is possible in either of two cases: (i) On the basis of the above discussion it is clear
when the boundary is very far away from the that, in an equilib~um flow, k,,, must be a
wall (in this case equilibrium will be maintained unique function of y ,, G and F+. Thus, u+ and
YJP r.
Yt’ -
P
Fki. 8. u+ N y, relation in a uniform-shear Couette flow.
M. WOLFSHTEIN
k, are functions of y, and only onefree para- of turbulence, and the general asymptotic be-
meter, p+ ; ‘p+ is then a function of y, and the haviour is similar.
two parameters p+ and CJ.
The equilibrium functions of k, and s are The combined eflect of pressure gradient and
plotted in Figs. 10 and 11 as functions of R for augmented turbulence
various values of the parameter p+. We note We must now distinguish between positive
that when p+ becomes large the flow may be and negative pressure gradient. In the first case,
described by the equations for the linear shear if the level of turbulence in the outer edge of the
layer (3.7) and (3.8). No solutions are presented layer is below the equilibrium one, most of the
for a negative pressure gradient. layer will become an equilibrium flow, with
The equilibrium S N R function for (r = 0.7 deviation from equilibrium only near the outer
is presented in Fig. 12. It has some similarity to edge. If the level of turbulence in the outer
Fig. 7, which displays the S N R relation for a edge is much higher than the equilibrium one,
uniform-shear layer. This similarity is more the flow will be identical with the one with a
apparent for small p +. But even when F + is zero pressure gradient, but with turbulence
large the S values are not very different from augmentation.
those shown in Fig. 7 for corresponding values When the pressure gradient is negative, we
VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Id-
concern ourselves only with that part of the parameter, namely the Reynolds number.?
layer where the shear stress is still positive. And The pressure gradient is uniquely related to
in this part, again, the flow is always similar to the skin friction (which is a function of the
the one without any pressure gradient, but with Reynolds number) ; and in a fully developed
augmented turbulence. flow there is only one possible value of the
turbulence energy on the centre-line.
The k, - R and s N R relations are plotted
Duct jlow in Figs. 13 and 14 respectively, for various
The last solutions which we consider are for Reynolds numbers. Also plotted are some
fully developed turbulent duct flow. It has been experimental data reported by Clark [14].
widely accepted that the flow near the walls of It will be noted, that near the wall, where say
a duct is similar to a Couette flow. There is,
however, a negative pressure gradient, and a
diffusion of turbulence energy from the bound-
ary layer, near the wall, towards the centre of
the duct. t The Reynolds number will bc based on the maximum
In the present problem there is only one velocity and duct half width.
314 M. WOLFSHTEIN
the flow is practically identical with a Couette dictions for a large variety of cases, without
flow without pressure gradient. In this region any special practices for the laminar sublayer.
the present results are near to the experimental However, the accuracy of the predictions can-
data, but not identical to it. However, if we not be any better than that of the data used
recall the experimental difficulties which are for constants fitting. At present the data is
present when measurements of u’ and U, are not reproducible. Even the constants x and E
performed by a hot wire anemomenter, we in the logarithmic law of the wall tend to
should not, perhaps, attempt a better agreement change from one experimental work to the other.
than has been achieved. Moreover, Clark’s Values of 04044 have been suggested for x,
constants in the law of the wall are quite different and anything from 6 to 12 for E. It has been
from the ones used in the present paper, and shown, however, that if we have the appropriate
this fact may be responsible for the deviations. data, the theory may help us to screen it, and
The agreement in the outer region is reasonable. to explain some of the tendencies which are
often found in such data. Moreover, the existence
6. DISCUSSION of this theory may promote some experimental
The turbulence energy hypothesis. It has been work which may resolve some of the above
shown that the present version of the hypothesis difficulties.
is general and flexible enough to enable pre- The influence of turbulence augmentation. It
VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 315
I I I I I
2
I IO' IO'
lo
R-p
&,
FIG. 12. S - R relation for equilibrium Couette flow.
has been shown that turbulence augmentation An examination of Fig. 5, 6 and 7 reveals
has a very marked influence on the velocity that the solutions for a zero pressure gradient
and temperature distributions in the fully may be correlated into algebraic relations
turbulent region of a Couette flow. However, quite easily. Such correlations have been ob-
the laminar sublayer remains unchanged until tained by the author [l], in connection with his
a fairly high rate of turbulence augmentation work on two-dimensional flows. It is not
is reached. necessary to present these correlations here, with
R,,,‘265000
1 I I I I I
IO-' lOI IO’ Iti
I
Rid!&
P
FIG. 14. s - R relation for duct flow. Experimental data by Clark.
one exception: the S(R, k,) function in the may, perhaps, stimulate further measurements
fully turbulent region, and for (T = 0.71, with of the kinetic energy and other fluctuating
turbulence level larger than that of the non- quantities. Such data will enable a better choice
diffusional case, may be correlated by of the empirical constants to be made, and will
S = 0.139y;58k~29 also serve as a check on the suitability of the
(6.1)
present hypothesis.
in the vanishing-generation case, and Some further theoretical work. The present
S = 0.09y;86k;09 model may be further developed as to include a
(6.2) differential equation for the length scales, and
in the case of finite turbulence generation. These to account for non-uniform distribution of the
equations show that for small and medium Prandtl numbers, if new experimental data
turbulence augmentation S is almost independent justifies such steps.
of the level of turbulence. Kestin et al. [15]
measured the influence of the level of turbulence 7. CONCLUSIONS
on heat transfer in a zero-pressure gradient (1) The hypothesis, and in particular the
Couette flow with relatively low level of tur- present forms of the Reynolds stresses, the
bulence. They reported no influence of the turbulence energy dissipation and the turbulent
level of turbulence on heat transfer in these length scales seem to be in accord with the
conditions. available experimental data for one-dimensional
A note on experimental data. The scarcity of flows.
appropriate experimental data has already been (2) The choice of k,, s, S and R as variables
mentioned. The existence of the present theory instead of k,, u,, (p+ and y, seems to be
VELOCfTY AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 317