Kiln Formulas

CEMENT MANUFACTURER S
HANDBOOK
by
Kurt E. Peray

CONTENS
Part 1 Cement Chemistry
Chapter 1 QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS
1.01 Ignition Loss

1.02 Silica Ratio
1.02
1.03 Alumina Iron Ratio
1.03
1.04 Lime Saturation Factor
1.04
1.05 Hydraulic Ratio
1.05
1.06 Percent Liquid
1.06
1.07 Burnability Idex
1.07
1.08 Burnability Factor
1.08
1.09 Bogue Formulas for Clinker and Cement Constituents
1.09
1.10 Total Carbonates
1.10
1.11 Total Alkalis as N2O
1.11
1.12 Conversion of Raw Analysis to Loss Free Basis
1.12
1.13 Conversion of Kiln Dust Weight to Kiln Feed Weight
1.13
1.14
1.15 Calculation
1.15 of Total Carbonate from Acid-Alkali Titration
Percent Calcination
Chapter 2 KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS
2.01 CaCO3 Required to Obtain a Given C 3S in the Clinker

2.01
2.02 Two-Component Mix Calculations
2.02
2.03 Three- Component Mix Calculations
2.03
2.04 Four-Component Mix Calculations
2.04
2.05 Determination of Chemical Composition
2.05
Chapter 3 KILN FEED SLURRY
3.01 Specific Gravity and Pulp Density of Slurries

3.01
3.02 Properties of Water
3.02
3.03 Mass of Slurry Required per Mass of Clinker
3.03
3.04 Slurry Feed Rate Required
3.04
3.05 Clinker Production for a Given Slurry Rate
3.05
3.06 Clinker Production per Slurry Tank Unit
3.06
3.07 Specific Gravity of slurry
3.07
3.08 Dry Solid per Unit Volume of Slurry
3.08
2

Chapter 4 CHEMICAL AND PHISIKAL PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING
4.01
4.01 Chemical Compounds
4.02
4.02 Bulk Densities of Common Materials
4.03
4.03 Typical Coal Analysis
4.04
4.04 Typical Fuel Oil Properties
4.05
4.05 Typical Gaseous Fuel Properties
4.06
4.06 Barometric Pressure at Different Altitudes
4.07 Sieve Sizes
4.08
4.08 Coefficient of Linear Expansion
4.09
4.09 Properties of Air
4.10
4.10 Particulate Concentration in Gases
4.11
4.11 Selected International Atomic Weights
4.12
4.12 Selected Minerals and Ores
4.13
4.13 Classification of Minerals
4.14
4.14 Chemical Formula and Molecular Weight of Common Minerals
Chapter 5 FORMULA AND DATA USED IIN

N COMBUSTION
CALCULATIONS

5.01
5.02
5.02 Thermo chemical
Combustion Reactions
Constants
5.03
5.03 Heat Value of Fuel
5.04
5.04 Conversion from  Gros
ross to  Net
Net Heating Value
5.05
5.05 Analysis of Coal
5.06
5.06 Methods of Expressing Solid Fuel Analysis
5.07
5.07 Conversion of Coal Analysis to Different Basis
5.08
5.08 Typical Coal Ash Analysis
5.09
5.09 Fuel Ignition Temperatures
5.10
5.10 Percent Coal Ash Absorbed in Clinker
5.11
5.11 Effect of Coal Ash on Clinker Composition
5.12
5.12 Determination of Theoretical Fuel Composition
Chapter 6 pH: HYDROGEN-ION-CONCENTRATIONS
6.01 Definition of pH
6.01
6.02 Calculation of pH
6.02
6.03 Indicators
6.03
Part II Burning
Chapter 7 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF KILN

PERFORMANCE
7.01 Technical Information of Kiln Equipment

7.01
3

Chapter 8 and 9 KILN PERFORMANCE

PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
9.01
9.01 Amount of Fuel Required to Produce One Kilogram of Clinker
9.02
9.02 Dust Loss
9.03
9.03 Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors
9.04
9.04 Theoretical Heat Required to Produce One Kilogram of Clinker
9.05
9.05 Percent of Infiltrated Air at Kiln Feed End
9.06
9.06 Excess Air Percent in the Kiln
9.07
9.07 Combustion Air Required to Burn One Kilogram of Fuel (Solid or Liquid)
9.08 Weight of Combustion Air Required per Hour
9.09
9.09 Air Infiltration at Firing Hood
9.10
9.10 Cooler Air Balance
9.11
9.11 Products of Combustion
9.12
9.12 Weight of Gases from the Feed
9.13
9.13 Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases
9.14
9.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Exit Gases
9.15
9.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gases
9.16
9.16 Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gas
9.17
9.17 Kiln Performance Factors
9.18
9.18 Results of Kiln Performance Study
Chapter 10 and 11 HEAT BALANCE

11.01 Heat Input from the Combustion of Fuel
11.01
11.02 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Fuel
11.02
11.03 Heat Input from Organic Substance in Kiln Feed
11.03
11.04 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed
11.04
11.05 Heat Input from Cooler Air Sensible Heat
11.05
11.06 Heat Input from Primary Air Sensible Heat
11.06
11.07 Heat Input from Infiltrated Air Sensible Heat
11.07
11.08 Heat Required for Clinker Formation
11.08
11.09 Heat Loss with Kiln Exit Gases
11.09
11.10 Heat Loss due to Moisture in Feed or Slurry
11.10
11.11 Heat Loss due to Dust in the Kiln Exit Gases
11.11

11.12 Heat Loss
11.13 Heat
11.13 Loss at
with Clinker
Cooler at Cooler Discharge
Stack
11.14 Heat Loss by R
11.14 Radiation
adiation on the Kiln Shell
11.15 Heat Loss due to Calcination of Wasted Kiln Dust
11.15
Chapter 12 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF TH

THREE
REE KILN
MODELS
Chapter 13 SPESIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER

COEFICIENTS AND COMPUTATIONS FOR NATURAL GAS
FIRING
13.01 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker

13.01
13.02 Mean Specific Heat of Raw Materials
13.03 Mean Specific Heat of Exit Gas Components
13.03
4

13.04 Mean Specific

13.04 Specific Heat of Fuels
13.05 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor
13.05
13.06 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Heat Loss on Kiln Shell
13.06
13.07 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker (Base: 32 oF)
13.07
13.08 Mean Specific Heat of Cement Raw Materials (Base: 32 oF)
13.08
13.09 Mean Specific Heat of Exist Gas Components (Base: 32 oF)
13.09
13.10 Mean Specific Heat of Fuels (Base: 32 oF)
13.10
13.11 Mean Specific Heat of Vapor (Base: 32 oF)
13.11
13.12 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Heat Losses on Kiln Shell
13.12
13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing
Chapter 14 USEFUL FORMULAS

FORMULAS IN KILN DESIGN AND
OPERATION
14.01 Cooling of Kiln Exit gases By Water

14.01
14.02 Kiln Feed Residence Time
14.02
14.03 Kiln Slope Conversion
14.03
14.04 Kiln Sulfur Balance
14.04
14.05 The Standard Coal Factor, Combustion Air Requirements
14.05
14.06 Cooler Performance
14.06
14.07 Combustion Air Required for Natural Gas Firing
14.08 Products of Combustion on Natural Gas Firing
14.08
14.09 Percent Loading of the Kiln
14.09
14.10 Cross-Sectional Loading of the Kiln
14.10
14.11 Flame Propagation Speed
14.11
14.12 Kiln Drive Horsepower
14.12
14.13 Theoretical Exit Gas Composition, by Volume
14.13
14.14 Conversion of Specific Heat Consumption into Annualized Costs
14.14
14.15 Theoretical Flame Temperature
14.15
14.16 The  True CO2 Content in the Exit Gases
14.16
14.17 Alkali Balance
14.17
14.18 Kiln Speed Conversions
14.18
14.19 Power Audit on Kiln Equipment
14.19

14.20 Coating and Ring
14.21 Relationship
14.21 SilicaFormation
Ratio vs. Saturation Factor
Chapter 15 CHAIN SYSTEMS IN WET PROCESS KILNS
15.01 Chain Angle of Garland Hung Chains

15.01
15.02 Evaporation Rate (Wet Kiln)
15.02
15.03 Total Heat Transfer Surface
15.03
15.04 Effective Heat Transfer Volume for Evaporation
15.04
15.05 Chain Zone to Kiln Length Ratio
15.05
15.06 Length of Chain Systems
15.06
15.07 Chain Density
15.07
15.08 Heat Transfer Required in Chain System
15.08
15.09 Specific Chain System Performance Factors
15.09
15.10 Chain System Design for Wet Process Kilns
15.11 Kiln Chain Data-Round Links
15.11
5

15.12 Kiln Chain Data-Proof Coil (Oval Links)

15.12
15.13 Chain Shackle Data
15.13
15.14 Chain System Record Form
15.14
Chapter 16 KILN REFRACTORY
16.01 Refractory Shapes

16.02 Number of Bricks Required per Ring
16.02
16.03 Number of Bricks Required per Unit Kiln Length
16.03
16.04 Kiln Diameter Conversion Table
16.04
PART III
GRINDING
Chapter 17 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF GRINDING

MILL
17.01 Technical Data of Grinding Circuit
Chapter 18 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION
18.01 Mill Critical Speed

18.01
18.02 Percent of Critical Speed
18.02
18.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter
18.03
18.04 Internal Volume of Mill
18.04
18.05 Percent Loading of the Mill
18.05
18.06 Bulk Volume of Ball Charge
18.06
18.07 Weight of Ball Charge
18.07
18.08 Weight of Feed in Mill
18.08
18.09 Steel to Clinker Ratio
18.09
18.10 Bond s Laboratory Work Index
18.11 Power Required
18.11
18.12 Mill Power
18.12
18.13 True Specific Power Demand of Grinding Mill
18.13
18.14 Mill Operating Efficiency
18.14
18.15 Specific Surface grinding Efficiency
18.15
18.16 Mill Size Ratio
18.16
18.17 Specific Mill Volume per Horsepower
18.17
18.18 Separator Load
18.18
18.19 Separator Efficiency
18.19
18.20 Size of Grinding Balls Required
18.20
Chapter 19 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION
19.01 Mill Critical speed

19.01
19.02
6


19.03
19.04 Internal Volume of Ball Charge
19.04
19.05 Percent Loading of Mill
19.05
19.06
19.07 Weight of Ball Charge
19.07
19.08 Weight of Feed in Mill
19.08
19.09
19.10 Bond s Laboratory Work Index
19.10
19.11
19.12 Mill Power
19.13 True Specific Power Demand of Grinding Mill
19.13
19.14
19.15 Specific Surface Grinding Efficiency
19.15
19.16
19.17
19.18
19.19
19.20 Circulating Load
19.20
19.21
Chapter 20 USEFUL DATA FOR GRINDING MILL STUDY

20.01 Work Index for Various Materials
20.01

20.02 Size Distribution
20.03 Grindability
20.03 for a New Ball Charge in Mill
Factor
20.04 Approximate 80 Percent Passing Size in Microns
20.04
20.05 Screen Size Conversion to Micron Size
20.05
20.06 Optimum SO3 Content in Cement
20.06
20.07 Calculations Related to Gypsum
20.07
20.08 Percent Gypsum Required for Desired SO3 in Cement
20.08
20.09 Cement Fineness
20.09
20.10 Heats of Hydration
20.10
20.11 Spray Cooling with Water
20.11
Chapter 21 GRINDING AIDS AND CEMENT FINESS
21.01 Grinding Aid Solutions

21.01
21.02 Fineness of Portland Cement by Turbidimeter (Wagner)
21.03 Table of Logarithms for Turbidimeter Microammeter Reading
21.03
21.04 Particle Size Distribution
21.04
Part IV Engineering Formulas
Chapter 22 STEAM ENGINEERING
22.01
22.01 Latent Heat of Vaporization
22.02
22.02 Saturated Steam Pressure
22.03
22.03 Enthalpy

22.04
22.05
22.05 Superheated
Properties of Steam
Steam
7

Chapter 23 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

23.01
23.01 The Basic Formulas
23.02
23.02 Direct Current Circuits
23.03
23.03 Alternating Current
23.04
23.04 Useful Electrical Formulas
Chapter 24 FAN ENGINEERING
24.01 Fan Laws

24.02 Total Efficiency of a Fan
24.02
24.03 Static Efficiency of a Fan
24.03
24.04 Air Horsepower
24.04
24.05 Shaft Horsepower
24.05
24.06 Similar Fans
24.06
24.07 Fan Static Pressure
24.07
Chapter 25 Fluid Flow
25.01
25.01 Viscosity
25.02
25.02 Kinematic Viscosity
25.03
25.03 Specific Weight
25.04 Specific Volume
25.05
25.05 Specific Gravity
25.06
25.06 Mean Fluid Velocity
25.07
25.07 Barometric Pressure
25.08
25.08 Atmospheric Pressure
25.09
25.09 Gauge Pressure
25.10
25.10 Hydraulic Radius
25.11
25.11 Pressure Loss in Any Pipe
25.12
25.12 Friction Factor
25.13
25.13 Poiseuille s Law
Poiseuille
25.14
25.14 Reynolds Number
25.15
25.15 Critical Velocity
25.16
25.16 Total Head
25.17 Pressure Head
25.18
25.18 Velocity Head
25.19
25.19 Resistance Coefficient
25.20
25.20 Bernoul
Bernoulli
li s Th
Theorem
eorem
25.21
25.21 Head Loss
25.22
25.22 Flow Coefficient of Values
25.23
25.23 Flow Through a Valve
25.24
25.24 Pressure drop Through Valve
25.25
25.25 Flow Through Pipe
25.26
25.26 Velocity vs. Cross-Sectional Area
25.27
25.27 Potential Energy of a Liquid
25.28
25.28 Total Energy of a Liquid
25.29
25.29 Power of a Liquid
25.30
25.30 Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices
25.31 Flow Coefficient
25.32
25.32 Flow Through Pipes
8

25.33
25.33 Flow Through Rectangular Weirs
25.34
25.34 Flow Through Triangular Weirs
25.35
25.35 Gas flow Measurements
25.36
25.36 Pilot Tube Measurements
25.37
25.37 S-Tube Measurements
25.38
25.38 One-Point Traverse
25.39
25.39 Conversion of Flow Rates
25.40
25.40 Flow Determination with Orifice Plate
25.41
25.41 Ventury Meters
Chapter 26 HEAT TRANSFER
26.01 Heat Required for a Temperature Change

26.01
26.02 Conduction
26.02
26.03 Convection
26.03
26.04 Radiation
26.04
26.05 Nusselt Number
26.05
26.06 Prandl Number
26.06
26.07 General Heat Transfer Equations
26.07
26.08 Temperature Equivalents
26.08
26.09 Temperature Conversion Table
26.09
Chapter 27 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
27.01 Gas Laws

27.01
27.02 Gas Law Constant
27.02
27.03 Avogadros Law
27.03
27.04 Density of gas
27.04
27.05 Standard Conditions of a Gas
27.05
27.06 Normal Density of a Gas
27.06
27.07 Molecular Weight of Gases
27.07
27.08 Density Changes of Gases
27.08
27.09 Moles
27.09
27.10 Volumes Changes of a Gas
27.10

27.11 Weight
27.12 Mole
27.12 Percentofofa Solutions
Fraction Solution
27.13 Molality of a Solution
27.13
27.14 Molarity of a Solution
27.14
27.15 Percent of an Element Contained in a Compound
27.15
27.16 Percent of a Compound Contained in a Substance
27.16
27.17 Weight Problems
27.17
Chapter 28 PHISICS
28.01 Newton s Law of Gravitation

28.01
28.02 Acceleration-Force
28.02
28.03 Mass of a Body
28.03
28.04 Weight of a Body
28.04
28.05 Work Done
28.06 Power
28.06
9

28.07 Molecular Heat of Gases

28.07
28.08 Molecular Heat of Solids
28.08
28.09 Latent Heat of Fusion
28.09
28.10 Latent Heat of Evaporation
28.10
28.11 Heat of Formation and Reaction
28.11
28.12 Joule Equivalent
28.12
28.13 Temperature of Mixture
28.13
28.14 Gas Mixtures
28.14
28.15 Gas constant
28.15
28.16 Friction Coefficient
28.17 Moment of Force-Torque
28.17
Chapter 29 PSYCHROMETRY
29.01 Basic Psychrometric Equation

29.01
29.02 Wet Bulb Depression
29.02
29.03 Relative Humidity
29.03
29.04 Dew Point
29.04
29.05 Properties of Air and Water Vapor
29.05
Part V Emission Control and Plant Equipment
Chapter 30 TEST FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
30.01 Data Needed for Stack Testing

30.01
30.02 Summary of Results
30.02
30.03 Calculations
30.03
Chapter 31 USEFUL DATA FOR EMISSION CONTROL
31.01 Molecular Weights of Selected Gases

31.01
31.02 Conversion Factors for Emission Rates
31.02
Chapter 32 STORAGE AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT

32.01 Drum Dryers
32.01
32.02 Slurry Pumps
32.02
32.03 Bucket Elevators
32.03
32.04 Belt Conveyors
32.04
32.05 Screw Conveyors
32.05
32.06 Water Pumps
32.06
32.07 Storage Tanks
32.07
32.08 Drag Chains
32.08
32.09 Jaw and Gyratory Crushers
32.09
32.10 Stacks and Chimneys
32.10
10

Part VI Appendix
Section A MATHEMATICS
A1. Algebra
A1.01 Exponents
A1.02 Fractions
A1.03
A1.04 Radicals
Factoring
A1.05 Scientific Notations
A1.06 Logarithms
A1.07 Determinants
A1.08 Quadratic Equation
A1.09 Powers of Ten
A1.10 Powers of Roots
A1.11 Fractions and Decimal Equivalents
A2 Trigonometry
A2.01 Right Triangle

A2.02 Any Triangle
A3. Statistics
A3.01 Standard Deviation

A3.02 Variance
A3.03 Coefficient of Variation
A3.04 Relative Frequency
A3.05 Geometric Mean
A3.06 Least Squares
A3.07 Coefficient of Correlation
A4. Finances
A4.01 Compound Interest
A4.02 Total AAnnual
nnual C
Cash
ash Fl
Flow
ow
A4.03 After Tax Profit
A4.04 Straight Line Depreciation
A4.05 Double-Declining Balance Depreciat
Depreciation
ion
A4.06 Sum-of-Years Digit Depreciation
A4.07 Sixth-Tenth Factor
A4.08 Value of Investment After Depreciation
A4.09 Return on Investment
A4.10 Simple Compound Interest
A4.11 Present Worth
A4.12 Equal Payment Series Compound Amount
A4.13 Compound Interest F Factors
actors
A4.14 Discounted Cash Flow Factors
11

A4.15 Deposit Calculation
A5. Safety Formulas
A5.01 Accident Frequency Rate

A5.02 Severity Rate
A5.03 Safety Performance
A6. Plane and Solid Geometry
A6.01 Rectangles
A6.02 Parallelogram
A6.03 Triangle
A6.04 Circle
A6.05 Circular Sector
A6.06 Circular Segment
A6.07 Circular Ring
A6.08 Ellipse
A6.09 Parabola
A6.10 Polygon
A6.11 Trapezoid
A6.12 Catenary
A6.13
A6.14 Cube
Cylinder
A6.15 Pyramid
A6.16 Cone
A6.17 Frustom of a CCone
one
A6.18 Sphere
A6.19 Segment of a Sphere
A6.20 Sector of a S
Sphere
phere
A6.21 Torus
12

PART I
CEMENT CHEMISTRY
13

Chapter 1
QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS
1.01 Ignition Loss
Ignition loss is usually determined by tests in a laboratory furnace. It can also be

calculated from the chemical analysis of the kiln feed by the following formula:
Ignition loss = 0,44CaCO3 + 0,524MgCO3 + . + Combined H2O + organic matter
1.02 Silica Ratio
SiO 2
SR =
Al 2 O3 + Fe2 O3
Large variations of the silica ratio in the clinker can be an indication of poor
uniformity in the kiln feed or the fired coal. Changes in coating formation in the burning zone,
burnability of the clinker, and rring
ing formations within the kiln can often be ttraced
raced to changes
of the silica ratio in the clinker. As a rule, clinker with a high silica ratio is more difficult to
burn a nd eexhibits
and
low early xhibits po
strength poor
(3 or 7coating pro
properties.
days) in perties.
the cement.Low ssilica
ilica rat
ratios
ios ooften
ften lead to ring for
formations
mations aand
nd
1.03 Alumina  Iron

Iron Ratio
Al 2 O3
AF =
Fe 2 O3
Clinker with a high alumina iron ratio, as a rule, produce cement with hi
high
gh early
strength (1 to 3 days) but makes the reaction between the silica and calcium oxide in the
burning zone more difficult.
1.04 Lime Saturation Factor
This factor has been used for kiln feed control for many years in Europe and only
recently has also found acceptance by American cement manufactures. When the lime
saturation factor approaches unity, the clinker is difficult to burn and often shows excessive
high free lime contents. A clinker, showing a lime saturation factor of 0,97 or higher
approaches the threshold of being  overlimed wherein the free lim limee conten
contentt could rem
remain
ain at
high levels regardless of how much more fuel the kiln operator is feeding to the kiln.
If A/F ñ than 0.64
CaO
LSF =
2,8SiO 2 + 1,65 Al 2 O 3 + 0,7 Fe2 O3
If A/F á than 0,64
14

CaO
LSF =
2,8SiO 2 + 1,1 Al 2 O 3 + 0,7 Fe2 O3
1.05 Hydraulic Ratio
This index is very seldom used any more in modern cement technology for kiln feed
control.
CaO
HR =
SiO 2 + Al 2 O 3 + Fe2 O3
1.06 Percent Liquid
Clinker, when burned at a temperature of 1450ºC, Has the following liquid content:
Percent liquid = 1,13 C3A + 1.35C4AF + MgO + Alkalis
1.07 Burn ability Index
This is an indicator of the ease of burning for a given clinker. The higher the index
number, the harder the clinker is to burn.
C 3 S
BI =
C 4 AF + C 3 A
1.08 Burn ability Factor
The burn ability factor is used as a guideline for the kiln operator to show if a given
clinker is easier or harder to burn. Higher burn ability factors yield a clinker that is harder to
burn. Conversely, lower factors
fact ors make the clinker eas
easier
ier to burn.
BF = LSF +10SR - 3(MgO + Alkalis)
(find LSF in 1.04 an

andd SR iinn 1.02)
1.09 Bogues Formulas for Clinker and Cement Constituents
For a cement chemist, these formulas are the most important and frequently used
indicators of the chemical properties of a cement or clinker. The constituents calculated by
these formulas, however, are only the potential compositions when the clinker has been
burned and cooled at given conditions. Changes in cooling rate or burning temperatur
temperaturee can
modify the true constituent composition to a considerable extent.
a) Bogue s Form

Formulas
ulas for Cem
Cement
ent Consti
Constituents
tuents
15

If A/F ñ than 0.64
C3S = 4,071CaO - (7,602SiO2 + 6,718Al2O3 + 1,43Fe2O3 + 2,852SO3)
C2S = 2,867SiO2 - 0,7544 C3S
C3A = 2,65 Al2O3 - 1,692Fe2O3
C4AF = 3,043Fe2O3
If A/F á than 0,64
C3S = 4,071CaO - (7,602SiO2 + 4,479Al2O3 + 2,859Fe2O3 + 2,852SO3)
C2S = 2,867SiO2 - 0,7544 C3S
C3A = 2,1 Al2O3 - 1,702Fe2O3
b) Bogue Formulas for Clinker Constituents

b)
When appreciable amounts of SO3 and Mn2O3 are present in the clinker, the values of
the chemical analysis have to be recalculated to take into account the amount of CaO that has
been combined with SO3, the amount of free lime present and the Mn 2O3.
The values to be used in the Bogue formulas are:
Fe2O3 = Fe2O3 + Mn2O3

CaO = CaO - free CaO - (CaO combined with SO3)
To find the amount of CaO that is combined with SO 3 as CaSO4 proceed as follows:
Step 1 If (K 2O/SO3) less than 1,176 than not all of the SO 3 is combined with K 2O as K 2SO4.
SO3 in K 2O = 0,85 K 2O
Step 2 Calculate SO3 residue
SO3 - SO3 (in K 2O) = SO3 (remaining)
If [Na2O/SO3 (remain)] is llower

ower than 0,774 than nnot
ot all of the remaining SO3 is combined
with Na2O as Na2SO4.
SO3 in Na2O = 1,292 Na2O

Step 3 Calculate the amount of CaO that has combined with SO3 the as CaSO4.
CaO (in SO3) = 0,7[SO3 - SO3 (in K 2O) - SO3 (in Na2O)]
Having determined the appropriate values for the CaO and Fe2O3, one can then
proceed to calculating the potential clinker constituents by uusing
sing the previously given Bogue
formulas. When the Bogue formulas are used for feed compositions, keep in mind that the
coal ash addition, dust losses, and alkali cycles can alter the final composition of the clinker.
Also use the analysis on a  loss free
free basis in the calcul
calculations
ations of the cconstituen
onstituents.
ts.
16

1.10 Total Carbonates
Total carbonates are usually determined analytically by the acid-alkali titration

method. They can also be calculated from the raw (unignited) analysis as follows:
TC = 1,784CaO + 2,092MgO
1.11 Total Alkalis as Na2O
The total alkali content in terms of sodium oxide is calculated from the loss free
analysis:
Total as Na2O = Na2O + 0,658 K 2O
1.12 Conversion of Raw Analysis to Loss Free Basis
O r
Of = 100
100 - L
where
Or = percent of oxide (by weight) on a raw basis
Of = percent of oxide (by weight) on loss free basis
L = percent loss on ignition (by weight)
1.13 Conversion of Kiln Dust Weight to Kiln Feed Weight
Dust collected in a precipitator or bag house of a kiln shows a different loss on ignition
than the kiln feed because it has been partially calcined. For inventory control purpose and in
some kiln operating studies it is often necessary to express the weight of dust in terms of
equivalent feed weight.
(w d )(1 - Ld )
we =
1 - L f
where
we = weight of dust in terms of feed
wd = actual weight of dust
Ld = percent iignition
gnition loss, dust (decimal
(decimal))
Lf = percent ignition loss, kiln feed (decimal)
1.14 Calculation of Total Carbonates from Acid-Alkali Titration
This method is only applicable when the MgO content of the sample is known. Values
from the raw (unignited) basis are used for the calculation.
CaCO3 = 1,6679(a - 1,48863MgO)

MgCO3 = 2,09MgO
TC = MgCO3 + CaCO3
CaO = 0,93453(a - 1,48863MgO)
a = apparent total lime content from titration
17

1.15 Percent Calcination
Kiln feed or dust samples taken at any location of the kiln are often investigated for
the apparent degree of calcination the sample has undergone.
(f i - d i )
C = 100
f i
where
C = apparent percent calcalcination
cination of the sample
f i = ignition lloss
oss of the original feed
d i = iignition
gnition loss of the sample
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Problems and examples shown in this chapter are all subsequent chapters are arranged
in the same sequence as the fformulas
ormulas are presented in the chapter.
1.01
1.01 A kiln feed mix contains 78,5 CaCO 3 , 1,2 percent MgCO3 and an
estimated 0,4 percent combined H2O and organic matter.
What is the ignition loss on this mix?
Ignition loss = (0,44 x 78,5) + (0,524 x 1,2) + 0,4 = 35,6 percent (ans.).
1.02
1.02 It is desired that a given kiln feed shows a silica ratio of 2,75. What must
the Al2O3 content be if the Fe2O3 remains constant at 2,95 and the SiO2 at
22,45?
22,45 - (2,95 x 2,75)

Al2O3 = = 5,21 percent (ans.)
2,75
1.03
1.03 The Al/Fe ratio is desired to be 1,80 and the Fe2O3 is to be 2,75 in a given
mix. What must the Al2O3 content be?
Al2O3 = 1,8 x 2,75 = 4,95 percent (ans.)
1.04
1.04 Given a clinker of the following composition:
66,75CaO; 22,15SiO2 ; 5,96Al2O3 ; 2,93Fe2O3

What is the lime saturation factor?
First Al/Fe = 5,96/2,93 = 2,03 i.e., bigger than 0,64

Hence,
66,75
LSF = = 0,916 (ans.)
[(2,8)(22,15)] + [(1,65)(5,96)] + [(0,35)(2,93)]
1.05
1.05 What is the hydraulic ratio for the clinker example given in 1.04?
18

66,75
HR = = 2,15 (ans.)
22,15 + 5,96 + 2,93
1.06
1.06 Given a linker of the following characteristics:
8,97C4AF; 2,15MgO: 0,65alkalis

What must the C3A content be to obtain 25,5 percent liquid in the
clinker?
25,5 - 12,11
- 2,15 - 6,65
C3A = = 9,37 (ans.)
1,13
1.07
1.07 What is the burnability index for a linker that show 61,5 percent C 3S, 8,8
percent C4AF, and 9,8 percent C3A ?
61,5
BI = = 3,31 (ans.)
8,8 + 9,8
1.08
1.08 What is the burnability factor for a linker of the following characteristics?
LSF = 92,0, SR = 2,75, MgO = alkalis = 3, 3,15

15
BF = 92,0 + [(10)(2,75)] [(3)(3,15)] = 110,1 (ans.)
1.09
1.09 Given a clinker of fallowing composition:
66,85CaO; 21,84SiO2 ; 5,15Al2O3 ; 2,65Fe2O3, 0,85MgO, 1,2SO3,

0,6K 2O, 0,15Na2O, free 0,5CaO
What values for the basic oxides have to be used when calculating the
compound composition by the Bogue formula?
a) For Fe2O3,

a)
Fe2O3 = 2,65 + 0,
0,12
12 = 2,77 (ans.)
b) For CaO

b)
K 2O/ SO3 = 0,5 SO3 in K 2O = (0,85)(0,60) = 0,51

SO3 remaining = 1,2 - 0,51 = 0,69
Na2O/ SO3 rem. = 0,15/0,69 = 0,217
SO3 in Na2O = (1,292)(0,15) = 0,194
CaO in SO3 = 0,7(1,2 - 0,51 - 0,194) = 0,347
CaO = 66,85 - 0,5 - 0,347 = 66,00 (ans.)
Hence, the oxide contents to be used are:

66,00CaO, 21,84SiO2 ; 5,15Al2O3 ; 2,77Fe2O3
1.10
1.10 It is desired that a mix contain 79,8 percent total carbonates. What must
the CaO content be iiff the MgO is a constant 1,3 percent on a raw basis?
1.11
1.11
79,8 - 2,72
CaO = = 43,21 percent (ans.)
1,784
19

1.12 What is the maximum permissib

permissible
le K 2O content in the clinker if the
Na2O content is 0,18 percent and the total number of alkalis is not
allowed to exceed 0,63 percent?
0,63 - 0,18
K 2O = = 0,68 (ans.)
0,658
1.12.1 In example 1.10, what is the CaO content, loss free, when the loss in ignition is
35,7 percent on this mix?
43,21
CaO (loss free) = 100 = 67,20 percent (ans.)
100 - 35,7
1.13 A kiln is wasting 5850 lb of dust per hour. The loss on ignition of the
dust is 19,5 percent and 35,8 percent on the kiln feed. What weight of kiln feed is
wasted on this kiln per hour?
5850(1 - 0,195)
wc = = 7335,3 lb/h (ans.)
1 - 0,358
1.14 What is and
percent the MgO
total
tot al carbonate contentonona araw
= 0,84 percent sample
basis?that show CaO = 47,0
TC = 1,66791[47,0 (1,48863)(0,
(1,48863)(0,84)
84) + (2,098)(0,84)] = 79,25 %
(ans.)
1.14To what percent is the kiln dust in example 1.13 above calcined?
35,8 - 0,19,5
Percent calcination = 100 = 45,5 percent (ans.)
35,8
20

Chapter 2
KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS
2.01 CaCO3 Required to Obtain a Given C3S in the Clinker
This formula should only be used as a quick reference in times when no other
analytical methods, other than the titration method, is available.
CaCO3 required = CaCO3 (feed) + 0,0806 (A a)
where
A = desired C3S in clinker
a = existing C3S in clinker
2.02 Two-Component Mix Calculations
a) To obtain a constant total carbonate content

a)
This method can only be used when the MgCO 3 content in the two components is
constant.
xC1 + (100
- x )C 2
TC =
100
where
x = material A needed (percent by weight)
100 x = material B needed (percent by weight)
C1 = TC in material A (percent by weight)
C2 = TC in material B (percent by weight)
TC = desired total carbonates
b) Percent of each component needed for a desired CaCO3

b)
Use this formula only when the MgCO 3 content in the two components is constant.
C f - C 2
w = 100
C1 - C f
where
w = weight of material A needed for each 100 unit weights of material B
Cf = CaCO3 desired in mix
C1 = CaCO3 in material A
C2 = CaCO3 in material B
c) To obtain a constant C3S/C2S ratio

c)
Insert the values found from the raw material analysis (on the raw basis)
21

limestone clay
SiO2 S1 S2
Al2O3 A1 A2
Fe2O3 F1 F2
CaO C1 C2
MgO M1 M2
Loss L1 L2
For limestone
x = C1 + 1,4M1 (2,3S1 + 1,7A1 + F1)
For clay
y = 2,3S2 + 1,7A2 + F2 (C2 + 1,4M2)
100y
P =
x
Percent (by weight) of the m

mix
ix is therefore
100
Percent clay = 100
100 + P
P
Percent limestone = 100
100 + P
d) Formulas for mix corrections

d)
Limestone added to a cement rock to correct mix.
+ A)
(M - F)(100
X = A +
L-M
where
M = percent CaCO3 desired in mix
F = percent CaCO3 found in mix (before correction)
A = percent limestone already added
L = percent CaCO3 in limestone
X = corrected percent limestone needed to obtain M.
Clay added to a limestone to correct mix.
+ B)
(M - F)(100
X = B +
F-C
where
M = percent C
CaO
aO or CaCO3 desired in mix
F = percent CaO or CaCO3 found in mix
B = percent clay already added
C = percent CaO or CaCO3 in clay
X = percent cl
clay
ay needed to obtain M
22

2.03 Three Component Mix Calculation
a) To obtain a desired LSF and SR

a)
Analysis on Raw Basis
Material I Material II Material III
SiO2 S1 S2 S3

Al2O3 A1 A2 A3
Fe2O3 F1 F2 F3
CaO C1 C2 C3
Desired LSF: KSk =   ..

Desired SR: SM =   ..
a1 = [(2,8 KSk )(

)( S1) + 1,65 A1 + 0,35 F1)] - C1 =    ..
b1 = [(2,8 KSk )(
)( S2) + 1,65 A2 + 0,35 F2)] C2 =    ..
c1 = C3 - (2,8 KSk + 1,65 A3 + 0,35 F3)] =    ..
a2 = SM(A1 + F1) - S1 =    .
b2 = SM(A2 + F2) S2 =    .
  
c2 = S3 - SM(A3 + F3) = .
c1b2 - c 2 b1
x = = .......... Parts of Material I
a 1b2 - a 2 b1
a 1c 2 - a 2 c1
y = = .......... Parts of Material II
a1 2
b - a b
2 1
=  1.0 Parts of m
material
aterial III
u = Sum Total of all Parts =   

z = 100/u =   
Percent of material I xz =    percent
Percent of material II yz =    percent
Percent of material III 1,000z =    percent
Total 100 percent
b) To obtain a desired SR and HR

b)
Let the following represent the analysis of the three raw materials (on a raw basis)
Comp. I Comp. II Comp. III

SiO2 S1 S2 S3
Al2O3 + Fe2O3
CaCO O1
3 + MgCO3 L1
O
L2
2 O
L3
3
23

Let
SiO 2
r = silica ratio desired =
Al 2 O3 + Fe2 O3
CaO
R = hydraulic ratio desired =
SiO 2 + Al 2 O3 + Fe2 O3
Then
a = S1 rO1
b = rO2 - S2
c = rO3 - S3
d = L1 - (S1 + O1)R
e = (S2 + O2)R L2
f = (S3 + O3)R - L3
The proportions of the components is thus
Comp. 1 Comp. 2 Comp. 3

ec bf ca bd cd fa
Or if Comp. 1 = 100. then
ca - bd
Comp. 2 = x 100
ec - bf
cd -
- fa
Comp. 3 = x 100
ec - bf
c) To obtain a given C3S and C3A content

c)
1) Analysis of components (Raw Basis)

1)
L C I
SiO2     .   ..
     
Al2O3
Fe2O3
    ..   ...
CaO   .   .   .
Total     .   .
2) Desired compound composition

2)
Whatever targets are set, make sure to make:
C3S + C3A + (C2S + C4AF) + (MgO + al

alkalis
kalis + loss) = 100
C2S = xt =   ..
C3A = yt =   .
C2S + C4AF = zt =   .
3) Theoretical compound composition for each component
24

To be calculated from the raw analysis data. Also make sure to use the proper sigh (+
or -).
L C I
C3S x1 =  .. x2 =   x1 =  
C3A y1 =  .. y2 =   y3 =  
C2S + C4AF z1 =  .. z2 =  .. z3 = . ..
Note: Proceed with the calculations

ca lculations only when the sum
su m total of the compounds
corresponds to the total of the oxides, i.e,
i.e, for L: total oxides = x1 + y1 + z1 , etc.
4) Calculations, auxiliary matrix

4)
a = x2/x1 =   ..
b = x3/x1 =   ..
c = xt/x1 =   ..
d = y2 y1a =   ..
e = z2 - z1a =   ..
f = (y3 - y1 b)/d =   ..
g = (yt - y1c)/d =   ..
h = z3 - z1 b ef =   ..
i = (z1 z1c eg)/h =   ..

5) Weight of each component needed per unit weight of clinker
All weights units can be used, i.e., the results can be expressed in ton/ton, or kg/kg of
clinker. Results obtained must all be positive numbers. If any of the results are negative, the
desired mix cannot be obtained with the given raw materials. Fighter the targets have to be
changed or other suitable raw materials must be selected.
For I = i =   ..
for C = g fi =   ..
for L = c aC bi =   ..
Total = weight of mix/wt. clinker = =   ..
6) Final Mix proportions

6)
for I = I/Wu =   ..
for C = C/Wu =   ..
for L = L/Wu =   ..
(Results are expressed as percent in form of decimals)
2.04 Four  Component

Component Mix Calculation
a) Analysis
Analysis of components (raw bbasis)
asis)
L C I S
SiO2     .   ..   
Al2O3     .   ..   
Fe2O3     .   .   
        
CaO . . .
25

b) Desired clinker composition
(assume sum of MgO, total al

alkalis
kalis and iign.
gn. loss = 2 percent)
C3S = xt =   ..
C2S = yt =   .
C3A = zt =   .
C4AF = wt =  
c) Theoretical compound composition for each component
(to be calculated from raw analysis data, make sure to use the proper sign)
L C I S
C3S = x1 =   .. x2 =   .. x3 =   .. x4 =   ..
C2S = y1 =   y2 =   . y3 =   y4 = .. .. 
C3A = z1 =   . z2 =   . z3 =   . z4 =   .
C4AF = w1` =   w2` =   w3` =   w4` =  
d) Raw material costs

d)
(insert here the total costs per ton, for each raw material. These costs will
later be used to determinate the cost of the calculated mix)
Lc Cc Ic Sc

#/ton   .   .   ..   ..
Note: The sum total of the oxides

o xides of each raw material must equal
equ al the
sum total of the compounds of that material.
e) Calculation, auxiliary matrix

e)
a = x2/ x1    =
b = x3/ x1    =
c = x4/ x1    =
d = xt/ x1    =
e = y2 y1a    =
f = z2 z1a    =
g = w2 w1a    =
h = (y3 y1 b)/e    =
i = (y4 y1c)/e    =
j = (yt y1d)/e    =
k = z3 bz1 fh    =
l = w3 bw1 gh    =
m= (z4 z1c fi)/k    =
n = (zt z1d fj)/k    =
o = w4 w1c gi lm    =
  
p = (wt w1d gj ln)/o =
note: Make sure to indicate the proper si
sign
gn in the results.
26

f) Weight of each component required per unit weight of clinker.
f)
The result can be expressed in terms of kg/kg clinker. Results obtained must all be
positive numbers.
for S = =   
for I = =   
for C = =   
for L = d aC bI - cp =   
Total = Wu = weight of mix/unit weight clinker =   
g) Final mix proportions

g)
for S = S/Wu =    percent

for I = I/ Wu =    percent
for C = C/ Wu =    percent
for L = L/ Wu =    percent
Note: All results are expressed in tterms

erms of a decimal.
h) Cost of the mix

h)
The cost of the mix per unit weight of clinker can be calculated as follows:
#/unit weight clinker = [(percent S)(Sc)] + [(percent I)(Ic)] + [(percent C)(Cc)] +
[(percent L)(Lc)] =    ..
2.05 Determination of Chemical Composition
When certain properties are required in a mix, a preliminary investigation of the

needed chemical composition can be made
made by the foll
following
owing trial and error method. Thi
Thiss
method is only applicable when Al2O3/Fe2O3 is higher than 0,64.
Desired:
a = SO3 + MgO + Alkalis =   .. percent

b = Fe2O3 =   .. percent
c = C3A =   .. percent
d = SR (silica ratio) =   .. percent
e = C3S =   .. percent
Step 1 x1 = 100 a =   ..
Step 2 Al2O3 = (c + 1,692 b)/2,65 =   ..
Step 3 SiO2 = d(Al2O3 + b) =   ..
Step 4 CaO = 0,24564(e + 7,6 SiO2 + 6,718 Al2O3 +  + 1,43 b + 2,852SO 3 =  ...
Step 5 x = CaO + Al2O3 + b + SiO2 =   ..
Step 6 x must equal x1 +- 0,2 percent to make the calculated chemical composition
acceptable.
27

2.01
2.01 Given a clinker of 68,5 percent C3S and a kiln feed of 81.3 percent
CaCO3 content be in the kiln feed to obtain a clinker of 61 percent C3S?
CaCO3 = 81,3 + 0,0806 (61,0 68,5) = 80,70 percent (ans.)
2.02
2.02 (a) Given a limestone of TC = 89,8 and a clay of TC = 21,0. What
percentage of
o f each is needed to make a mix that co
contains
ntains 79,6 percent
total carbonates?
89,8 x + (100 - x) 21,0

79,6 =
100
68,8 x = 5860
x = 85,17
Hence, the mix must ccontain

ontain 85,17 percent lim
limestone
estone and 100 85,17 = 14,83 percent
clay. (ans.)
2.02 (b) How mmany

any kilograms of limestone are needed for every 100 kg of clay in the
example given in 2.02 (a)?
79,6 - 21,0
w= 100 = 574,5 kg limestone (ans.)
89,8 - 79,6
2.02 (c) Given:
Raw Basis
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO
limestone 1,06 0,68 0,43 55,32 1,03

clay 50,10 18,60 21,80 2,10 0,01
What must the ratio be between these two raw materials in the mix?
x = 55,32 + [(1,4)(1,03)] - [(2,3)(1,06)] + [(1,7)(0,68)] + 0,43 = 52,738

y = [(2,3)(50,1)] + [(1,7)(18,6)] + 21,8 2,1 + [(1,4)(0,01)] = 166,536
Thus the required ratio is.
166,536
= 3,16 : 1 (ans.)
52,738
2.03
2.03 (d) A kiln feed tank contains 58 percent limestone and show a CaCO3
content of 78,4 percent. What percent limestone must the tank contain to
obtainthis
make a final CaCO3 content
correction of 79,3
shows 91,4 percent?
percent CaCOThe
3 .
limestone used to
28

(79,3 - 78 ,4)(100 + 58)

x = 58 + = 69,75 percent (ans.).
91,4 - 79,3
2.03 (a) Given:

Raw Basis
Material I Material II Material III
SiO2 1,06 68,18 9,98
Al2O3 0,68 11,94
11,9 4 1,66
Fe2O3
CaO 0,432
56,32
56,3 2,68
4,20 83,48
0,87
What percentage of each is needed to obtain a lime saturation factor of 0,935 and silica
ratio of 2,75 in the mix?
a1 = -52,272 a2 = 1,9925

b1 = 194,934 b2 = -27,975
c1 = -33,705 c2 = -224,155
for Material I, x = 41,57

for Material II, y = 10,97
for Material III, = 1.00
Total = 53,54
100
z = = 1,8678
53,54
percent of
o f Material I = 41,57z = 77,64 (ans.)
percent of
o f Material II = 10,97z = 20,49 (ans.)
percent of
o f Material III = z = 1,87 (ans.)
Total = 100,0
2.03 (c) Given the same three materials as in example 2.03 (a), determine the
percentage of
o f each needed to obta
obtain
in C3S = 62 percent, C3A = 7,72 percent, and
and the ssum
um
C2S + C4AF = 28,28 percent.
L (I) C (II) I (III) Target
C3S x1 = 216,04 x2 = -583,25 x3 = -202,85 xt = 62,0

C3A y1 = 1,07 y2 = 27,11 y3 = -136,85 yt = 7,62
C2S + C4AF z1 = -158,63 z2 = -645,14 z3 = 435,67 zt = 28,28
Total : 58,48 87,00 95,97 98,00
a = -2,7090 d = 30,0086 g = 0,2470

b = -0,9389 e = 215,4113 h = 1261,8777
c = 0,2870 f = -4,5269 i = 0,0163
I = 0,0163 = 0,0163
C = 0,2470 [(4,5269)(0,016
[(4,5269)(0,0163)]
3)] = 0,3209
L = 0,287 [(-2,709)(0,32
[(-2,709)(0,3209)]
09)] [(-0,9389)(0,0163)] = 1,1717
29

Total mix = 1,5090
Proportions:
0,0163
I = = 0,0108 = 1,08 percent (ans.)
1,5090
0,3209
C= = 0,2127 = 21,27 percent (ans.)
1,5090
1,1717
L = 1,5090 = 0,7765 = 77,65 percent (ans.)
Double check:
C3S = [(1,1717)(216,0
[(1,1717)(216,04)]
4)] + [(0,3209)(-585,25)] + [(0,0163)(-202,
[(0,0163)(-202,85)]
85)] = 62,00
C3A = [(1,1717)(1,07)
[(1,1717)(1,07)]] + [(0,3209)(6
[(0,3209)(654,14)]
54,14)] + [(0,0163)(-
[(0,0163)(-136,85)]
136,85)] = 7,72
C2S + C4AF = [(1,1717)(-158,63)] + [(0,3209)(6

[(0,3209)(645,14)]
45,14)] + [(0,0163)(435,67)] = 28,29
2.04
2.04 Given the four raw materials below, calculate the percentage of each
needed to obtain a mix of 60,5 C 3S, 19,3 percent C2S, 10,3 percent C3A,
and 8,6 percent C4AF.
a) Analysis (Raw Basis)

L C I S
SiO2 7,64 68,15 50,21 48,91
Al2O3 0,49 13,69 35,95 21,43
Fe2O3 0,34 3,93 1,36 24,19
CaO 51,85 1,91 2,04 5,34
Total 60,32 87,67 89,56 99,87
b) Targets:
b)
xt = 60,5 yt = 19,3 zt = 10,3 wt = 8,6
c ) Compounds:
L C I S
C3S x1 = 149,22 x2 = -607,82 x3 = -616,85 x4 = -528,63

C2S y1 = -90,67 y2 = 653,93 y3 = 609,30 y4 = 539,02
C3A z1 = 0,72 z2 = 29,60 z3 = 92,97 z4 = 15,86
C4AF w1 = 1,03 w2 = 11,96 w3 = 4,14 w1 = 73,61
Total : 60,3 87,67 89,56 99,86
a = -4,0733 e = 284,6039 i = 0,7653 m = -0,0938

b = -4,1338 f = 32,5328 j = 0,1970 n = 0,0521
c = -3,5426 g = 16,1555 k = 69,1426 o = 64,4343
d = 0,4054 h = 0,8239 l = -4,9127 p = 0,0815
S = = 0,0815
30

I = 0,0521 [(-,00938)(0,08
[(-,00938)(0,0815)]
15)] = 0,0597
C = 0,197 - [(0,8239)(0,059
[(0,8239)(0,0597)]
7)] [(0,7653)(0,081
[(0,7653)(0,0815)]
5)] = 0,0853
L = 0,4054 [(-4,0733)(0,08
[(-4,0733)(0,0853)]
53)] [(-4,1338)(0,0597)] [(-3,5426)(0,0815)] = 1,289
Total = 1,5156
0,0815
Percent S = 1,5156 = 0,0538 = 5,38 percent (ans.)
0,0597
Percent I = = 0,0394 = 3,94 percent (ans.)
1,5156
0,0853
Percent C = = 0,0563 = 5,63 percent (ans.)
1,5156
1,28905
Percent L = = 0,8505 = 85,05 percent (ans.)
1,5156
Double check:
C3S = [(1,28902)(1
[(1,28902)(149,22)]
49,22)] + [(0,08535)(-607
[(0,08535)(-607,82)]
,82)] + [(0,05975)(-6
[(0,05975)(-616,85)]
16,85)] +
[(0,08157)(-528,63)] = 60,49
(The other compounds, likewise, should be double checked in the same manner.)
2.06 A kiln feed mix is desired that shows the following characteristics:
2.06
Fe2O3 : 2,95, C3A : 11,85, C3S : 53,0, SR : 2,40
What is the chemical composition of this mix if the sum total of the auxiliary oxides
(MgO, SO3, and alkalis) is expected to be percent?
Solution:
x1 = 100 2,0 = 98,0
+ [1,692(2,95)]
11,85
Al2O3 = = 6,36
2,65
SiO2 = 2,40 (6,36 + 2,95) = 22,34
CaO = 0,24564{53,0 + [7,6(22,34)] + [6,718(6,36)] + [1,43(2,95)]} = 66,26
x = 66,26 + 22,34 + 6,36 + 2,95 = 97,91
The sum total of the primary oxides is 97,91 and x 1 has been found earlier to be 98,0.
Therefore, this composition is acceptable since the two agree closely with each other.
31

Chapter 3
KILN FEED SLURRY
3.01 Specific Gravity and Pulp Density of Slurries
Percent slurry moisture Sp. gr. of slurry Pulp density kg dry solids
3 3
kg/m per m
16 2,123 2122,3 1781,8
17 2,095 2094,3 1738,3
18 2,067 2066,3 1694,3
19 2,041 2040,3 1652,6
20 2,015 2014,4 1611,5
21 1,990 1989,4 1571,6
22 1,965 1964,4 1532,2
23 1,941 1940,3 1494,0
24 1,917 1916,3 1456,4
25 1,895 1893,9 1420,5
26 1,872 1871,3 1384,8
27 1,851 1849,8 1350,3
28 1,829 1828,4 1316,4
29 1,809 1808,3 1283,8
30 1,788 1787,4 1251,2
31 1,769 1768,4 1220,2
32 1,749 1748,4 1189,0
33 1,730 1729,4 1158,7
34 1,711 1710,5 1128,9
35 1,693 1692,4 1100,1
35 1,675 1674,4 1071,6
37 1,658 1657,4 1044,2
38 1,640 1639,5 1016,5
39 1,624 1623,5 990,4
40 1,607 1606,5 963,9
41 1,591 1590,5 938,5
42 1,575 1574,4 913,1
43 1,560 1559,4 888,8
44 1,545 1544,5 864,9
45 1,530 1529,4 841,2
46 1,515 1514,5 817,8
47 1,501 1500,4 795,2
48 1,487 1486,5 773,0
49 1,473 1472,6 751,0
50 1,459 1458,5 729,2
32

3.02 Properties of Water
1 m3 H2O = 1000 liters

= 1000 kg
1 liter H2O = 1000 cc (cm3)

= 1 kg
specific gravity of water = 1,00 kg/dcm3 @4oC

boiling point = 100oC @ sea level
thermal conduct
conductivity
ivity = 0,50 kcal/mh x C
specific heat = 0,999 kcal/kg x C
3.03 Mass of Slurry Required per Mass of Clinker
100F
w1 =
100 - M
Metric units can be employed in this formula.
3.04 Slurry Feed Rate Required
G = Cw 1 = 100CF
3,6D 3,6(100 - M)D
3.05 Clinker Production for a Given Slurry Rate
3,6 GD 3,6(100 - M)GD

C = =
w1 100F
C = clinker rate (l
(long
ong tons per hhour)
our)
c = clinker rate (short tons per hour)
w1 = mass slurry per m mass
ass of clinker
D = pulp density of slurry (kg/m3)
F = mass dry ffeed
eed per m
mass
ass of clinker (tons/ton) or (kg/kg)
G = 3
slurry rate (m /s)
g = slurry rate (gpm)
M = percent moisture
3.06 Clinker Production per Slurry Tank Unit
Note: This formula applies only

on ly to the cylindrical portion
po rtion of the slurry tank.
CT = pR 2S/F
3.07 Specific Gravity of Slurry
sgw = 100
M + (100 - M)(1/s gs )
33

3.08 Dry Solids per unit Volume

Volume of Slurry
S = 1000 sgw [ 1 (M/100)]
Note: volumes for S, s, s gw and sgs can also be obtained from 30.1.
CT = tons cli

clinker
nker per meter of slurry tank height
F = mass of dry feed per mass of clinker (kg/kg) or (tons/ton)
R = radius of slurry tank (m)
S = kg solids per m3 of slurry
sgs = specific gravity of dry slurry
sgw = specific gravity of slurry
3.03 A given kiln uses a slurry of 32 percent m

moist
oisture
ure and the dry solids rate
has bee found to be 1,593 kg/kg clinker. What is the slurry consumption on this
kiln?
w1 = 100(1,593) = 2,343 kg slurry/kg clinker (ans.)

100 - 32
3.04 In example 3.03 above, what is

3.04 is the slurry feed rate (It/s) when the kiln
produces 36,500 kg clinker/h?
Solution:
1. From Table 3.01 (b), find the pulp density of the slurry
1.
D = 1748,4 kg/m3
(36,500)(2,343)
2. G =
2. = 0,01359 m3/s
(3,6)(1748,4)
3.
3.
and: (1000)(0,01359) = 13,59 liters/s (ans.)
3.05 A kiln feed tank has a diameter of 16,3 meters. The kiln receives slurry
3.05
of 36 percent moisture and shows a specific dry feed consumption of
1,63 kg/kg clinker. How many kilograms of clinker are produced when
the slurry level in the cylindrical portion of the tank drops 1 cm?
Solution:
From Table 3.01 (b), find the kg solids/m3 of slurry.
S = 1071,6 kg/m3
(3,1416)(8,15) 2 (1071,6)
cT = = 137,186 kg/m = 1371,9 kg/cm (ans.)
163
34

3,07 Given: specific gravity of dry solids = 2,68. What is the specific
specific gravity
of the slurry when it contains 31,5 percent moisture?
100
sgw = 1,753 (ans.)
31,5 + (100 - 31,5)(1/2,68)
Chapter 4
CHEMICAL AND PHISICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING
Compound Formula Molecular Percent Composition

weight
Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 102,2 0,5303 = Al 0,4697 = O
Aluminum Hydroxide Al2(OH)2 156,26 0,654 = Al2O3 0,346 = H2O
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 100,07 0,5604 = CaO 0,4396 = CO2
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 111,0 0,3613 = Ca 0,6387 = Cl
Calcium Fluoride CaF2 78,07 0,3613 = Ca 0,4866 = F
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 74,11 0,7569 = CaO 0,2431 = H2O
Calcium Oxide CaO 56,07 0,7148 = Ca 0,2852 = O
Calcium Sulfate (anh) CaSO4 136,13 0,412 = CaO 0,588 = SO3
Calcium Sulfate (gypsum) CaSO4 x 2H2O 172,17 0,3258 = CaO 0,465 = SO3
0,2092 = H2O
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44,005 0,2727 = C 0,7273 = O
Carbon Monoxide CO 28,005 0,4286 = C 0,5714 = O
Ethane C2H6 30,08 0,7924 = C 0,2076 = H
Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 159,68 0,6996 = Fe 0,3004 = O
Ferrous Oxide FeO 71,84 0,7772 = Fe 0,2228 = O
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 34,06 0,9407 = S 0,0593 = H
Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3 84,32 0,4784 = MgO 0,5216 = CO2
Magnesium Oxide MgO 40,32 0,6036 = Mg 0,3964 = O
Manganous Oxide MnO 70,93 0,7746 = Mn 0,2254 = O
Manganic Oxide
Manganese Dioxide Mn
MnO 2O3
2 157,86
86,93 0,6962 = Mn
0,6322 0,3038 = O
0,3678
Methane CH4 16,04 0,7467 = C 0,2533 = H
Nitrous Oxide N2O 44,02 0,6365 = N 0,3635 = O
Nitric Oxide NO 30,01 0,4668 = N 0,5332 = O
Nitrogen Peroxide NO2 or 46,01 0,3045 = N 0,6955 = O
N2O4 96,02
Phosphorous Pentoxide P2O5 142,1 0,4366 = P 0,5634 = O
Potassium Oxide K 2O 94,20 0,8303 = K 0,1697 = O
Potassium Sulfate K 2SO4 174,26 0,5408 = K 2O 0,4592 = SO3
Silica SiO2 60,3 0,4702 = Si 0,5298 = O
Sodium Carbonate (anh.) Na2CO3 106,0 0,5853 = Na2O 0,4147 = CO2
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64,06 0,5005 = S 0,4995 = O
Sulfur Trioxide SO3 80,06 0,4005 = S 0,5995 = O
Titanium Dioxide TiO2 80,01 0,6004 = Ti 0,3996 = O
Zink Oxide ZnO 81,37 0,8034 = Zn 0,1966 = O
35

4.02 Bulk Densities of Common Materials
kg/m3
Aluminum 2595
Asbestos 3045
Brick (basic) 2400-2965
(alu.) 1520-1760
(firecly) 1360-1520
Cement (packed) 1506
(loose) 1200-1440
Clay (loose) 960-1200
Clinker 1440-1700
Coal (loose) 800-865
Coke 480-640
Concrete (reinforced) 2325
Gravel (loose) 1760
Ice 919
Iron (Cast) 7210
Iron Ore 2805
Kiln Feed (dry) 1360
Kiln Dust (loose) 1040
Limestone
Mortar 1520
1665
Fuel Oil 895
Sand 1520
Shale 2480
Slurry (@35 percent H2O) 1682
Steel 7850
Water 1000
4.03 Typical Coal Analysis
(as received Basis)
Type of coal Moisture Volatile Free Ash S H C N O Kcal/ J/g

Matter Carbon kg
Lignite 33,4 40,4 17,2 9,0 0,6 3,1 40,8 0,8 12,3 4167 17400
Sub 22,3 31,4 34,7 11,6 2,6 3,2 70,3 1,0 11,3 4610 19300
-Bituminous
Bituminous 12,0 34,2 47,4 9,3 0,5 4,4 73,4 1,3 11,1 6390 26750
high volatile
Bituminous 3,6 15,4 76,3 11,7 0,8 4,6 79,0 1,4 2,5 7220 30240
low volatile
Anthracite 5,4 7,0 71,8 15,8 0,8 2,5 77,9 0,8 2,2 6670 27900
36

4.04 Typical Fuel Oil Properties
Grade Type API Specific Kg/m

Kg/m Visc.
Visc. S O2 H2 C kcal/kg kJ/kg
Gravity Gravity centi. + x 1000 x 1000
60 60/60 Stokes N2
100oF
No. 1 Karosene 40 0,8251 823 1,6 0,1 0,2 13,2 86,5 35,9 46,4
No. 2 Light oil 32 0,8654 864 2,7 0,7 0,2 12,7 86,4 35,2 45,5
No.3 Bunker  C 12 0,9861 984
984 360,0 2,5 0,9 10,4 85,3 32,5 42,0
4.04 Typical Gaseous Fuel Properties
Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane CO2 N2 H2S kg/m3 kcal/m3
CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12
77,73 5,56 2,4 1,18 0,63 5,5 - 7,0 0,9005 9442
4.05 Barometric Pressure at Different Altitudes
Elevation (m) in. Hg p.s.i. mm Hg kPa

0 0 14,68 560 101,22
100 30 14,63 757 100,87
200
300 60
90 14,57
14,52 754
752 100,46
100,11
400 121 14,46 749 99,70
500 152 14,42 746 99,42
600 183 14,36 743 99,01
700 213 14,31 741 98,66
800 244 14,25 738 98,25
900 274 14,20 735 97,91
1000 305 14,15 733 97,56
1200 366 14,05 727 96,87
1400 427 13,94 722 96,11
1600 488 13,84 717 95,42
1800 549 13,74 711 94,73
2000
2200 610
671 13,64
13,54 706
701 94,04
93,36
2400 732 13,44 696 92,67
2600 792 13,34 691 91,98
2800 853 13,24 686 91,29
3000 914 13,14 680 90,60
3200 975 13,05 676 89,98
3400 1036 12,95 671 89,29
3600 1097 12,86 666 88,67
3800 1158 12,77 661 99,05
4000 1219 12,67 656 87,36
4500 1372 12,44 644 85,77
5000 1524 12,22 632 84,25
5500
6000 1676
1829 11,99
11,77 621
610 82,67
81,15
6500 1981 11,56 598 79,70
37

4.06 Sieve Sizes
DIN 4188 ASTM E 11 -60

Mesh per Aperture Mesh per Aperture
cm2 inch
mm microns mm in. microns

325 0,044 44
6400 0,075 75 200 0,074 74
4900 0,090 90 170 0,088 88
3600 0,1 100 150 0,105 105
1600 0,150 150 100 0,149 149
400 0,3 300 48 0,297 0,0117 297
144 0,5 500 32 0,5 0,0197 500
100 0,6 600 28 0,59 0,02232
4.07 Coefficients of Linear Expansion
Substance Coefficient of linear expansion

m/m/oC
Aluminum 22,70
Brick 6,41
Concrete 14,64
Copper 16,50
Cast Iron 11,99
Wrought Iron 12,09
Steel (mild) 11,64
4.09 Properties of Air
Volume of Mass of Mass of water required

Volume of
o dry air dry air to saturate air
C @13 atm. m3/kg air @ 1 atm.
saturated kg vapor/kg air
m /kg kg/m3
0 0,7735 0,7779 1,2929 0,003774
16 0,8175 0,8322 1,2232 0,01104
21 0,8332 0,8540 1,2001 0,01576
32 0,8647 0,9077 1,1565 0,03106
38

4.10 Particulate Concentration in Gases
For gases:
1mg/liter = 24,04 m ppm
1mg/m3 = 0,02404 m ppm
where
m = molecular weight of gas
particulate:
1mg/m3 = 0,001 mg/m3
To calculate the particulate concentration in a known volume of gas, use the following
formula:
c = (2,205 x 10-6)(m/V)
where
c = concentration, lb,ft 3
m = total particulate m
matter
atter,, mg
3
V = volume of gas sample through dry gas meter (standard condition), ft
4.11 Selected International Weights
(Based on Carbon 12)

Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight
Aluminum Al 13 26,9815
Calcium Ca 20 40,08
Carbon C 6 12,0115
Chlorine Cl 17 35,453
Fluorine F 9 18,998
Hydrogen H 1 1,007
Iron Fe 26 55,847
Lead Pb 82 207,19
Magnesium Mg 12 24,312
Manganese Mn 25 54,938
Nitrogen N 7 14,0067
Oxygen O 8 15,9994
Phosphorus P 15 30,9738
Potassium K 19 39,102
Silicon Si 14 28,086
Sodium Na 11 22,9898
Sulfur S 16 32,064
Titanium Ti 22 47,90
Zinc Zn 30 65,37
39

4.12 Selected Minerals and Ores
Principal mineral Found in Other nomenclature

or element
Aluminum Bauxide Hydrous aluminum oxide
Gibbsite
Boehmite
Diaspore
Cryolite
Aluminum silicates (clays) Montmorillonite
Andalusite
Kyanite
Sillimanite
Dumortierite Aluminum borosilicate
Kaolinite
Asbestos Tremolite Calcium magnesium amphibole
Actinolite Calcium magnesium- iron amphibole
Crysotile Fibrous serpentine
Barium Barite Barium sulfate
Witherite Barium carbonate
Bentonite Montmorillonite
Borates Borax
Ulexite
Colemanite
Kernite
Probertite
Cadmium Greenockite Cadmium sulfide
Chromite Chromite Chrom-iron oxide
Cobalt Cobaltite Sulfaarsenide of cobalt
Smaltite Cobalt diarsenide
Erithrite Cobalt bloom
Copper Chalcopyrite Copper-iron sulfide
Bornite
Cupriferrous pyr.
Covellite
Tetrahedrite
Enarcite
Cuprite
Atacamite
Malachite
Azurite
Chalcanthite
Crysocolla
Diatomite Diatomaceus earth
Feldspars Sanadine Orthoclase of potassium or sodium
Adularia Orthoclase
Albite Sodium & aluminum silicate
Anorthite Calcium-aluminum silicate
Fluorspar Fluorite Calcium fluorite
Gypsum Gypsum Hydrous calcium sulfate
Iron Hematite Fossil ore (red)
Limonite Bog ore (brown)
40

Magnetite Lodestone (black)

Siderite Black band, kidney ore
Limestone Calcite Calcium carbonate
Dolomite Calcium-magnesium carbonate
Alkerite Calcium-magnesium-iron carbonate
Aragonite Orthorhombic calcium carbonate
Manganocalcite
Magnesium Magnesite Magnesium carbonate
Dolomite Pearlspar
Brucite Magnesium hydroxide
Carnallite Hydrous potassium-magnesium chloride
Manganese Psilomelane Manganese oxide
Pyrolusite Manganese dioxide
Phosphates Collophane Hydrous calcium phosphate
Apatite Calcium-chloro-fluoro phosphate
Wavellite Hydrous alumina phosphate
Voelckerite
Pyrite & Sulfur Pyrite Iron disulfide
Quartz Sand Silicon dioxide
Quartzite
Amethyst Transparent quartz
Smoky quartz Smoky yellow, black
Citrine
Rose quartz
Aventurine
Chalcedony
Chrysoprase
Heliotrope
Agate
Titanium Ilmenite Ferrous titanae
Rutile Titanium oxide
Sphene Calcium-titano silicate
4.13 Classification of Minerals
a) Ingeous rock
These are formed by the intrusion or extrusion of magma or by volcanic activity. The
following minerals belong to this group:
Granite : Crystalline quartz and orthoclase

Orthoclase : Feldspar containing potassium
Plagioclase : Feldspar containing calcium and sodium
Quartz : Silicon dioxide
Biolite : A dark green form of mica consisting of silicate of Fe, Mg, K, or Al
Pyroxene : Silicate minerals containing calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, or
aluminum
Olivine : Silicate of magnesium and iron
Magnetite : Oxide of iron
41

b) Sedimentary rock

b)
These are formed by deposits of sedimentation. They can also consist of fragments
of rock deposited in water or by precipitation from solutions and organisms. The
The following
rocks belong to this group:
Gravel Shale Chalk

Sandstone Limestone Marl
Siltstone Gypsum Coral
c) Metamorphic rock

c)
These are minerals that have been changed by the action of heat, pressure, and water.
The following minerals belong to this group:
Gneiss : Laminated or foliated metamorphic rock

Schist : Crystalline metamorphic rock with foliated structure along
parallel planes
Marble : Metamorphic crystallized limestone
Quartzite : Metamorphic sandstone
42

4.14 Chemical Formula

Formula and Molecular Weight of Common
Common Minerals
Name Synonym Formula Mol. weight

Aluminum hydroxide Diaspore, bochmite AlO(OH) 59,99
Aluminum hydroxide Gibbsite Al(OH)3 78,00
Aluminum oxide Corundum Al2O3 101,96
Aluminum oxide Trihydrate of aluminum Al2O3 . 3H2O 156,01
Aluminum silicate Andalusite, sillimanite Al2O3 . SiO2 162,01
Aluminum silicate Mullite 3Al2O3 . 2SiO2 426,05
Calcium aluminate CaAl2O4 158,04
Tricalcium aluminate C3A Ca3Al2O3 270,20
Calcium carbonate Calcite, aragonite CaCO3 100,09
Calcium chloride CaCl2 110,99
Calcium fluoride Fluorite CaF2 78,08
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 74,09
Calcium magnesium carbonate Dolomite CaCO3, MgCO3 184,41
Calcium oxide CaO 56,08
Tricalcium silicate Alite, C3S Ca3SiO5 228,32
Dicalcium silicate Belite, C2S 2CaO . SiO2 172,24
Calcium sulfate Anhydrite CaSO4 136,14
Calcium sulfate, hemidehydrate Plaster of Paris CaSO2 . 1/2H2O 145,15
Calcium sulfate, dehydrate Gypsum CaSO4 . 2H2O 172,17
Calcium sulfide Oldhamite CaS 72,14
Calcium Sulfite CaCO3 . 2H2O 156,17
Copper carbonate Malachite CuCO3Cu(OH)2 221,11
Copper oxide Chalcocite, cuprite Cu2O 143,08
Iron carbonate Siderite FeCO3 115,85
Iron disulfide Piryte, marcasite FeS2 119,98
Iron titaniumate Ilmenite FeTiO3 151,75
Iron oxide Wuestite FeO 71,85
Iron oxide Hematite Fe2O3 159,69
Iron oxide Magnetite Fe2O4 231,54
Magnesium aluminate Spinel MgAl2O4 142,27
Magnesium carbonate Magnesite MgCO3 84,32
Magnesium hydroxide Brucite Mg(OH)2 58,33
Magnesium oxide Periclase MgO 40,31
Magnesium silicate Enstatite MgSiO3 100,39
Magnesium orthosilicate Forsterite Mg2SiO4 140,71
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 120,37
Manganese oxide Hausmannite Mn3O4 228,81
Manganese dioxide Pyrolusite MnO2 86,94
Manganese sesquioxide Braunite Mn2O3 157,87
Manganese hydroxide Manganite MnO(OH) 87,94
Manganese oxide Manganosite MnO 70,94
Potassium aluminosilicate Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 278,43
Potassium carbonate K 2CO3 138,21
Potassium chlorate KClO3 122,55
43

Chapter 5
FORMULAS AND DATA USED IN COMBUSTION
CALCULATIONS
5.01 Termochemical Reactions
Formula: C + O2 = CO2

Molecular weight: 12 + 32 = 44
Mass: 1 + 2,66 = 3,66 kg + 7829 kcal/kg
C + ½ O2 = CO
12 + 16 = 28
1 + 1,33 = 2,33kg + 2400 kcal/kg
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

4 + 32 = 36
1 + 8 = 9 kg + 28,64 kcal/kg (Hu)
S + O2 = SO2
32 + 32 = 64
1 + 1 = 2 kg + 2213 kcal/kg
and SO2 + 1/2O2 = SO3
64 + 16 = 80
1 + 0,25 = 1,25
5.02 Combustion Constants
Formula kg/m3 kcal/m3 MJ/m3 kcal/kg J/g

Carbon C - - 7,831 32,765
Hydrogen H2 0,0853 2,892 12,
12,098
098 33,884 141,771
Oxygen O2 1,3553 - - - -
Nitrogen N 1,1916 - - - -
Sulfur S2 - - - 2,213 9,259
Carbon monoxide CO 1,1860 2,862 11,975 - -
Carbon dioxide CO2 1,8742 - - - -
Water vapor H2 O 0,7622 - - - -
Sulfur dioxide SO2 2,7760 - - - -
Methane CH4 0,6801 9,030 37,781 13,276 55,547
Ethane C2H6 1,2861 15,922 66,618 12,3
12,379
79 51,794
Propane C3H8 1,9158 22,900 95,812 11,9
11,957
57 50,028
n-Butane C4H10 2,5341 30,189 126,309 11,912 49,840
n-Pentane C5H12 3,0499 37,380 156,398 12,254 51,271
Note: Volumes at 16 oC and 760 mm Hg.
44

5.03 Heat Value of Fuel
The heat value of a fuel is usually determined in a calorimeter. For an approximate

indication, the heat value can also be calculated from the ultimate analysis. Values for C
(carbon), S (sulfur), H (hydrogen), etc., are expressed in terms of percent by weight for coal
and in terms of percent by volume for natural gas.
For coal:
net heating value (kcal/kg) = 80,8C + 278(H O2/8 + 22,45S - 6,0m

where
m = percent m moisture
oisture iinn coal
For oil:
heating value (kcal/kg) = 12,958 - 3228d - 70,0S
where
d = density at 15 ºC (kg/dm3)
For natural gas:

3
kcal/m = 90,3CH4 + 159,2C2H6 + 229C3H8 + 301,9C4H10 + 42,0C5H12 + 6,47H2S
5.04 Conversion from Gross to Net Heating Value
The net heating value accounts for the heat losses that are experienced for the
evaporation of the moisture in the fuel as well as the water that is generated by the
combustion of hydrogen. Heating values obtained in the calorimeter are  gros
grosss val
values and
can be converted to the  net
net basis by the following formulas:
Hu(net) = Hu(gross) - 5150H2 (kcal/kg)
where
H2 = percent hy
hydrogen
drogen (sum total of H2 in the fuel and the m
moisture)
oisture)
In Europe it is the custom to express the heating value or fuel consumption in terms of
the  net
net basis whereas in North America the  gross heatin
heatingg vvalue
alue iiss gen
generally
erally used.
5.05 Analysis of Coal
a) Ultimate analysis

a)
C + H + N + S + O + Ash = 100 percent (by weight)
where
C = percent carbon, H = percent hydrogen, N = percent nitrogen,
S = percent sulfur, O = percent oxygen.
The percent oxygen (O) is not determined by analytical methods but calculated by
difference to make the sum total equal to 100.
45

b) Proximate analysis

b)
V + free C + ash + m = 100 percent

where
V = percent volatiles,
free C = percent free carbon,
m = percent moisture
The percent free carbon is calculated by difference to make the sum total equal to 100.
5.06 Methods of Expressing Solid Fuel Analysis
Analysis of solid fuels should be reported with a note containing a remark in respect to
the method in which the analysis is expressed. The following are the methods (basis)
frequently used:
a)  as an
a) anal
alyyze
zedd
b)  dry basis
b) basis
c)  as rec
c) recei
eive
vedd
d)  combustibl
d) combustiblee basis (moisture and ash ffree)
ree)
e)  as fired
e) red
For inventory control purposes it is of advantage to express coal tonnage, heating
value and its composition on the  dry basis to elimi
eliminate
nate the fl
fluctuation
uctuationss coal un
undergoes
dergoes
when it is stored and exposed to weathering.
5.07 Conversion of Coal Analysis to Different Basis
Let
Y = percent C, S, N, or percent ash
O = percent oxygen
H = percent hydrogen
m = percent moisture
subscript:
a =  as analyzed  basis
d =  dry basis
basis
r =  as received  basis
f =  as fi
fired babasisiss
c =  com
combu busti
stibl
blee basi
basiss
a) To convert from  as anal

a) analyzed to  dry
yzed dry bas
asiis
100
Yd = Ya
100 - m a
100
Hd = (Ha 0,1119ma)
100 - m a
Od = calculated by difference
b) To convert from  dry to  as rece

b) receiv
ived
ed bas
basis
is
46

Multiply all components, except hydrogen, by the factor
100 - m r

100
c) To convert from  dry to  as fired

c) fired bas
basis
is
Multiply all components, except hydrogen, by the factor

100 - m f
100
Note: in b) and c) above, the
t he percent hydrog
hydrogen
en is calculated as follows:
fo llows:
100 - m
H = Hd = 0,1119m
100
d) To convert from  as re

d) rece
ceived to  dry
ived dry bas
asiis
Multiply each component, except the hydrogen, by the factor
100

100 - m r
100
Hd = (Hr 0,1119mr )
100 - m r
Od = calculated by difference
e) To convert from  com

e) combu
bustiblee to  as fired  basis
stibl
100 - (ash + m f )

100
Hf = Hc 100 - (ash + m c ) + 0,1119mc

100
Of = calculated by difference
f) To convert from  as re

f) rece
ceiv ed to  combustible
ived combustible basis
100

100 - (ash + m r )
100
Hc = (Hr 0,1119mr )
100 - (ash + m r )
The following table shows clearly how the values of a coal analysis and the heating
value can change when the analysis is expressed in different terms.
47

As Dry Ash and As As

analyzed basis Moisture free received fired
C (carbon) 61,24 67,30 75,36 57,00 66,76
H (hydrogen) 5,74 5,20 5,93 6,12 5,25
S (sulfur) 2,46 2,70 3,03 2,29 2,68
N (nitrogen) 1,73 1,90 2,12 1,62 1,88
O (oxygen) 19,09 12,20 13,56 8,62 12,02
Ash 9,74 10,70 - 9,06 10,61
M (moisture)
Volatiles 9,0
32,49 -
35,70 -
39,97 15,30
30,24 0,80
35,41
Free Carbon 48,78 53,60 60,02 45,40 53,17
Kcal/kg 5,992 6,583 7,400 5,578 6,556

kJ/kg 25,071 27,543 30,962 23,338 27,430
5.08 Typical Coal Ash Analysis

5.08
For a cement chemist, it is important to know the chemical composition of the coal
ash. The majority of the ash, during the burning of coal, enters the clinker and modifies its
chemical composition. On coal fired kilns, it is not only important to maintain a uniform kiln
feed but also to fire the kiln with a coal of uniform composition. In plants, where coal
originates from several different suppliers, provisions should be made to blend these coals
before they are fired in the kiln. A typical analysis of
o f coal ash is shown in the following:
46,3% SiO2, 25,6% Al2O3, 18,7% Fe2O3, 2,8% CaO
5.09 Fuel Ignition Temperature

5.09
The approximate ignition temperature of various fuels are
ºC
Coal 250
Wood 300
Bunker C oil 200
Diesel fuel 350
Natural gas 550
5.10 Percent Coal Ash Absorbed in Clinker

5.10
The percent coal ash contained in the clinker can be calculated from the loss-free
analysis of the ash, raw mix, and clinker as follows:
Analysis
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

Ash Ca =   Sa =   Aa =   Fa =  ..
Raw Mix Cm =   Sm =   Am =   Fm =  .
Clinker C =  . S =  A =  F = .
48

C - Cm
x1 = 100 =   
C a - C m
S - Sm
x2 = 100 =   
S a - S m
A - Am
x3 = 100 =   
A a - Am
F - Fm
x4 = 100 =   
Fa - F m
The percent coal ash contained in the clinker (percent) is:

x + x 2 + x3 + x
Percent = 1 =   
no data
5.11 Effect of Coal ash on Clinker Composition

5.11
Changes in the composition of the clinker as a result of coal ash addition can be
calculated by the following method:
Analysis (loss-free)
CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Alkalis Total

Ash Ca   Sa   Aa   Fa  .. Ma  Na .
Clinker C   . S   A   F  . M  .. N .. X .
w = coal factor (weight coal/wt.cl.), decimal =   .

y = ash content of coal, decimal =   .
z = ash absorption by clinker (usually 0,40 to 1,00) =   .
DC = wyCaz =    DF = wy Faz =   
DS = wy Saz =    DM = wyMaz =   
DA = wyAaz =    D N = wyNaz =   
clinker composition
CaO = C- DC = ( ..) (X/v) =   
SiO2 = S - DS = ( ..) (X/v) =   
Al2O3 = A - DA = ( ..) (X/v) =   
Fe2O3 = F - DF = ( ..) (X/v) =   
MgO = M - DM = ( ..) (X/v) =   
Alkalis = N - D N = ( ..) (X/v) =   
v = Total =     
49

5.12 Determination of Theoretical Fuel Consumption

5.12
Knowing the properties of the coal, kiln feed, and the exit gas allows an engineer to
calculate
calculate the coal cons
consumption
umption by using
using Dr. Kuhl s formul
formula:
a:
Data needed:
a = constant, 0,266
b = percent carbon in dry coa
coall
c = percent hy
hydrogen
drogen in dry coal
d = percent nitrogen in dry coal
e = percent oxygen iinn dry coal
f = percent sulf
sulfur
ur in dry coal
g = percent as
ashh in dry coal
m = percent total carbonates in dry feed (CaCO3 + MgCO3)

n = percent lloss
oss on ignition of dry feed
p = percent  true CO2 in exit gas. Calculated as follows:
100 CO 2 + CO
p =
100 + 1,89 CO - 4,78 O 2
q = percent O2 (oxygen) in exit gas
s = percent N2 (nitrogen) in exit gas
t = percent CO (carbon mmonoxide)
onoxide) in exit gas
Calculations
400m
K 1 =
100 - n
K 2 = b/3 + c a(d/7) e/8 + f/8
mg
K 3 = b/3 -
2500 - 25n
V = as - q + t/2
W = p+t
coal consumption,
K 1V
x =
K 2W - K 3V
where
x = kg coal/100 kg clinker
Example: A kiln under investigation showed the following analysis during the time of
the test:
Coal (dry) Kiln feed (dry)
percent carbon : 72,16 total carbonate
carbonatess : 79,26
percent hydrogen
hydro gen : 5,37 loss ignition : 35,8
percent nitrogen
nitro gen : 1,58
50

percent oxygen : 7,89 Exit gas

percent sulfur : 2,00
percent ash : 11,00 CO2 (true) : 27,38
O2 : 1,6
CO : -
N2 : 70,99
What is the coal consumption on this kiln?
(400)(79,26)
K 1 = = 493,83
100 - 35,8
72,16 1,58 7,89 2

K 2 = + 5,37 + 0266 - + =28,75
3 7 8 8
72,16 (79,26)(11,00)
K 3 = - = 23,51
3 2500 - [(25)(35,8)]
0
V = (0,266)(70,99) 1,6 + = 17,28
2
W = 27,38 + 0 = 27,38
(493,83)(17,28)
x = = 22,4 kg coal/100
coal/100 kg linker (ans.)
(28,75)(27,38) - [(23,51)(17,28)]
5.03 Expressed on a  as fired basis, a coal shows th

thee foll
following
owing ul
ultimate
timate
analysis:
75,8C, 1,5S 4,8H2, 8,9O2 0,5 moisture
What is the net heating value of this coal expressed in terms of kcal/kg?
æ
Hv = (80,8)(75,8) + (287 )ç 4,8 -
8,9 ö
÷ + [22,45(1,5)] [6(0,5)] = 7216,6 kcal/kg
è 8 ø
5.10 Given the following analysis on a loss free basis;

5.10
CaO SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3
Ash : 0,4 49,3 28,6 20,9
Kiln feed : 67,9 19,8 6,9 2,1
Clinker : 66,5 20,5 7,3 2,5
What percent ash does the clinker contain?
x1 = 66,5 - 67,9 100 = 2,07

0,4 - 67,9
51

20,5 - 19,8
x2 = 100 = 2,27
49,3 - 19,8
7,3 - 6,9
x3 = 100 = 1,84
28,6 - 6,9
2,5 - 2,1
x4 = 20,9 - 2,1 100 = 2,13
2,07 + 2,37 + 1,84 + 2,13

Percent ash in clinker = = 2,10 percent (ans.)
4
Chapter 6
pH: HYDROGEN  ION

ION  CONCENTRATIONS
CONCENTRATIONS
6.01 Definition of pH
The pH value of a chemical is indicated by the negative log of the hydrogen-ion-

concentration (hc +).
hc + 1 10-1 10-2   10-7   . 10-13 10-14

pH 0 1 2   7   . 13 14
acid neutral basic (alkaline)
+
[H ] dominant [OH-] dominant
In a compound, if:
[H+] higher than [OH-] : compound is acidic nature
[OH-] higher than [H+] : compound is basic (alkaline)
[H+] = [OH-] : compound is neutral
6.02 Calculation of pH

6.02
pH = x log y
[H+] = y10-x
[H+] x [OH-] = constant (~ 10-14)
Example:
A solution of NaOH is o,o15 n. What is pH?
[OH-] = 0,015 gram equivalent per liter

log [OH-] = -1,824
[OH-] = 10-1,824
but
52

[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14
thus
+ 10 -14
[H ] = -1,824 = 10-12,176
10
pH = 12,176
6.03 Indicators
6.03
Reagents Indicator Color change

Acids Red phenolphthalein Color free
Blue litmus paper Red
Yellow methyl orange Red
Bases Red litmus paper Blue
Colorless phenolphthalein Red
Red methyl orange Yellow
53

PART II
B U R N I NG
54

Chapter 7
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF
KILN PERFORMANCRE
Introduction
The significant formulas for a study of the kiln performance and efficiency are given.
An engineer should follow the sequence in which the formulas are presented herein as many
calculation require the results obtained from earlier computations.
To simplify the engineers task, all the formulas are presented in the form of work
sheets that can be used to arrange the study in an orderly fashion. At the conclusion,
a summary sheet is also given to compile all the significant results of this study.
Data, formulas, and results are presented in metric system units by using the
appropriate worksheets in this chapter.
These worksheets can also be used to perform studies of parts of the kiln system
(e.g., the cooler operation). The reader should have no difficulties in selecting the appropriate
formulas from the worksheets in these instances.
the kilnFor a complete

operates study,
in a stable andit uniform
is essential that the kiln data be selected during a time when
manner.
7.01 Technical Information on kiln Equipment
Plant location:______________
location:___________________________
_____________________
__________ Kiln: _____________
_____________________
________
Kiln
Process: ___________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ________________________
_____________________________________
__________________________
_______________________
__________
Year placed in operat
operation:
ion: ____________
_________________________
__________________________
__________________________
________________
___
Types of clinker produced: _____________________________________________________
Types of fuel burned: ____________
__________________________
___________________________
_________________________
__________________
______
Primary air source: ___________________________________________________________
Feeder type: ________________________________________________________________
Type of dust collector: _____________
______________________________
______________________________
__________________________
_____________
Dust processing: __________________
_______________________________
__________________________
__________________________
_________________
____
Preheater
Type: _____________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________
______________________
________
Year: _____________________________________________________________________
Cooler
Type: ____________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________
______________________
________
Year: _____________________________________________________________________
55

Fans
Cooler fan Type fan Rated capacity rpm Hp

1
2
3
4
5
6
Type fan Rated capacity rpm Hp
Cooler exhaust
Induced draft
Recycle fan
Nose ring
Shell cooling
Drives
Type Hp Motor rpm

Kiln drive
Auxiliary drive
Cooler drive
Other kiln equipment
Function Type Hp
   ..   ..       
   ..   ..       
   ..   ..       
Date of investigation:_________________________________________________________
Tested by: _______________________
____________________________________
__________________________
__________________________
________________
___
56

Chapter 8& 9
KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
Data needed
Fuel Analysis (Oil or Coal as Fired)
AA = Percent ash =    ..
AH = Percent hydrogen =    ..
AC = Percent carbon =    ..
A N = Percent nitrogen =    ..
AO = Percent oxygen =    ..
AS = Percent sulfur =    ..
AM = Percent moisture =    ..
AQ = Heat value (kcal/kg) =    ..
AJ = Heat value (kJ/kg) =    ..
Coal Ash Analysis

BSi = Percent SiO2 =    ..
  
BFe
B
Al
= Percent
= Percent Fe
Al22O
O3
3 =
=    ..
..
BCa = Percent CaO =    ..
Kiln Feed analysis (Loss Free Basis)

CSi = Percent SiO2 =    ..
CAl = Percent Al2O3 =    ..
CFe = Percent Fe2O3 =    ..
CCa = Percent CaO =    ..
CMg = Percent MgO =    ..
CNa = Percent N2O =    ..
CK = Percent K 2O =    ..
CS = Percent SO3 =    ..
C
CM
ig =
= Percent
Percent igni
ignitio
tionn loss
moisture =
=    ..
..
C4900 = Percent 4900 mesh =    ..
C400 = Percent 400 mesh =    ..
CC = Percent organics =    ..
Cm = Specific heat (kcal/kg ºC) =    ..
Kiln Exit Gas Analysis (by Orsat)

DCO2 = Percent CO2 (by weight) =    .
DCO = Percent CO (by weight) =    .
DO2 = Percent O2 (by weight) =    .
D N2 = Percent N2 (by weight) =    ..
Precipitator Outlet Gas Analysis

ECO2 = Percent CO2 (by weight) =    ..
57

EO2 = Percent O2 (by weight) =    ..
Ambient Air and Location

FT = Ambient air temp. (ºC) =    ..
FH = Percent relative humidity =    ..
FEL = Elevation (meters above sea level) =    ..
FBar = Barometric pressure (mm Hg) =    ..
Weight of Materials
WCl = Kiln output (kg/h) =    ..
WdF = Dry feed rate (kg/kg of clinker) =    ..
WA = Fuel rate, as fired (kg/kg of clinker) =    ..
Kiln Dust Analysis (Loss Free Basis

GSi = Percent SiO2 =    ..
GAl = Percent Al2O3 =    ..
GFe = Percent Fe2O3 = ..............
GCa = Percent CaO =    ..
GK = Percent K 2O =    ..
GS = Percent SO3 =    ..
Gig = Percent igni
ignitio
tionn loss =    ..
G = Percent of collected dust that is
returned to the kiln (decimal) =    ..
Kiln Dimensions
L1 = Kiln length (m) =    ...
L2 = Kiln diameter (m) =    ...
L3 = tipp orifice area ( m2 )
Effective burner ti =    ..
L4 = Length of chain section (m) =    ..
L5 = Total chain surface area (m2) =    ..
L6 = Effective kiln feed end throat area (m2) =    ..
L7 = Refractory thickness (mm) =    ..
L8 = Sum total of (all) chain length (m) =    ..
L9 = Kiln shell thicknes
thicknesss (mm) =    ..
L10 = Kiln slope (degrees) =    ..
Operating Parameters
Ph = Hood draft (mm H2O) =    ..
PBe = Feed end draft (mm H2O) =    ..
PKs = Kiln speed (rpm) =    
Clinker Analysis (Loss Free Basis)

HSi = Percent SiO2 =    ..
HAl = Percent Al2O3 =    ..
HFe = Percent Fe2O3 = ..............
HCa = Percent CaO =    ..
HMg = Percent MgO =    ..
HS = Percent SO3 =    ..
58

HAlk = Per
Percent
cent alkalis (total as N2O) =    ..
HIg = Percent igni
ignitio
tionn loss =    ..
Temperatures (Celsius)
TC = Feed entering kiln =    ..
TSa = Secondary air =    ..
TPa = Primary air =    ..
TBe = Kiln exit gas =    .
TSt = Cooler stack =    .
TCl = Clinker at cooler exit =    .
TF = Fuel as fired =    .
TZ1 = Average shell, lower third =    .
TZ2 = Average shell, middle third =    .
TZ3 = Average shell, upper third =    .
T = Kiln room =    .
Air Volumes (Standard m3/s @0C, 760 mm Hg)

VPa = Primary air flow =    .
Vex = Cooler vent stack =    .
VCO = Total air into cooler =    .
VBe = Kiln exit =    .
Dimensions
X1 = Cooler length, grates, (m) =    .
X2 = Cooler width, grates, (m) =    .
2
X3 = Total effective area of hood opening m
where ambient air is infiltrated =    .
CALCULATIONS
9.01 Amount of Feed Required to Produce One Kilogram

K ilogram of Clinker
a = 0,01785 CCa =    .
b = 0,02092 CMg =    .
c = 0,01 CAl =    .
d = 0,01 CSi =    .
e = 0,01 CFe =    .
f = 0,00075 CSi + 0,003534 CAl =    .
Subtotal =    .
100 - Hig
g = subtotal =    ..
100
Subtract ash in clinker
æ A A öæ 100 ö÷

h = W A ç ÷ç =    ..
è 100 øè ç 100 - C Ig ø÷
59

i = kg feed required per kg clinker =    ..
9.02 Dust Loss
Dust losses are expressed in terms of equivalent feed.
k 1 = WdF - I =    .kg dust/kg clinker
k 1
k 1 = =   ..
WdF
In the absence of reliable data for actual feed usage, WdF can also be determined as follows:
100 é æ 100 - H Ig ö ù

- G Ig ö æ 100
WdF = ç
ê D ç
W ÷
÷ + ç
ç ÷÷ - hú =   
100 - C Ig ëê è 100 ø è 100 ø ûú
where
WD = kg of dust wasted per kg clinker
 h can bbee found
found in 9.01
9.01..
9.03 Potential Clinker Compounds and Clinker Factors
C3S = 4,07HCa - (7,6HSi + 6,72HAl + 1,43HFe + 2,85HS =    .

C2S = 2,78 HSi - 0,75 C3S =    .
C3A = 2,65 HAl - 1,69 HFe =    .
C4AF = 3,
3,04
04 HFe =    .
100 - H Ca
LSF = =    .
2,8H Si + 1,65 H Al + 0 ,35H Fe
H Si
S/R = =    .
H Al + H Fe
H Al
A/F = =    .
H Fe
Percent liquid = 1,13 C3A + 1,35 C4AF + HMg + HAlk =    .
w1
efficiency = 100 =    ..
w f
Page 102 and 103 are missed
60

9.11 Products of Combustion
CO2 from fuel = 0,03667ACWA =    

SO2 from fuel = 0,02AS WA =    
H2O from fuel = 0,09AH WA =    
N2 from fuel = [A N/100 + 3,3478(AC + 0,01AS + 0,08AH 0,01AO)]W A =   .
Subtotal =    
Add excess air = m/100 (subtotal) =    

w6 = Total =   .kg/kg clinker
Note: For natural gas firing, use

u se the formula 13.08 in chapt
chapter
er 13.
9.12 Weight of Gases from the Feed
CO2 from feed = (1 + 0,5k 2)(0,44a + 0,5216b) ` =   ..

100 WdF
H2Ofree from feed = _ W dF =    ..
100 - C M
H2Ochem from feed = (1 + k 2)f =    ..

w7 = Total =    .
Note: The assumption is made that

t hat wasted dust has been 50% calcined. Find a, b, f in 9.01
and k 2 in 9.02.
9.13 Total Weight of Kiln Exit Gases
Adding the products in 9.11 and 9.12 gives the total weight of exit gas.
CO2 from fuel =   
CO2 from feed =   
Total CO2 =   
H2O from fuel =   
H2O from feed =   
Total H2O = .............
50% of SO2 from fuel : Total SO2 =    .

N2 from combustion: Total N2 =    .
Excess air (see 9.11): excess air =    .
wgm = Total moist gases =    .kg/kg clinker
Dry gases = wgd = wgm - total H2O =    .kg/kg
61

9.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Gas
w gm _ wgd
Percent H2O = 100 =     percent
w gm
9.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gas
a) At 0 C, 760 mm Hg
a)
1,977CO 2 + 2,927 SO2 + 0,806 H 2 O

+ 1,251 N 2 + 1,2928 excess air
d oo11 = =    kg/N
w gm
m3
Note: Use calculated values

value s from 9.13 for CO2, SO2, etc.
b) At prevailing pressures and temperatures

b)
æ 273, 2 öæ 760 - 0,0736 P Be ö

d oo22 = d o1 çç ÷÷ç ÷ =    kg/ m3
T
è Be + 273, 2 ø è 760 ø
9.16 Volume of Moist Kiln Exit Gas
w gm
vBe = = m3/kg clinker
w o2
(v Be )( wCl )
vs = = m3/s
3600

9.17 Kiln Performance Factors
a) Cooler air factor
a)
VCO
= m3 s/m2 grate area
X1 X 2
b) Primary air velocity

b)
TPA + 273,2 760

m3/s(act) = V PA =    .
273,2 F Bar
m 3 / s ( act )
Primary air velocitry = 2
=    .m/s
p ( 1 2 L 3 )
c) Specific kiln surface area loading.

c)
62

Kiln surface area = (L2 0,002 L7)pL1 =    .. m2
24WCl
Specific area loading = =    .daily t/ m2
1000(m 2 surface)
d) Specific kiln volume loading.

d)
Using the  inside lining kiln volume, the specific volume loading in terms of daily metric
tons production is calculated as follows:
24WCl
Specific volume loading = =    daily t/ m3
1000(m3 volume)
e) Specific thermal loading of the burning zone.

e)
Burning Zone surface = p (L2 0,002Ly)Lx =    m2
(WA )(W CL )( Aq )

Specific Thermal loading = 2
=    .kcal/h m2
(m surface)
(WA )(W CL )( A j )
= =    .kJ/h/ m2
(m 2 surface)
where
Ly = lining and coating thickness (mm)
Lx = length of burning zone (m)
63

9.01 i Theoretical amount of feed required kg/kg cl.
h Ash content in clinker kg/kg cl.
9.02 k 1 Amount of feed wasted as dust kg/kg cl.
k 2 Percent dust loss, in terms of fresh feed percent
wdF Actual amount of feed used kg/kg cl.
9.03 C3S in clinker percent
C2S in clinker percent
C3A in clinker percent
C4AF in clinker percent
LSF, Lime Saturat
Saturation
ion Factor percent
S/R, silica ratio percent
A/L, alumina iron ratio percent
Percent liquid percent
9.04 l Theoretical heat required kcal/kg
9.05 m Percent air infiltrated at feed end percent
9.06 n Excess air present in exit gas percent
9.07 o Combustion air required / kg fuel kg/kg
9.08 w1 Combustion air required/ unit time kg/h
9.09 ws Air infiltrated at hood kg/h
z Percent of combustion air infiltrated percent
9.10 wt Total air flow into cooler kg/h
w2 Excess air vented at cooler stack kg/h
w3 Combustion air into the kiln kg/h
w4 Primary air kg/h
Percent primary air percent
9.11 w6 Combustion product
productss kg/kg clinker
9.12 w7 Gases from slurry or feed kg/kg clinker
9.13 wgm Total moist exit gases kg/kg clinker
wgd Total dry exit gases kg/kg clinker
9.14 Moisture content in exit gases percent
9.15 d oo11 Density of moist gases (standard condition) kg/m3
Do2 Density of moist gases (actual condition) kg/m3
9.16 vBc Volume of exit gases m3/kg clinker
3
9.17 v Exit gases volume per unit time m

m3 /s
s
Cooler air factor .
s/ m2grate
Primary air velocity m/s
Spesific surface loading daily tons/ m2
Spesific volume loading daily tons/ m3
Thermal loading of burning zone kcal/h/ m2
64
Chapter 10 & 11
HEAT BALANCE
In the appendix, the reader will find graphs for the mean specific heat of gases and
solids that will be used in the ensuing calculations. In all the formulas given,  Q deno
denote
tess the
the
heat content (kcal/kg),  QJ , and  c8 the mean specific heat in terms of (kcal/kg)(C),  cJ
in terms of (kJ/kg)©.
HEAT INPUT
11.01 Heat Input from

from the Combustion
Combustion of Fuel
Fuel
Q = WAAq =   .kcal/kg
QJ = WAAJ =   .kJ/kg clinker
11.02 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Fuel
Q = WAcmT j =   .kcal/kg
QJ = WAc jT j =   .kJ/kg clinker
11.03 Organic Substance in Kiln Feed
It is assumed that the organic matter in the kiln feed has a constant heat value of
5028 kcal/kg and 21,036 kJ/kg.
Cc
Q = g 5028 =    kcal/kg
100
Cc
QJ = g 21,03 =    kJ/kg clinker
100
(find g in 9.01).
11.04 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed
Q1 = WdFcmTC =   
Q2 = (kg H2O in slurry) TC =   
Qtotal =    kcal/kg
QJ1 = WdFc jTC =   
QJ2 = (kg H2O in slurry) TC 4.184 =    .
QJ total =    .kJ/kg clinker
11.05 Heat Input from Cooler Air Sensible Heat
1
Q = wt c m F T =    kcal/kg
WCl
65
1
QJ = wt c J F T =    .kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find wt in 9.10).
11.06 Heat Input from Primary Air Sensible Heat
Include in this calculation only that amount of primary air which originates from the
atmosphere. Do not include the fraction of primary air that has its origin from the cooler.
1
Q = w4 c m F T = kcal/kg
WCl
1
QJ = w4 c J F T = kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find w4 in 9.10)
11.07 Heat Input from Infiltrated Air Sensible Heat
When the temperature in the area where the majority of the infiltration takes place, is
significantly different from  T , use the appropriate temperature for this calculation.
Q = w s1 c m F T
WCl
= kcal/kg
1
QJ = w s c J F T = kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find ws in 9.09)
HEATS OUTPUTS
11.08 Heat Required for Clinker Formation
For  Q in term
termss of kcal/kg
kcal/kg,, the result of 9.04 can be entered he
here
re directl
directly.
y.
Q =    kcal/kg clinker
In the International system of units (SI) this heat fraction is calculated as follow:
QJ = 61,902HAl + 97,599HMg + 115,161HCa 77,055HSi 88,86HFe =  . kJ/kg cl.
11.09 Heat Loss with Kiln Exit Gas
The heat loss in the exit gas is calculated from the heat content of each individual gas
component. The weights of these components has been calculated in 9.13.
  
QCO2 = wCO2 CmTBc =
QH2O = wH2O CmTBc =   
QSO2 = wSO2 CmTBc =   
66
Q N2 = w N2 CmTBc =   
Qexcess air = wexcess air CmTBc =   
Total, Q =    kcal/kg
In terms of the International system of units (SI):
  
QJ(CO2) = wCO2 C j TBc =
QJ(H2O) = wH2O C j TBc =   
QJ(SO2) = wSO2 C j TBc =   
QJ(N2) = w N2 C j TBc =   
Q j(excess air)=w(excess air) CjTBc =   
Total, Q j =    kJ/kg clinker
11.10 Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Feed of Slurry
Q = wtotal H2O 597,7 =    kcal/kg
QJ = wtotal H2O 2500,8 =    kJ/kg clinker
The total weight of water, (wtotal H2O) can be found in 9.13. The remits obtained
represents only the amount of heat that has to be expanded to turn the given weight of water
into steam at 0 ºC. The heat losses associated with raising this steam to the kiln exit gas
temperature have been included in 11.09.
11.11 Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Feed or Slurry
Q = k 1 cm TBe =   ..kcal/kg

QJ = k 1 c j TBe =   ..kJ/kg clinker
(find k 1 in 9.02).
11.12 Heat Loss with Clinker at Cooler Discharge
Q = cmTcl =    kcal/kg
QJ = c jTcl =    kJ/kg clinker
11. 13 Heat Loss at Cooler Stack
w2
Q = c m T Sn =   .kcal/kg
WCl
w2
QJ = c J T St =    .kJ/kg clinker
WCl
67

11.14 Heat Losses by Radiation on Kiln Shell
In the appendix find the heat transfer coefficient q m (kcal/ m2 h C) and q J (kJ/ m2 h C) for
the average shell temperature, Tz, in each zone of the kiln.
Let
ss = kiln shell surface area,
L1
ss = p L2 =   .m2
3
1
Q1 = s s q m (T Z 1 - T ) =    .
W Cl
1
Q2 = s s q m (T Z 2 - T ) =    .
W Cl
1
Q3 = s s q m (T Z 3 - T ) =    .
W Cl
Total, Q = =    kcal/kg
In the International System of Units (SI)
1
QJ1 = s s q J (T Z 1 - T ) =   
W Cl
1
QJ2 = s s q J (T Z 2 - T ) =   
W Cl
1
QJ3 = s s q J (T Z 3 - T ) =    .
W Cl
  
Total, QJ = = .kJ/kg clinker
11.15 Heat Loss Due to Calcination of Wasted Kiln Dust
11.15
Calculate first the percent calcination of the kiln dust:
C Ig - G Ig
d = =    ..
C Ig
Second, calculate the total carbonates in the kiln dust:
a +b
TCdust = W dF k 2 =    ..
i
Then,
Q = tcTCdust380,6 =    .kcal/kg
QJ = t cTCdust1592,5 =    .kJ/kg clinker
68

Note: Include
I nclude this heat loss in the heat bala
balance
nce only for that fraction ooff the du
dust
st tthat
hat is
wasted and not returned to the kiln
(find a, b in 9.01 and k 2 in 9.02).
Heat Balance
Heat input kcal/kg kJ/kg Percent

11.01 Combustion of fuel
11.02 Sensible heat, fuel
11.03 Organics in feed
11.04 Sensible heat, kiln feed
11.05 Sensible heat, cooler air
11.06 Sensible heat, primary air
11.07 Sensible heat, infiltrated air
Total: 100
Heat output kcal/kg kJ/kg Percent

11.08 Theoretical heat inquired
11.09 Exit gas losses
11.10 Evaporation
11.11 Dust in exit gas
11.12 Clinker discharge
11.13 Cooler stack
11.14 Kiln shell
11.15 Calcination of waste dust
Total: 100
Note: Unaccounted losses are calculated by difference.

differe nce.
69

Chapter 12
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF
THREE KILN MODELS
Introduction
Models of wet process, a dry process, and a suspension preheater kiln are given here
and their performance characteristics have bee calculated in accordance to formulas given
in this chapter. The data are selected values of kiln parameters typical to these types of kilns
when they are operated efficiently and properly maintained.
Data
Fuel analysis
(applied to all three kilns and stated on a  as fired
fired ba
basi
sis)
s)
Aa = 7,7
Ah = 4,8
Ac = 74,4
An = 1,4
Ao = 9,1
As = 2,1
Am = 0,5
Aq = 7106 kcal/kg
Kiln FeedWet
Analysis
kiln (loss free)
Dry kiln Preheater
CSi 21,1 20,5 21,3
CAl 6,5 6,7 6,5
CFe 2,9 3,1 2,8
CCa 66,4 66,9 66,8
CMg 1,5 1,5 1,2
C Na 0,3 0,3 0,3
CK 0,85 0,55 0,45
CS 0,1 0,1 0,1
CIg 35,3 35,5 35,6
CM 32,5 0,8 0,4
Csp 2,7 2,71 2,69
Kiln Exit Gas Analysis

Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
DCO2 26,4 26,3 28,1
DCO - - -
DO 1,1 1,3 1,2
D N 72,5 72,4 70,7
Ambient Air (applies to all three kilns
FT = 22
FBar = 753 mm Hg
Weights
WdF
W
Cl 28580
1,61 68860
1,57 110220
1,55
WA 0,183 0,157 0,113
70
Kiln Dust
GIg 19,9 13,5 7,3
G 0,8 1,0 1,0
Kiln Dimensions
L1 129,5 160,0 65,5
L2 3,43 4,72 4,33
L3 0,152 0,152 0,23
Volumes
VPa 1,87 4,17 4,75
VCo 20,24 52,60 79,60
VEx 7,78 32,18 54,55
Temperatures
TC 24 52 41
TPa 82 82 82
TBe 174 524 252
TSt 141 252 268
TCl 74 79 85
TF 24 24 24
TZ1 296 307 293
TZ2 235 252 265
TZ3 107 201 79
T 29 29 29
Others Parameters
Ph -1,27 -1,27 -1,27
X1 15,2 28,7 41,1
X2 2,13 2,59 2,74
X3 0,074 0,168 0,145
Clinker Analysis
HSi 21,8 20,83 21,7
HAl 6,8 7,0 6,7
HFe 3,2 3,3 2,9
HCa 65,9 66,4 66,3
HMg 1,2 1,4 1,0
HS 0,2 0,3 0,8
HAlk 0,58 0,62 0,85
HIg 0,20 0,15 0,25
71
Summary of Kiln Performance Study Results
Wet Dry Preheater

kiln kiln
8.01 i Theoretical amount of feed required 3072,0 3091,0 308
3088,9
8,9
h Ash content in clinker 43,6 37,4 26,9
k 1 Amount of feed wasted as dust 148,0 48,2 11,1
k 2 Dust loss in terms of fresh feed 0,046 0,015 0,004
8.03 C3S in clinker 51,7 59,4 53,5
C2S in clinker 23,6 15,0 21,9
C3A in clinker 12,6 13,0 12,9
LSF, lime saturation factor 89,8 93,5 91,0
S/R, Silica ratio 2,18 2,02 2,26
A/F, Alumina-Iron ratio 2,13 2,12 2,31
Percent liquid 29,11 29,76 28,31
8.04 l Theoretical heat required for clinker 1534,15 1573,19 1541,5
formation
8.05 n Percent air infiltrated at feed end n.a n.a n.a
8.06 m Percent excess air in exit gas 6,1 7,3 6,9
8.07 o Combustion air required (lb air/lb fuel) 10,6 10,72 10,68
8.08 w1 Weight of combustion air required (lb 20,36,8 4244,5 4866,1
8.09 w5 air/min)
Air infiltrated at kiln hood 42,1 96,1 83,1
z Percent of air infiltration at kiln hood 2,1 2,3 1,7
8.10 wf Total air flow into cooler 3671,3 9541,4 14439,1
wy Cooler air lost due to leaks or for drying 604,6 308,5 635,2
w2 Excess air vented at cooler stack 1411,8 5840,6 9882,7
w3 Secondary air flow to kiln 1654,9 3392,3 3921,2
w4 Primary air flow 339,8 756,1 861,8
Percent primary air 16,7 17,8 17,7
8.11 w6 Total combustion products from fuel 4239,7 3666,8 2625,6
8.12 w7 Gases produce
producedd from feed of slurry 2731,7 1195,8 1167,8
8.13 wgm Total moist exit gas flow 6963,8 4856,0 3788,7
wgd Total dry exit gas flow 5173,8 4616,1 3600,7
8.14 d oo11
8.15 Moistureofcontent
Density of exit
moist exit gasat standard
gases 25,7
0,0848 4,9
0,0938 5,0
0,0972
condition
d oo22 Density of moist exit gases at actual 0,0515 0,0319 0,0503
conditions
8.16 vBe Volume of exit gas flow 135,2 152,2 75,3
vACFM Volume of exit gas flow in unit time 70,9 192,5 152,5
8.17 Cooler air factor (ft3/ft2 of grate area) 129,5 147,4 146,7
Primary air velocity at burner tip n.a. n.a. n.a.
Specific surface loading of kiln 0,055 0,076 0,34
Specific volume loading of kiln 0,022 0,021 0,107
Thermal loading of burning zone 80,8 98,9 99,4
72
HEAT BALANCE
(Wet Process Kiln)
Heat input 1000 s %

1000 Heat output 1000 s %
1000
Btu/t Btu/t
10.01 Combustion of 4845,8 96,5 10.08 Theoretical heat required 1534,1 30,5
fuel
10.02 Sensible
fuel heat in 4,25 0,1 10.09 Exit gas losses 646,4 12,9
10.03 Organic matter in - - 10.10 Evaporation of moisture 1925,6 38,3
feed
10.04 Sensible heat in 97,86 1,9 10.11 Dust in exit gas 9,73 0,2
feed
10.05 Sensible heat in 65,17 1,3 10.12 Clinker discharge 48,68 1,0
cooler air
10.06 Sensible heat in 7,99 0,1 10.13 Cooler stack losses 163,29 3,3
primary air
10.07 0,0 0,1 10.14 Kiln shell losses 582,7 11,6
10.15 Losses due to calcination 35,03 0,7
of wasted dust
Unaccounted losses 76,4 1,5
Total 5022,1 100 Total 5022,1 100
Note: Unaccounted losses are calculated by difference

differe nce to make the two sides equa
equal.
l.
HEAT BALANCE
(Dry Process Kiln)
Heat input 1000 s %

1000
Btu/t Btu/t
fuel
10.02 Sensible heat in 3,63 0,1 10.09 Exit gas losses 1189,6 27,7
fuel
feed
10.04 Sensible heat in 68,43 1,6 10.
10.11
11 Dust in exit gas 11,14 0,3
feed
cooler air
primary air
10.07 0,94 10.14 Kiln shell losses 521,17 12,1
of wasted dust
Total 4294,8 100 Total 4294,8 100

equal.
l.
73

HEAT BALANCE
(Suspension Preheater Kiln)
Heat input 1000 s %

1000
Btu/t Btu/t
fuel
10.02 Sensible
fuel heat in 2,61 0,1 10.09 Exit gas losses 427,3 13,8
feed
10.04 Sensible heat in 52,11 1,7 10
10.11
.11 Dust in exit gas 1,11
feed
cooler air
primary air
10,07 0,51 10.14 Kiln shell losses 150,7 4,9
of wasted dust
Total 3105,9 100 Total 3105,9 100

equal.
l.
Chapter 13
COEFFICIENT, AND
COMPUTATION FOR NATURAL GAS FIRING
Compiled in this chapter, are the important parameters an engineer needs to complete
a kiln investigation as outlined in Chapters 8 through 11.
Here the engineer will find the graphs that show him at a glance the appropriate
specific heat and heat transfer coefficient to be used for his computations. The reader
is advised to make use of tthe he appropriate gr
graphs
aphs and formulas in acco
accordance
rdance with the
t he
particular system
syste m of units employed for his stud
study.
y.
The formulas shown in Chapter 8 through 9 apply to kilns fired with coal or fuel oil.
In this chapter, the appropriate formulas for gas firing which should be used in Chapter 8
and 9 are also shown.
74

Clinker (Base: 0 ºC)
13.01 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker
Temperature (ºC)
13.02 Mean Specific Heat of Raw Materials (Base: 0 ºC)

75

Temperature (ºC)
(Base: 0 ºC)
13.03 Mean Specific Heat of Exit Gas Components (Base:
Temperature (ºC)
13.04 Mean Specific Heat of Fuels (Base: 0 ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
76
13.05 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor (Base: 0 ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
13.06 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Heat Loss on Kiln Shell

Shell
Shell temperature ºC
77

13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing
Analysis of natural gas fuels are usually expressed in terms of percent by volume with
is the same as molar proportions. The formulas given below allow for combustion
calculations in terms of the unit production of clinker. Hence, the results obtained are
expressed in the same terms as the results computed in this study ffor
or liquid and solid fuels.
Data required:
Analysis of natural gas
Percent by volume
a1 = CO2, carbon dioxide =       .
b1 = N2, nitrogen =       .
c1 = CH4 methane =       .
d 1 = C2H6 ethane =       .
e1 = C3H8 propane =       .
f 1 = C4H10 butane (iso + N-butane) =       .
g1 = C5H12 pentane (iso + N-pentane) = .........................
.........................
Fuel rate
Wa = m3gas/kg of clinker =       .
Combustion air required (items 9.07 and 9.07 for natural gas firing)
9,55c1 Wa =   ..
16,70d 1 Wa =   ..
23,86e1 Wa =   ..
31,02f 1 Wa =   ..
38,19g1 Wa =   ..
Subtotal : =    ..
o = Total air required = (subtotal) { 1 + m/100} =     m3/kg clinker
Weight of combustion air entering kiln (items 8.08 and 9.08 for natural gas firing)
w1 = (WC1) 1,2976o =    ..kg/h
Products of combustion (items 8.11 and 9.11 for natural gas firing).
CO2 from fuel = Wa ( 1,97c1 + 3,94d 1 + 5,9e1 + 8,33f 1 + 9,64g1 + 1,97a1) =   
H2O from fuel = Wa ( 1,6c1 + 2,4d 1 + 3,14e1 + 4,04f 1 + 5,05g1) =   
N2 from fuel = Wa ( 9,55c1 + 16,7d 1 + 23,86e1 + 31,02f 1 + 38,19g1 + 1,25b1 =  .
Subtotal =   
Add excess air: m/100 (subtotal) =    .
w6 = total combustion product =   ..kg/kg clinker

78
Chapter 14
USEFUL FORMULAS IN
KILN DESIGN AND OPERATION
14.1 Cooling of Kiln Exit Gases by Water
Any moisture introduced into the gas stream is ultimately transferred into superheated
steam and, in doing so, absorbs heat and cools the exit gases. The equations can be solved
for any one of the unknowns if the other variables are known.
W2(0,248)(T1 T2) = W1(656,8 T3) + W1(0,48)(T2 100)

where
water addition rate W1 = kg/kg cl.
weight of exit gas (dry) W2 = kg/kg cl.
uncooled gas temperature T1 = ºC
cooled exit gas temperature T2 = ºC
water temperature T3 = ºC
14.02 Kiln Feed Residence Time
The approximate time taken by the feed to travel the length of the kiln can be
calculated by the following formulas:
11, 4 L
T =
NDS
where
T = travel time (min)
L = length of kiln (m)
N = kiln speed (RPM)
D = kiln diameter (m)
S = slope of kiln (m/m)
14.03 Kiln Slope Conversion
m/m Angular degrees

0,0208 1,1192
0,0260 1,492
0,0313 1,790
0,0365 2,088
0,0417 2,386
0,0469 2,684
0,0521 2,981
0,0573 3,279
0,0625 3,576
0,0677 3,873
0,0729 4,170
0,0781 4,467
Slope is often expressed also as a percent of the kiln length
79
( m / m slope
)L
Percent slope = n = 100
L
L = kiln length (m)
14.04 Kiln Sulfur Balance

If a kiln performance study has been completed in Chapter 8 and 9, the necessary data
below can be obtained from
fro m the data sheet given in these chapters.
c hapters.
AS = percent sulfur, S, in fuel (as fired)
WA = kg fuel per kg clinker (as fired)
CS = percent SO3 in kiln feed
WdF = kg dry feed per kg clinker
HS = percent SO3 in clinker
GS = percent SO3 in dust
K = kg dust per kg clinker
G = percent of collected dust that is returned to kiln (expressed as a decimal)
SULFUR, SO3 BALANCE
Input kg/kg cl. Output kg/kg cl.
Fuel : 0,02497 AS WA    Clinker : 0,01 HS   ..
Feed : 0,01 CS WdF .  ... Dust : (1 G) 0,01 GSK    .
Dust : 0,01 G CSK    Exit gas :    .
Total :   ... Total :    .
Note : Exit gas concentrations

co ncentrations are calculated by ddifference
ifference to make the two sides equa
equall
in the total.
14.05 The Standard Coal Factor, Combustion Air Requirements

To determine the approximate combustion air needed to burn a given unit weight
of coal, the formulas given below can be used when no ultimate coal analysis is available.
The combustion air requirements include here 5% excess air.
SCF = 100 - a B
100 7000
kg air/kg coal = 10,478 SCF
SCF = standard coal factor

a = percent moisture in coal (as fired)
B = heat value of coal (kcal/kg as fired
14.6 Cooler Performance
w = Ahd
r = w 60
WcCl
80
wc c (t 1 - t 2 )
q = f
c a (T 2 - T 1 )
q
q m =
r
wc c (t 1 - t 2 )
T 2 = + T 1
qc a
Q c - Q1
E = 100
Qc
Qc = cct1
where
A = cooler grate area m2
cc = mean specific heat of air
d = clinker density kg/m3
E = thermal efficiency of cooler
f = constant, 1,17
h = clinker bed depth m
q = cooling air required kg
q m = cooling air required kg/min
r = clinker residence time min
t1 = temperature clinker in ºC
t2 = temperature clinker out ºC
T1 = temperatur
temperaturee air in ºC
T2 = temperature air in ºC
Qc = heat content of clinker, cooler in kcal/kg
Ql = total heat losses in cooler kcal/kg
w = weight of clinker in cooler kg
WCl = kiln outp
output
ut kg/h
Note: The ccooler

ooler heat losses, Ql, can be obtained from the heat balance and radiation
c c l
losses are(clinker
all losses estimated at 0,07Q for
at discharge, gratestack
cooler coolers, 0,10Q for
and radiation planetary coolers. Q must include
losses).
14.07 Combustion Air Required for Natural Gas Firing
In the absence of a complete analysis of the gas, the air requirements can be estimated from
the following table. This table is based on natural gas with a heating value of 9345 kcal/m3
CO2 combustion product Air required kg per

O2 exit gas Percent excess air
percent by weight 1000 kcal
0,5 - 12,2 1,332
1,0 5,0 11,4 1,404
1,5 8,0 11,2 1,458
2,0 10,0 10,8 1,494
2,5 13,0 10,5 1,530
3,0 16,5 10,3 1,566
3,5 20,0 9,8 1,602
81
14.8 Products of Combustion on Natural Gas Firing
One standard cubic meter of natural gas, when burned, yields the following
combustion products:
CO2 = 2,0778 kg
H2O = 1,6340 kg
N2 = 11,1003 kg
O2 = 0,3669 kg
Total = 15,179 kg
14.9 Percent Loading of the Kiln
WclWdfT
Percent loading =
df60V
where
Wcl = kiln output kg/h
WdF = feed rate kg/kg cl.
T = residence time (see 6.02) min
d ff = bulk density of feed kg/ m3
V = internal kiln volume m3
14.10 Cross  Sectional

Sectional Loading of the Kiln
The formulas given here are applicable in the metric system of units.
Q = radians
r = rad
radius
ius inside lining
A1 = area occupied by feed
r 2
A = (Q - sin
sin Q)
2
A1
percent loading = 2
100
p r
82

14.11 Flame Propagation Speed
For coal fired kilns, the primary air velocity should be at least twice as high as the
flame propagation speed to prevent flash backs of the flame. Flame propagation is usually
considerably lower than the velocity needed to convey coal dust by means of primary air into
the kiln. Therefore, the minimum velocity necessary to convey coal without settling in ducts
takes precedence over flame propagation speed when setting air flow rates or designing new
burners (minimum
usually designed velocitya tip
to deliver needed in ducts
velocity of 45 to prevent
to 70 m/s. settling: 35 m/s). Coal burners are
Flame propagation (m/s)

Primary air
m3/kg coal 30 % VM 30 % VM 10 % VM
5 % ash 15 % ash 7 % ash
1 4,0 3,9 2,2
2 8,8 7,5 3,8
3 13,0 11,0 5,4
4 14,4 11,7 6,7
5 14,0 11,1 6,3
6 13,1 10,0 5,5
78 12,2
11,4 9,0
8,1 4,9
4,5
9 10,8 7,5 4,1
10 10,3 6,9 3,8
14.12 Kiln Drive Horsepower
a) Friction horsepower

a)
Wd h d t NF 0,0000092
hpf =
d r
b) Load horsepower

horsepo wer
hpml = 0,086832(D sinQ)3 NL
Total kiln drive horsepower
hpm,total = hpmf +
+ hpml
kW = 07355hpm,total
For sinQ, use the following approximate values:
Percent kiln loading: 5 10 15
sinQ : 0,59 0,73 0,82
W = total vvertical
ertical lload
oad on roller shaft (kg)
d b = diameter of roller shaft bearing
d t = diameter of tire (cm)
d rr = diameter of rolls (cm)
83
N = kiln speed (rpm)

F = constant, 0,018 for oil, 0,06 for grease lubricated bearing
l = Kiln length (m)
14.13 Theoretical Exit Gas Composition, by Volume
In In
calculated. chapter
many 9, Section
studies, it is9.13, the total
desirable weightthis
to express of composition
the exit gasincomponents were
terms of percent
by volume. The following steps
step s are taken to accomp
accomplish
lish this.
Step 1: Convert weights of each component in into
to kg moles as ffollows:
ollows:
weight of CO2 =   moles CO2

44,01
weight of N2 =   .moles N2

28,02
(0,23)(weight excess air) =   .moles O2

32,0
weight SO2 =   moles SO2

64,06
weight H2O =   moles H2O

18,02
Total: =   moles gas
Step 2: To obtain the percent by volume of any component, divide the moles
moles of the
component by the total moles of gas.
14.14 Conversion of Specific Heat Consumption

Consumption into Annualized
Annualized Costs
For U.S. currency:
4,38Qeadc
Dollars per year =
b
For any other currency denomination:
8760dCQmA
Monetary value/year =
B
a = fuel costs (dollars/ton)

bc =
= kiln
fuel output
heat value
(tph)(Btu/lb)
d = percent operating time (decimal)
A = cost per kg fuel
84
B = fuel heat value (kcal/kg)

C = kiln output (kg/h)
Qe = specific heat consumption (Btu/t)
Qm = specific heat consumption (kcal/kg cl
cl.)
.)
14.15 Theoretical Flame Temperature
(This formula applies only to oil or coal fired kilns)
Hv
T =
vs
where:
T = theoret
theoretical
ical flame temperature ºC
V = volume of combustion product (std. m3/kg fuel)
Hv = heating vvalue
alue of fuel (kcal/kg)
s = specific heat of combustion gas (use 0,38)
Note:  V can be ob
obtained
tained by dividing the res
result
ult of 8.11
8.11,, or 9.11 ii.e.,
.e., w6 by 1,3569WA when
metric units are using.
14.16 The True CO2 Content in the Exit Gases
The true CO2 content is the amount of carbon dioxide contained in the exit gases after
a correction has been made to account for the effects of excess and deficiency of air present.
100(CO 2 + CO )
 True CO2 =
100 + 1,89CO - 4,78O 2
14.17 Alkali Balance
Data needed:
Wf = feed rate (kg/kg cl.)

K f f = percent K 2O in feed (expressed as a decimal)
K c = percent K 2O in clinker (decimal)
x = percent of collected dust returned to kiln (decimal)
Nf = percent Na2O in feed (decimal)
Nc = percent Na2O in clinker (decimal)
Wd = total dust ccollected
ollected (kg/kg cl.)
K dd = percent K 2O in dust
We = fuel rate (kg/kg cl.)
K e = percent K 2O in fuel (decimal)
Nd = percent Na2O in dust (decimal)
Ne = percent Na2O in fuel (decimal)
85
ALKALI BALANCE
Input Output
Feed: Wf K =   ..
K f f = Clinker: K c =  .
Wf N
Nf ==   .. Nc = 
Fuel: We K e = ......... Dust: (1-x) Wd K
K dd =
= ...
We Ne =  .. (1-x) Wd N
Nd =.......
=.......
Dust: x Wd K
K dd = ... Exit gas: = 
x Wd Nd =......
Total: = .. Total: = ...
Exit gas concentrations are calculated by the difference to make the two sides equal.
14.18 Kiln Speed Conversions

3600
r = seconds per revolutions =
R
3600
R = revolutions per hour =
r
Peripheral speed
cm/s = 0,02778R pD = 100 p D

r
where
14.19 Power Audit on Kiln Equipment

Equipment
Equipment hp kW h/mo kWh/mo

Kiln drives
Cooler fans
Cooler exhaust fan
Cooler drives
Clinker crusher
Drag conveyors
Clinker elevators
Cooler dust collector
Coal mill
Coal conveyors and screws
Nose cooling fan
Shell cooling fans
I.D. fans
Precipitator
Feed handling
Dust handling (return)
Dust handling (waste)
Compressors
F.K. pumps
Others
Total
86

kWh/ton clinker:            
kW = 0,7457 hp
h/mo = Total hours per month unit in operat
operation
ion
kWh/mo = (h/mo)(kW)
kWh / mo
kWh/ton linker =
monthly clinker production
14.20 Coating and Ring Formation
The graph shown here can serve as a guideline to indicate it a given clinker
composition has the tendency to form heavy coating and rings or if coating formation would
be difficult.
di fficult. Clinkers tthat
hat fall outside
out side the shaded areas in the
their
ir relat
relationship
ionship bbetween
etween tthe
he ssilica
ilica
ratio and the lime saturation factor tend to be either difficult or easy coating in nature
depending on which side of the shaded area they are located. Clinker compositions that are
located within the shaded area of this graph are considered acceptable from a coating
formation viewpoint.
14.21 Relationship Silica Ratio vs. Saturation Factor
Silica ratio (S/R)
14.01 The exit gas temperature on a kiln is 285 ºC when a water spray rate of o f 0,19 kg
water/kg clinker is used. Exit gas rate, dry, is 2,31 kg gas/clinker and the water temperature is
35 ºC. What is the exit gas temperature of the uncooled gases?
(2,31)(0,248)(T 1 285) = (0,19)(656,8 35) + (0,19)(0,48)(28

(0,19)(0,48)(2855 100)
T1 285 = 236

T1 = 521 ºC (ans.)
87
14.02 A kiln has the ffollowing

ollowing characteristics:
length: 125m, diameter: 4,5m
4,5m,, kiln speed: 68 rph, slope: 0,0417 m/m.
What is the theoretical residence time of the feed in this kiln?
(11,4)(125)
T = = 112 min (ans)
(68))0,0417)
Chapter 15
CHAIN SYSTEMS IN WET PROCESS KILNS
Data:
n = attachment hole number (example: if chain

departs hole 1 and arrives in hole 13, then n = 13)  
p = total number ooff holes/ring  
t f1 = temperature feed chain inlet  ..oC
t f2 = temperature feed chain outlet  ..oC
t g1 = temperature gas, chain hot end  ..oC
t g2 = temperature gas, kiln exit  ..oC
x = dust loss (percent in terms of fresh feed, expressed
as a decimal   ..
z = percent moisture in feed leaving the chains (decimal)   ..
ax = thresho
threshold
ld output rate for forced firing of the kiln  .kg/h
A = cross-sectional area, inside   m2
Ach = total chain surface area   m2
Aw = wall surface area in chain section   m2
Q = specific heat consumption .. kcal/kg
k = percent excess air in kiln (expressed as a decimal)   ..
Note:
Dr 1 = tg1 tf2
Dr 2 = tg2 tf1
15.01 Chain Angle of Garland Hung Chains
There are three different methods commonly used to express the chain angle. To avoid
confusion, we propose new terms for each in order to make a distinction between them.
a) The central angle

a)
n -1
Q = 360
p
88
b) Exterior chain angle

b)
Definition: The exterior angle formed between the straight line (connecting the two
attachment holes of the chain) and the perpendicular to the kiln axis. This angle, is calculated
by using the result
resu lt of (a) and proceed
proceeding
ing in the following manner:
1. A = e sin 1/2Q

1.
2. B = (m 1) h
2.
A
3. tan f =
3.
B

4. exterior angle = f + 90
c) The chain length angle

c)
The chain length expressed in degrees of the kiln circumstance.
l 3
f = 360
p f
15.02 Evaporation Rate (Wet Kiln)
A distinction must be made here between the total moisture given to the kiln and the
evaporation done in the chain system.
a) Total evaporation in kiln

a)
abc
R T = (tons/h or kg/h)
1- c
b) Evaporation in chain system
b)
89
ab( c - z )
R S = (tons/h or kg/h)
1- c + z
c) Percent of evaporation done in chain system

c)
R s
Y = 100
R T
15.03 Total Heat Transfer Surface
The surface of the wall, S w = pfl1
Total heat transfer surface = ST = SW + j (ft 2 or m2)
15.04 Effective Heat Transfer Volume for Evaporation
f 2
VT = l 1p ( ft 3 or m 3 )
2
15.05 Chain Zone to Kiln Length Ratio
l 1
K = 100
g
15.06 Length of Chain System
a) For garland hung system

a)
l1 = h [(number of rows 1) + (m 1)]
b) For curtain hung systems

b)
l1 = h (number of rows)
15.07 Chain Density
j
H = 2
( ft 2 / ft 3 or m 2 / m 3 )
p (0,5f) l 1
15.08 Heat Transfer Required in Chain System
Q1 = [(100 tf1) + 0,48(tg2 100) + 539,1] R S (kcal/h)

Q2 = ab0,002o(tf2 - t f1)
Note o = 0,205 for wet kilns

o = 0,260 for dry kilns
Total heat transfer = QT = Q1 + Q2

90
15.09 Specific Chain System Performance Factors
a) Mass of chains per mass of water to be evaporated
d
F = (kg chains/h kg H2O)
R S
b) Mass of chains per daily mass of clinker production
41,67
d
W = (kg chain
chains/daily
s/daily metric ton cl.)
a
c) Specific evaporation per unit surface area

c)
R s
Es = (kg H2O/h m3)
ST
d) Specific evaporation per unit kiln volume
R s
Ev = (kg H2O/h m3)
VT
e) Specific heat transfer required per unit chain surface

e)
QT
QSp = (kcal/m2)
j
15.10 Chain System Design for Wet Process Kilns
A chain system design method is herein proposed that takes into account the amount
of thermal work expressed and the amount of heat made available in the system.
Step 1 Select the m

moistur
oisturee in the feed leaving the chains.
desired percent moisture

z = =  ..
100
GUIDELINES
Feed Percent moisture after chains
Poor nodulizing 6 10 percent
Medium nodulizing strength 3 7 percent
Good nodulizing strength 0 - 4 percent
Step 2 Select the appropriate output rate.
91

2186, 24
ax = =   .. short tons/h
893Q + 1100
This formula was developed by the author to show the theoretical threshold output rate
for  forced firing
firing of the kiln. Forced firing is defined as that output rate at which excessive
dust losses occur in the kiln as a result of the gas velocity exceeding 30 ft/s downstream of the
chain system. Please note that only English systems of units are employed in this and all
successive steps. For example, use only MBtu/short ton of clinker for  Q in th thee ab
above
formula.
Step 3 Select the desired kiln exit gas tem

temperature
perature
o
tg2 =   F
For optimum fuel efficiency, it is desirable to set this temperature as low as possible
without causing condensation in the precipitator. If the temperature, at which condensation
takes place, is known, the target should be set 50 oF higher. For example, when it is known
that condensation occurs at a kiln exit gas temperature of 350 oF the target for t g2 should be set
at 450oF.
Step 4 Quantity of heat entering the chain system.
This empirical formula was developed by the author to obtain an approximate value
for the heat entering the chain system.
Qin = [0,0002137Q(1 + k) + 0,000281] tg1a + 0,00094(R T R S) tg1 =  .MBtu/h
Find R T and R S in 15.02
Step 5 Quantity of heat leaving the chain system
This formula was developed by the author to give an approximate value for the heat
leaving the kiln at the feed end.
Qout = [0,0002137Q(1 + k) + 0,000281] tg2a + 0,00094R Ttg2 =   MBtu/h
Step 6 Heat supplied for thermal work in the chain system.
QD = Qin - Qout =   .MBtu/h
Step 7 Ratio: heat ssupplied

upplied to hheat
eat transfer ex
expected.
pected.
QD
x =
QT
Find QT in 15.08.
The value for  x must be close to uniunity,

ty, ii.e.,
.e., 0,90 1,10. Wh
Whenen thi
thiss vvalue
alue is
is outsi
outside
de
of this range, return to step 1 and adjust any of the variables such as z, a, c, e, t g2, or b to bring
this value in line with the above given range.
92
Any adjust
adjustment
ment in the variables causes the specific heat consumption of the kiln to
change. To select the appropriate value for Q, the following guidelines can be used:
For t g2: a 10o increase is

is equivalent to Q = +0,025.
o
a 10 decrease is equivalent to Q = -0,025.
For a: a one ton increase is equivalent to Q = -0,017.
a one ton decrease is equivalent to Q = +0,017.
For c: a decrease of 0,01 in c is equivalent to Q = -0,088.
For b: aa decrease
increase of
of 0,01
0,10 in
in cbisis equivalent
equivalent to
to Q
Q == +0,088.
-0,110
a increase of 0,10 in b is equivalent to Q = +0,110
For e: a decrease of 0,01 in c is equivalent to Q = -0,018.
a increase of 0,01 in c is equivalent to Q = +0,018.
(If several of these factors are changed, the sum total changes in Q applies.)
Step 8 Chain surface area required.

Formula based on the logarithmic mean temperature differential in the chain system.
QD 10 6
Ach = - AW =   ..ft2
Dt 1 - Dt 2
f
In Dt 1
Dt 2
Guidelines for the value of f.
If z = 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,10 0,11 0,12
f = 2,6 3,9 3,7 3,9 4,0 4,1 4,3 4,8 5,5 6,1 6,6 6,7 6,8
(Note: When dust is insufflated, adjust f upward by using a  z value 0,05 higher than
actual, i.e., if z = 0,01, use f = 4,3 instead of f = 2,9)
Step 9 Chain weight total.
Wch = Achn =   tons total
For ¾ in. proof coil chains: n = 0,003863

For ¾ x 3 circle chains : n = 0,003906
For 1 in. circle chains : n = 0,005310
Step 10 Chain Density.
Ach
Dch = =   ft2/ft3
A(length of chain system)
Guidelines:
Straight curtain hung : Dch = max. 3,0

Spiral curtain hung : Dch = max. 3,5
Garland hung : Dch = max. 2,0
93
15.11 Kiln Chain Data-Round Links
Type steel Link size Weight lb/ft Surface in2/ft Volume in3/ft
MS 1 x 3 5/8 11,25 155,0 38,75
MS 1x3 12,0 162,7 40,68
SS 7/8 x 3 8,85 137,0 29,97
MS ¾x3 6,28 116,6 21,86
SS ¾x3 6,04 116,6 21,86
MS ¾ x 2 3/4 6,20 114,8 21,53
MS 5/8 x 2 1/2 4,56 98,1 15,33
15.12 Kiln Chain Data-Proof Coil (Oval Links)
Type Link size Weight Surface Volume

steel f inner width inner length lb/ft in2/ft in3/ft
SS 19/32 x 1 11/32 x 3 8,12 143,76 21,34
MS 7/8 x 1 7/32 x 3 1/8 7,25 113,6 24,85
MS ¾ x (rib stile) 3 9,25 158,4 29,7
MS ¾ x2¾ 5,50 99,2 20,42
MS ¾ xx 22 1/8
11/16 ½ 5,95 110,9 20,79
MS 4,35 88,3 15,8
MS 5/8 x 2 ½ 4,60 100,8 15,75
MS 5/8 x 2 3/16 3,50 78,8 12,31
MS 5/8 x 1 7/8 4,10 91,6 14,32
` 15.13 Chain Shackle Data
2
Size f Weight lb/piece Surface in. /piece
¾ in. 2,2 41,5
7/8 in. 3,52 52,0
1 in. 4,8 68,5
15.13 Chain System Record Form
Plant: Kiln Kiln Dimensions; Date:
Section A B C D E F Total
Length of section
Type of Chain System
Number of Rows
Chains per Row
Type of Chain Links
Length per Chain
Weight per unit length of chain
Surface
TOTALarea per unit
CHAIN length chain
WEIGHT
TOTAL CHAIN SURFACE AREA
CHAIN DENSITY (ft2/ft3 or m2/m3)
94
Distance between rings  .# holes per ring  .Rathole height  .Distance feed end to chains ..
Kiln Operating Data Chain Data Chain System Factors
Kiln Output (tons per hour)   . Total Tons Chains  R T =  

Raw Feed Require (t/t of clinker)   Garland Hanging Pattern  . F =  
Slurry Moisture (expressed as decimal) .. From Ring  . To Ring  . W =  
Spec. Fuel Consumption   From Hole  . To Hole  . Es =  
Rate of Dust Loss (percent)   Central Angle  . Ev =  
Chain Inlet Gas Temperature   Exterior Angle  .
Feed End Temperature  
Material Moisture af
after
ter C
Chains
hains (percent) .... Date System Installed:  .
Chapter 16
KILN REFRACTORY
On the North American continent, rotary kiln blocks, arches, and wedges are the most
common refractory shapes used to line rotary kilns. In countries using the metric system
of units, VDZ and ISO shapes are used. The following data will familiarize the reader with
the dimensional differences between these shapes. It is important to note that dimension  a ,
i.e., the back cord, is the face of the refractory that is in contact with the kiln shell. All shapes
are installed so that the given dimension  l forms a parallel
parallel line to th
thee kiln axis. Dim
Dimensi
ension
on
 h indicates the llini
ining
ng thi
thickness.
ckness.
Rotary kiln
block (RKB) Arches Wedges
95

VDZ shapes ISO shapes
Dimensions given in millimeters

RKB Arches Wedges VDZ ISO p/3
a 229 229 305 102 89 76 102 89 76 var. 103
b v v v v v v v v v var. v
c v v v v v v v v v 72 102
l 102 102 102 229 229 229 152 152 152 198 198
h 152 229 229 152 152 152 229 229 229 var. var.
Note: VDZ and ISO shapes are usually manufactured

manu factured for 160, 180,
180 , 200, 225, and
250 mm thick linings (h).
16.2 Number of Bricks Required per Ring
Outside the United States, it is customary to use two different shapes of bricks with
different
shown backcords
that (a) to
this produces completefitaoffull
a superior thecircle of thetokiln
refractory circumfere
circumference.
the shell nce. Ex
particularlyExperience
perience
when has
the kiln
shell is slightly out of round.
a) for RKB, arches and wedges

a)
for basic lining for alumina bricks
12d p 12d p
n = n =
a + 0,059 a + 0,039
n = number of bricks per ring

a = back cord (in.)
d = kiln diameter (ft)

b) for VDZ shapes
b)
The attached tables, supplied by Refratechnic GmbH, show the number of bricks each
required when a given kiln diameter is encircled with two different sizes of bricks. All of the
u niform dimension  l of 19
brick shapes shown have a uniform 1988 mm
mm.
c) for ISO shapes (p/3)

c)
ISO shapes have a uniform back cord of 103 mm. With an expansion insert of 1 mm,
the cord length becomes 104 mm which is equivalent to p/3, explaining the reason
for identifying these shapes by this nomenclature. With p a constant in the brick back cord
and the circumference of the kiln shell, the calculation for the number of bricks required
per circle becomes simple:
n = 1000 D (0,0333) = 33,33 D

96
where D: internal kiln shell diameter (m)
Example: How many bricks are required in ISO shapes to complete a circle on a 4,8 m
diameter kiln?
Answer: (33,33)(4,8) = 160 pieces.
16.03 Number of Bricks Required per Unit Kiln

K iln Length
a) when dimension  l is expre

expressed
ssed in mi
millimeters
llimeters and kil
kilnn length in m
meters:
eters:
Brick RKB Arches Wedges VDZ ISO

N =
m 9,6n 4,3n 6,5n 5n 5n
97
P A R T III
GRINDING
98
Chapter 17
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF GRINDING MILL
Formulas
engineers task, allfor
the study of are
formulas the presented
grinding inmill
theand
formcircuit aresheets
of work given.that
Tocan
simplify
be usedthe
in
the course of the mill investigation. At the conclusion, a summary sheet is also given to
compile all the significant results of this study.
17.1 Technical Data of Grinding Circuit
Plant location:                  . Mill:     .      

Type of mill:                          ...     
Manufactured by:                 . Build:    ..      
Types of products ground:                     .      
                    .      
                          .
Type of grinding circuit:                            .
Separator
Type:                      Size:           ..
Motor:                                   .
Mill drive
Type:                                   .
Motor:                                  
1 compartment 2 compartment
Diameter
Length
Volume
size weight Size weight
BALL
CHARGE
Total
Date of investigation:        . Tested by:             

99
Chapter 18 and 19
GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION
Data needed
  
B pf =
specific surface Blaine, new
finishfeed
product    ..
C1 =
horizontal distance, liner to liner at ball charge surface,
1. compartment (m)    ..
C2 2. compartment (m)    ..
cos f = mill motor power factor    ..
D1 = internal diameter of mill. liner to liner (m)    ..
E = mill motor applied voltage ..   .
..
f p = percent passing, finish product (decimal)    ...
f rr = percent passing, rejects (decimal)    
f s = percent passing, separator feed (decimal)    
f a = percent passing, new feed (decimal)    
GHG = Hardgrove grind ability of material    ..
H1 = free vertical height, charge to liner
1. compartment (m)    ..
H2 2. compartment (m)    ..
I = mill motor, amperes    ..
L = internal length of mill (m)    ..
N = mill speed (rpm)    ..
P = mill horse power    ..
R = feed residence time in mill (min.)    ..
U1 = sieve size (microns) where 80% of the products passes the sieve  .
U3 = sieve size (microns) where 80% of the new feed passes the sieve  .
W1 = mill outp
output:
ut: (product) (metric t/h)    .
s = specific gravity of mill feed    .
t m = temperature of the feed, mill outlet    .
t c = temperature of the separator product    .
3
  
V = volume of the air passing trough the mill m /h .
CALCULATIONS
19.01 Mill Critical Speed Cs
42,306
Cs = 1/ 2
=    . rpm
D1
N
So = 100 =     percent
sc
100
H1
For 1 compartment: r 1 = =    
D1
H2
For 2 compartment: r 2 = =     .
D1
19.04 Internal Volume of Mill

2
æ D ö
vm = p ç 1 ÷ =     . m3
L
è 2 ø
19.05 Percent Loading of Mill
First, determine the central angle (q) for each compartment by using the formula:
C1,2,3
sin1/2Q =
D1
1 compartment q1 == ............

1 compartment q2 ............
Second, determine the cross-sectional area of the mill;
2
æ D
D ö
A = p ç 1 ÷ =    .. m2
è 2 ø
Third, determine area occupied by ball charge in each compartment:
C 1 (r - H 1)

1 compartment: A1 = 0,0087270Q1 r 2 - =    .
2
2 (r - H 2 )
C
2 compartment: A2 = 0,0087270Q 2 r 2 - =    ..
2
Finally, determine the percent loading:
A1
1 compartment: L1 = =    . percent
A
A2
2 compartment: L2 = =    . percent
A
Average: lx =    . percent
D1
Note: for the above calculations,
calcu lations,
2
101

v b = vmlx =    .. m3
(find vm in 19.04 and lx in 19.05).
19.07 Weight of the Ball Charge
In this chapter data on the mills ball charge is given. Since this data refers usually to
the initial load of the mill, the following formula can be used to calculate the weight of the
charge based on the bulk volume occupied
v b = 4565v b =    kg
(find v b in 19.06)
19.08 Steel of Feed in Mill
1000W 1 R
wf = =    kg
60
wb
r 2 = =    .
w f
(find w b in 19.07 and wf in

in 19.08
19.10 Bonds Laboratory Work Index
Definition: The work (kWh/t) required to reduce one metric ton of a material from
theoretical
Theinfinite size to to
result applies 80%wetpassing 100
grinding in microns.
closed circuit.
479,51
wi = 0 ,91
    kWh/t
G HG
or
17,64
wi = 0 ,82

G AC
For dry grinding in closed circuit, multiply wi by 1,3333. For open circuit grinding,
dry or wet, multiply wi by 1,2. When no Hardgrove grind ability ratings are available for a
given material to be ground, use the Work Index guide lines given in Chapter 20, Section
20.01.
102

To grind a material from any feed size to any product size, the power required for
grinding can be calculated from the equation given for Bond s Third Theory of Comminution.
10wl 10 wl
w = 1/ 2
- 1/ 2
1,1023 =    . kWh/t
U1 U 3
When the product 80% passing size is less than 70 microns, the result (w) above must
fact or  f .
be multiplied by the factor
U 1 + 10,3
f = =    .
1,145U1
thus, f w =    . kWh/t
19.12 Mill Power
The kilowatts expanded in grinding, with an A

AC
C 3 phase system iiss
cos F
1,732 EI
kW = =    
1000
19.13 True Specific Power Demand

Demand of Grinding
Grinding Mill
kW (hours operation)
kWh/tactual = =   ..
tons material ground
(find kW In 19.12 or by actual field tests).
kWh / t actual
we = 100 =    . percent
w
(find the numerator in 19.13 and the denominator in 19.11).
19.15 Specific Surface Grinding Efficiency
W 1 ( B p - BF )

se = =    .specific surface per kWh
kW
(find kW in 19.12)
103
L
r 3 = =    .
D1
vm
sv = =    . m3/hp
P
(find vm in 19.04).
For open circuit
W T ( f p - f r )

w3 = =    . tph
f s - f r
For closed circuit

æ c l ö
w3 = ç ÷ + 1W T =    tph
è ø
100
For all systems
- f r )
f p ( f s
se = 100 =    . percent
f s (f p - f r )

19.20 Circulating Load
For closed circuit, new feed and mill product to separator
- f a
f p
cl = 100 =    .. percent
f m - f r
Note that
é æ cl öù
ê f r ç 100 ÷ú + f p
f s = ë
è øû
cl
+1
100
For closed circuit, new feed and rejects to mill
104
If
f p ñ than f s
f p - f s
cl = 100 =   . percent
f s - f r
If
f p á than f s
- f r
f s
cl = 100 =   .. percent
f r - f s
For steel balls, the largest ball diameter required is:
1/ 2
é U w æ s ö1 / 2 ù
B = 20,8545ê 1 i ç 1 / 2 ÷ ú =    mm
ëê 200c s è
ç D1 ø÷ ûú
Another formula frequently used but not as accurate is
1/ 3
æ sw1 ö
æ U 1 ö
1/ 2
B = 20,85ç ÷ ç ÷ =     mm
ç 1/ 2 ÷
è K ø è c s D1 ø
where
K = 350 for wet grinding
= 300 ffor
or dry grinding
(find cs in 19.01, wi in 19.10)

105
RESULTS OF GRINDING MILL STUDY
19.01 cs Mill critical speed  ..  . rpm

19.02 so Percent of critical speed   percent
19.03 r 1, r 2, r 3 Ratio: free height/mill 1.    
2.    
3.    
19.04 vm     m3
19.05 lx   percent
19.06 v b     m3
19.07 w b     kg
19.08 wf     kg
19.09 r c      ..
19.10 wi      ..
19.11 w     kWh/t
19.12 kW     kW
19.13 kWh/t  kWh/t
19.14 we    percent
19.15 se  .cm2/cm3/kWh
19.16 r s      ..
19.17 sr    m3/hp
19.18 w3    tph
19.19 se   percent
19.20 cl   percent
19.21 B    . mm
19.09 What is the steel to clinker ratio of the following mill?

w b = weight of ball charge = 100,00 kg
w1 = mill outp
outputut = 42,5 tph
R = feed residence time = 12,5 min
Solution:
First calculate the weight of feed in the mill

1000( 42,5)(12,5)
wf = = 8854 kg
60
Thus the steel to linker ratio is
r 2 = 100,00
8854 = 11,3 (ans)
19.11 linker of 80 percent passing 3/8 in. has to be ground to a specific surface Blaine
of 3200 cm2/g. what is the power required (kWh/t) to do this grinding work?
106

Solution:
From the table given in 20.04, 3200 Blaine = 80% - 40,2m hence U1 = 40,2. From
the table given in 20.05, 3/8 in. = 9510 m hence U3 = 9510. From guidelines given
given
in 20.01, clinker, w1 = 13,49.
Thus the power required is (see 19.11)
w = 10(13,1/2
49) - 10(13,49 = 19,89 kWh/t
40,2 95101 / 2
produ ct 80% passing size is less than 70 m

Now, since the product
40,2 + 10,3
f = = 1,097
1,145(40,2)
Thus the power required is
1,097 x 19,89 = 21,82 kWh/t (ans)
19.20 What is the circulating load when a given mill shows the following fineness
19.20
passing the 325 sieve:
s ieve:
product, f p = 92 percent

separator feed, f s = 54 percent
reject, f rr = 32 percent
Since
f p i
iss bigger
bigger than f s,
= ç
æ 92 - 54 ö100 173 % (ans)
cs ÷
è 54 - 32 ø
19.21 What is the largest ball diameter required (mm) for a mill whose critical speed
19.21
is 21.15 rpm when clinker has to be ground to 80% passing 40 m sieve. The mill
diameter is 4.0 m and the specific gravity of clinker equals 3,15.
1/ 2
é 1/ 2 ù
20,300 ê ( 40)(14,87) æ 3 ,
ç 1 ÷15 ö ú
B 20,8545 = 8,76 mm (ans)
B ê 200( 21,15) çè 4 2 ø÷ ú
ë û
107
CHAPTER 20
USEFUL DATA FOR GRINDING MILL STUDY
20.01 Work Index for Various Materials
g kWh/t
Clinker 3,09 13,49 14,87
Kiln feed 2,67 19,57 11,65
Clay 2,23 7,10 7,83
Coal 1,63 11,37 12,53
Gypsum rock 2,69 8,16 8,99
Limestone 2,68 10,18 11,22
Shale 2,58 16,40 18,07
Silica sand 2,65 16,46 19,14
Sand stone 2,68 11,53 12,71
Slag 2,93 15,76 17,37
Blast furnace slag 2,39 12,16 13,40
20.02 Size Distribution for a New Ball Charge in Mill
mm 100 90 80 60 50 40
inches 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5
4,5 23
100 4 31 23
90 3,5 18 34 24
80 3 15 21 38 31
60 2,5 7 12 20,
20,55 39 34
50 2 3,8 6,5 11,5 19 43 40
40 1 ,5
1,5 1,7 2,5 4,5 8 17 45
45 51
30 1 0,5 1 1,5 3 6 15 49
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
20.03 Grind ability Factor
Mill output when other materials than clinker are ground in the same mill:
Rotary kiln clinker 1,00

Shaft kiln clinker 1,15-1,25
Blast furnace slag 0,55-1,10
Chalk 3,7
Clay 3,0-3,5
Marl 1,4
Limestone 1,2
Silica sand 0,6-0,7
Coal 0,8-1,6
108
20.04 Approximate 80 Percent Passing Size in Microns
The approximate value can be calculated from the specific surface Blain as follow:
log x = 8,50 2,15 log W
2
20,300 æ 20,300 ö
= log ç
log x = 2 log ÷
B
B è ø
2
æ 20,300 ö mm
=ç
A80 ÷
è B ø
Blaine 80 percent
2600 61,0
2800 52,6
3000 45,8
3100 42,9
3200 40,2
3300 37,8
3400 35,6
3500 33,6
3600 31,8
3700 30,1
3800 28,5
3900 27,1
4000 25,8
4100 24,5
4200 23,4
4400 21,3
4600 19,5
4800 17,9
5000 16,5
5500 13,6
6000 11,4
x = micron size, 80 percent passin

passingg
W = Wagner
B = Blaine
109
20.05 Screen Size

Size Conversion to Micron Size
Size
a) U. S standard sieves

a)
Screen Microns
400 37
 325 44
270 53
 230 63
200 74
 170 88
140 105
 120 125
100 149
 80 177
70 210
 60 250
50 297
 45 354
40 420
 35 500
30 595
 25 707
 18 1000
 10 2000
¼ in. 6350
5/16 8000
3/8 9510
7/16 11200
½ 12700
5/8 16000
¾ 19000
7/8 22600
1.0 25400
1 1/3 32000
1½ 38100
2.0 50800
110
IS.O International Standard Sieves
b) I.S.O Standard International Sieves

b)
Sieve Number Aperture (mm) Microns

22,6
16,0
11,2
8,0
3 1/2 5,66
5 4,00
7 2,83
10 2,00
14 1,41
18 1,00
25 707
35 500
45 354
60 250
80 177
120 125
170 88
230 63
325 44
20.06 Optimum SO3 Content in Cement
Quality required for 6-cube batch:
Grams
Cement mix 1
940 mix
930 2 mix
9203
Graded standard sand 470 470 470
Standard sand 470 470 470
Gypsum - 10 20
Calculation
a
G = 48 + d 0,24
a - b
where
G
a == optimum SO3 both rounds of mix 2 mix 1
average strength
b 3 mix 2
= average strength both rounds of mix 3
d = SO3 in test cem
cement
ent
111

20.07 Calculations Related to Gypsum
Percent gypsum = (4,778) (percent combined H2O)

Percent SO3 in gypsum = (0,4651) (percent gypsum)
Percent SO3 in anhydrite = percent SO3 - percent SO3 as gypsum
Percent anhydrite = (1,7003) (percent SO3 as anhydrite)
20.07 Percent Gypsum Required for Desired SO 3 in Cement

a - c
x = 100
b
where
x = percent gy
gypsum
psum to be addend to cli
clinker
nker
a = desired percent SO3 in cement
b = percent SO3 in gypsum
c = percent SO3 in clinker
20.08 Cement Fineness
sv = pS
where
sv = surface area (cm2/cm3)
S = spec ific surface (cm2/g)
specific
p = specific gravity
20.09 Heats of Hydration
C3S = 120 cal/g

C3A = 210 cal/g
C4AF = 100 cal/g
CaO = 279 cal/g
MgO = 203 cal/g
20.10 Spray Cooling with Water
This formula applies to the cooling of gases as well as the cooling of solids
ws (T 1- T 2 )
h =
(100 - t 2 ) + 538,9 f
where
h = water rate needed, (kg/h)
w = material or gas rate, (kg/h)
s = specific heat of gas or material
T1 = temperaturee uncooled, (oC)
initial gas or material temperatur
T2 = desired gas or material temperatur
temperaturee after cooling, (oC)
o
t 2 = water temperature, ( C)
f = percent water evaporated (decimal)
112
Chapter 21
GRINDING AIDS AND CEMENT FINENESS
21.01 Grinding Aid Solutions
C = A + DB
C
E +
A + B
rB
F =
C
60v
G =
1000
H = GEF
1000H
I =
M
I
K =
10
A = water addend (l)

B = grinding aid added (l)
C = weight of solution (kg)
D = density of grinding aid as received (kg/l)
E = density of solution (kg/l)
F = percent solids in solution (expressed as decimal)
M = mill outp
output
ut rate (kg/h)
G = solution addition (l/h)
H = solids addition (kg/h)
I = grams solids/kg cement
21.02 Fineness of Portland Cement by Turbidimeter (Wagner)
This formula is only applicable to cement with specific gravity of 3.13.
S = 38r(2,0 log I50) / 1,5 + 0,75 log I7,5 = log I10 + log I 15 + log I45 9,5 log I50
where
S = specific surface of sample (cm2g)
r = corrected weight percent of sample passing the No. 325 (45 m) sieve
113
I7,5 , I10,   I50 = micro ammeter reading, mA, corresponding to particle

diameters 7,5 , 10,   , 50m.
21.03 Table of Logarithms for

for Turbidimeter Micraammeter Readings
This table has been developed to simplify the physical testers task in calculating the
specific surface of the sample. The table should be copied and posted on or near the
turbidimeter.
LOGARITHMS OF MICROAMMETER READINGS
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
8,0 0,903 0,908 0,914 0,919 0,924 0,929 0,934 0,940 0,944 0,949
9,0 0,054 0,959 0,964 0,968 0,973 0,978 0,982 0,987 0,991 0,996
10,0 1,000 1,004 1,009 1,013 1,017 1,021 1,025 1,029 1,033 1,037
11,0 1,041 1,045 1,049 1,053 1,057 1,061 1,064 1,068 1,072 1,076
12,0 1,079 1,083 1,086 1,090 1,093 1,097 1,100 1,104 1,107 1,111
13,0 1,114 1,117 1,121 1,124 1,127 1,130 1,134 1,137 1,140 1,143
14,0 1,146 1,149 1,152 1,155 1,158 1,161 1,164 1,167 1,170 1,173
15,0 1,176 1,179 1,182 1,185 1,188 1,190 1,193 1,196 1,199 1,201
16,0 1,204 1,207 1,210 1,212 1,215 1,217 1,220 1,223 1,225 1,228
17,0 1,230 1,233 1,236 1,238 1,241 1,243 1,246 1,248 1,250 1,253
18,0 1,255 1,258 1,260 1,262 1,265 1,267 1,270 1,272 1,274 1,276
19,0 1,279 1,281 1,283 1,286 1,288 1,290 1,292 1,294 1,297 1,299
20,0 1,301 1,303 1,305 1,307 1,310 1,312 1,314 1,316 1,318 1,320
21,0 1,322 1,324 1,326 1,328 1,330 1,332 1,334 1,336 1,338 1,340
22,0 1,342 1,344 1,346 1,348 1,350 1,352 1,354 1,356 1,358 1,360
23,0 1,362 1,364 1,365 1,367 1,269 1,371 1,373 1,375 1,377 1,378
24,0 1,380 1,382 1,384 1,386 1,388 1,389 1,391 1,393 1,394 1,396
24,0 1,398 1,400 1,401 1,403 1,405 1,407 1,408 1,410 1,412 1,413
26,0 1,415 1,417 1,418 1,420 1,422 1,423 1,425 1,427 1,428 1,430
27,0 1,431 1,433 1,435 1,436 1,438 1,440 1,441 1,443 1,444 1,446
28,0 1,447 1,449 1,450 1,452 1,453 1,455 1,456 1,458 1,459 1,461
21.04 Particle Size Distribution
The turbidimeter test data can be used to calculate the particle size distribution
of a cement sample. For a detailed description of the calculations refer to the Appendix
of the specification ASTM 115, Part 9. The w work
ork sh
sheet
eet below can bbee used iinn the
computation of this particle size distribution.
Percent by weight
fraction cummulative
Log I45 - Log I50 =  .. x 47,5 =   .      
Log I40 - Log I45 =  .. x 42,5 =   .      
Log I35 - Log I40 =  .. x 37,5 =   .      
Log I30 - Log I35 = .. x 32,5 =   .      
Log I25 - Log I30 =  .. x 27,5 =   .      
Log I20 - Log I25 =  .. x 22,5 =   .      
Log I15 - Log I20 =  .. x 17,5 =   .      
Log I10 - Log I15 =  .. x 12,5 =   .
Log I7,5 - Log I10 =  .. x 8,8 =   .      
2,00 log7,5  ...x 3,8      
114

total xt =    .
r
F = =   
total x
Fractional percent = Fx 1,2,3   
Note; r = percent passing the 325 mesh sieve (45m)
21.03 Determine the specific surface and the particle size distribution of the
cement sample given below. The microammeter readings from the turbidimeter are
shown in the first column under  I .
Cement sample No:   

Specific gravity: 3,15
Percent passing 325 sieve: 90,5
Surface determination Particle size distribut

distribution
ion
Particle size I Log I Log I Log I x percent cummulative
50 11,0 1,041 0,016(47,5) 0,760 7,4 90,5
45 11,4 1,057 0,015(42,5) 0,638 6,2 83,1
40 11,8 1,072 0,011(37,5) 0,413 4,0 76,9
35 12,1 1,083 0,034(32,5) 1,105 10,8 72,9
30 13,1 1,117 0,053(27,5) 1,458 14,2 62,1
25 14,8 1,170 0,023(22,5) 0,518 5,1 47,9
20 15,6 1,193 0,043(17,5) 0,753 7,3 42,8
15 17,2 1,236 0,063(12,5) 0,788 7,7 35,5
10 19,9 1,299 0,035(8,8) 0,308 3,0 27,8
7,5 21,6 1,334 0,666(3,8) 2,531 24,7 24,8
0,75(logI 7,5) Total xt 9,272
Subtotal: 90,5
1,001 F = = 9,76
9,272
1,500
11,728 9,5LogI50 =
-9,890
1,838
38(90,5 )(2,0 - 1,041
S =
1,838
S = 1794 = 1790 cm2/g
115
PART IV
ENGINEERING FORMULAS
116
Chapter 22
STEAM ENGINEERING
22.01 Latent Heat of Vaporization
This is the heat required to change 1 kg of boiling water to steam.
Boiling temperature Latent heat of vaporization

0 597,7
10 592,0
20 586,4
30 580,7
40 574,7
50 569,2
60 563,4
70 557,5
80 551,5
90 545,3
100 539,1
- -
150 504,8
200 463,1
250 409,4
300 330,1
22.02 Saturated Steam Pressure

(Rankine s formula)
(Rankine
2730 393,670
log p = 6,1007 - +
T TxT
where:
p = absolute pressure ((psi
psi + 14,7)
T = absolute temperature (F + 460)
Example: What is the absolute pressure of saturated steam at 245 oF?
2730 393,670
log p = 6,1007 - + = 1,4363
705 705 x 705
p = 27,31 psi (absolute) (a
(ans.)
ns.)
117
22.03 Enthalpy
This is the heat required to change the state of water or ice.
a) Enthalpy of liquid

a)
to change 1 kg water from 0 oC to boil = 100 kcal.
b) Enthalpy of vaporization (at atmospheric pressure)

b)
to change 1 kg of water ffrom
rom boil to steam = 539,1 kcal
c) Enthalpy of fusion
c)
to change 1 kg of ice to water Btu s
= 80 Btu
22.03 Superheated Steam
Saturated steam shows the same temperature as the water during evaporation.
Superheated steam is defined as the condition where all the water has evaporated and the
steam temperature has been raised.
Tw
v = 0,591 - 0,135w
p
1/4
Q = 0,48[T 10,27(P) ] + 857,2
where
v = volume of steam (ft3)
T = absolute temperature (oF + 460)
p = absolute pressure ((psi
psi + 14,7)
w = weight of steam (lb)
P = pressure of steam (lb/ fftt3)
Btu s required
Q = Btu
Example: a) What volume does 1 llbb of steam occupy at 14,6 psiabs. and 480oF?
(940)(1)
v = 0,591 - (0,135)(1) = 37,91 ft3 (ans.)
14,6
c) What Mount of heat is required to produce 1 lb of steam At 450 oF and 2100 lb/ft 3
c)
pressure?
Q = 0,48[ 910 10,27 (2100)1/4] + 857,2 = 1260,6 Btu

Btu s (ans.)
118
22.04 Properties of Steam
Temperature p vg hg

(oC) (atm.) (m3/kg (kcal)
0 0,00602 206,39 597,7
4 0,00828 152,57 599,6
10 0,01212 106,33 602,1
16 0,01744 75,33 604,4
21 0,0247 54,18 606,8
27 0,0345 39,52 609,2
32 0,0475 29,22 611,6
38 0,0646 21,87 614,0
49 0,1152 12,69 618,7
60 0,1966 7,68 623,3
71 0,3226 4,83 627,9
82 0,5110 3,14 632,3
93 0,7843 2,10 636,6
100 1,000 1,67 639,1
116 1,699 1,02 644,7
127 2,4108 0,73 648,5
138 3,348 0,54 652,1
149 4,560 0,404 655,4
160 6,10 0,307 658,4
171 8,03 0,237 661,2
182 10,41 0,185 663,6
193 13,32 0,146 665,6
203 16,83 0,116 667,2
232 28,76 0,169 669,2
119
Chapter 23
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
23.01 The Basic Formulas
2
P = E = I2R = EI
R
E 2 P E

R = = =
P I2 I
P
E = (PR)1/2 = = IR
I
P P 1 / 2 E

I = = 1/2
=
E R R
IE == current (amps) force (volts)

electromotive
R = resistance (ohms)
P = power (watts)
23.02 Direct Current Circuits
a) Series circuits (DC)

a)
R 1 = R 1 + R 2 +  + R n
E1 = It R 1
E2 = It R 2
Et = E1 + E2 +  + En
P1 = It2R 1
P2 = It2R 2
Pt = It + Et
= P1 + P2 +  + Pn
R t = total resistance

Et = total EM force
Pt = total power
b) Parallel Circuits (DC)
120
E t E t
I 1 = and I2 =
R 1 R 2
It = I1 + I2 +   .+In
R1 R2 .... Rn
R t =
R 1 + R2 + ..... + Rn
It = total current
23.03 Alternating Current (AC)
Characteristic values in a cycle
Em = maximum voltage E = effective voltage

= 1,414 E = 0,707 Em
= 1,572 Ea = 1,11 Ea
= 0,5 E peak-peak = 0,35 E peak-peak
Ea = average voltage E peak-peak = peak to peak voltage
= 0,636 Em = 2,0 Em
= 0,9 E = 2,828 E
= 0,318 E peak-peak = 3,14 Ea
Notes; When converting AC to DC voltage, tthe he average voltage, E a, is used in the

calculation. The characteristic curve for current is the same as for voltage. i.e., replace the
above signs E with I to obtain the values for current. For AC circuit calculations, effective
voltage and effective current are used. Most AC measuring instruments show effective
voltages and currents.
b) Frequency of an AC cycle (hertz, cps)

b)
Cycle frequencies are expressed in terms of cycles per second (cps) and hertz both of
which have the same meaning. In other words, if an AC has 60 hz or 60 cps, one complete
cycle takes 1/60 of a second.
c) Inductance
c)
Unit: henry
xL = 2pfL
where
xL = inductive reactance (ohms)
f = frequency (hz)
L = inductance (henry)
121

d) Capacitance
d)
Unit: farad
Q
C =
E
KA
C1 = 0,2248 (1,0 x 10 6 )d
where
C = capacitance (microfarads)
K = dielectric constant
(in.2)
A = effective area of plates (in.
d = thickness of dielectric (in.)
C1 = capacitance (farads)
Q = charge (coulombs)
E = electromotive force (volts)
e) Generator
e)
Vt = E internal RI
1
W1 = V t I
efficiency
f) Motor
f)
Vt = E + internal RI
W = (efficiency) VtI
g) Impedance
g)
Definition: The total opposition to an alternating current including resistance and

reactance.
E
Z =
I
For an  RL (resistan
(resistance-reactan
ce-reactance
ce ca
capacitance
pacitance circui
circuit):
t):
Z = R 2 + xL2
For an  RC (resis
(resistance-reactan
tance-reactance
ce cap
capacitance
acitance circuit):
Z = R 2 + xC2
h) Capacitive reactance

h)
1
xc =
2p fC1
122

C1 = capacitance (farads)
E = electromotive force (volts)
f = frequency (hz)
I = current (amps)
R = resistance (ohms)
xL = inductive reactance (ohms)
xc = capacitive reactance (ohms)
Vt = terminal voltage
W = mechanical power output
Wl = mechanical power consumption
Z = impedance (ohms)
23.04 Useful Electrical Formulas
a) Direct current

a)
b)
b)
hp746
A =
V(eff)
kW = VA
1000
1000kW
A =
V
VA(eff )
hp =
746
c) A-C current-single phase

c)
hp746
A = V(eff)PF
( kV -
- a )1000
A =
V
AV
kV a =
1000
kW 1000
A =
(V)PF
AVPF
kW = 1000
123
AV ( eff
) PF
hp =
746
d) A-C current-two phase-four wire

d)
746hp
A =
2V(eff)PF
kW 1000
A =
2VPF
( kV -
- a )1000
A =
2V
VA2 PF
kW =
1000
VA2(eff
) PF
hp =
746
a = 2
VA
kV
1000
e) A-C current-three phase

e)
746hp
A =
1,73V(eff)PF
1000(kV -
- a )
A =
1,73V
1,73
VA
kV a =
1000
kW 1000
A =
1,73VPF
1,73
VAPF
kw =
1000
VA(eff ) 1,73 PF
hp =
746
Note: PF = Power factor

124
a) In an AC circuit, the maximum current, I m, is given as 95 A. What is the effective

a)
amperage on this unit?
Solution: from 23.02 (a),

I = 0707 Im
hence
I = (0,707)(9
(0,707)(95)
5) = 67,2 A (ans.)
b) An AC-three phase motor reads a current of 75 A, an effective voltage of 350 and a
b)
power factor of 0,93. What is the power usage of this motor
motor??
Solution: from 23.03 (d)
(350)(75)(1,73)
kW = = 42,2 kW (ans.)
1000
c) What is the power usage on a DC-motor that shows 350 V and 75 A?
c)
Solution: from 23.03 (a)

(350)(75)
kW = = 26,3 kW (ans.)
1000
d) The terminal voltage on an AC motor is 220 V, the current is 1,33 A and the
d)
mechanical power output is stated as 175 W. What is the efficiency of his motor?
Solution: from 23.03 (f)
175
efficiency = = 0,598 = 0,60 (ans.)
(220)(1,33)
125
Chapter 24
FAN ENGINEERING
24.01 Fan Laws
Q1 n1 Q2 n2
= n2 = n1 Q2 = Q1
Q2 n2 Q1 n1
1 2 1
æ p ö æ Q2 ö æ p 2 ö
çç Q ÷÷
Q1 2
p 2 = p 2
= çç 1 ÷÷ 1 Q2 1 çç p ÷÷
= Q
Q2 è p 2 ø è 1 ø è 1 ø
1 3 1
æ p1 ö æ Q ö æ h2 ö
Q1 3
h2 = h1 ç 2 ÷ 3
Q2 = èçè p 2 ø÷ ç Q1 ø÷

è Q2 = Q1 è èç h1 ø÷
1 1 2
æ p ö æ p ö æ n2 ö
n2
= çç 2 ÷÷
2
n2 = n1 çç 2 ÷÷
2
p 2 = p1 çç ÷÷
n1 è p1 ø è p1 ø è n1 ø
1 1 3
æ h ö æ h ö æ n ö
n2
= çç 2 ÷÷
3
n2 = n1 çç 2 ÷÷
3
h2 = h1 çç 2 ÷÷
n1 è h1 ø è h1 ø è n1 ø
When n and Q are constant:
h2 t 1 t 1
= h = h
t 2 2 1 t 2
h1
p 2 t 1 t 1
= p 2 = p1
p1 t 2 t 2
h2 d 2 d 2
= h2 = h1
h1 d 1 d 1
p 2 d 2 d 2
= p 2 = p1
p1 d 1 d 1
Q = flow rate
p = fan static pressure
hn =
= fan
fan speed
horsepower
t = absolute temp. (F + 460)
d air density
126

24.02 Total Efficiency of a Fan
0,000157
Q ( Ptotal )
eff total
total =
h
(Note: Ptotal = pstatic + pvelocity)
24.03 Static Efficiency of a Fan
0,000157
Q( Pstatic )
eff static
static =
h
24.04 Air Horsepower
144Q( p 2 - p1)
air hp =
33,00
24.05 Shaft Horsepower
airhorsepo wer
shaft hp =
efficiency
24.06 Similar Fans
For fans operating at the same speed and handling the same gas:
2
Q1 æ D ö
= çç 1 ÷÷
Q2 è D2 ø
2
h1 æ D ö
= çç 1 ÷÷
h2 è D2 ø
24.07 Fan Static Pressure
Pstatic = p2 + p1
For all problems, given a fan with the following operating characteristics: flow rate
14,500, horsepower 25, fan speed 940, static pressure 12,0, density of air 0,071.
a) What flow rate is obtained when the horsepower on this fan is increased to 40 hp?
a)
1/3
Q2 = 14,500(40/25) = 16,959 = 17,000 (ans.)
127

b) What fan speed is needed with the same motor to obtain a flow rate of 16,000?
b)
n2 = 940 (16,000/14,500) = 1037 = 1040 (ans.)
c) What is the fan static pressure when the fan speed is being increased to 1050?
c)
p2 = 12,0(1050/940)2 = 14,97 15,0 (ans.)
d) What percent less fan horsepower is needed to obtain the same flow rate when the
d)
density of the air is 0,063?
h2 = 25(0,063/0,071) = 22,18
and
[(1,0 (22,18/25,0)] 100 = 11,3 percent (ans.)
Chapter 25
FLUID FLOW
25.01 Viscosity
This is defined as the readiness at which a fluid flows when acted upon by an external
force.
Units:
m = centipoise = 0,01 poise
poise = g/cm/s
25.02 Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is expressed in centistokes units
vk =
p
vk =
s
where
p = g/cm3
s = specific gravity
m = centipoise
25.03 Specific Weight
This is often also referred to as the weight density and it represents the weight of a
fluid per unit volume.
128

25.04 Specific Volume
This is the reciprocal of the specific weight.
1
vs =
g/cm 3
where vs = specific volume (cm3/g)
25.05 Specific Gravity
p1
s =
p w
where
p1 = specific weight of liquid at stated temperature
pw = specific weight of water at sstandard
tandard temperature
141,5
s = o

131,5- API
140
s =
130- o Baume
(when the liquid is lighter than water)

145
s =
145- o Baume
(when the liquid is heavier than water).
25.06 Mean Fluid Velocity
V = r
A
R
V=
Ap
RV s
V =
A
r
V = 12732,4
d 2
Q
V = 0,2122
d 2
V = mean velocity m/s
r = flow rate m3/s
129
A = area of pipe m2

R = flow rate kg/s
p = specific weight kg/m3
Ve = specific volume m3/kg
d = diameter of pipe cm
Q = quantity liter/min
25.07 Barometric Pressure
This is the atmospheric pressure above zero absolute. Barometric pressure is always
positive.
25.08 Atmospheric Pressure
Standard conditions (0o at sea level)
atmospheric pressure = 760 mm Hg

atmospheric pressure = 101,22 kPa
Note: the kPa (kilopascal) is the official unit accept

accepted
ed in the International System of
of
units to express pressure.
25.09 Gauge Pressure
This is the pressure above atmospheric pressure. When stating gauge pressure of a gas
the plus or minus sign must also be shown to indicate pressure or vacuum.
25.10 Hydraulic Radius
cross - sec tional

area
hydraulic radius =
wetted peri
perimeter
meter
25.11 Pressure Loss In Any Pipe
These formulas apply to any liquid.

fLv 2
h1 =
D 2 g
pLv 2
DP =
144 D 2 g
where
h1 = loss of sstatic
tatic head due to friction and flow (ft)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe (ft)
v = mean velocity (ft/s)
D = diameter of pipe (internal diameter ft)
g = grav
gravity
ity constant = 332,2
2,2
p = specific weight (lb/ft 3)
DP = pressure drop (psi)
130

25.12 Friction Factor
64
f =
Rc
64 m c
f =
Dvp
64
f =
124dvp
f = friction factor
R c = Reynolds number
mc = viscosity (lb/ft/s)
m = absolute viscosity (centipoise)
D = diameter of pipe, internal diameter (ft)
v = mean velocity
p = density of fluid (lb/ft 3)
25.13 Poiseuilles Law for Laminar Flow
Lv
DP = 0,000668
d 2
d = diameter of pipe (in.)

L = length of pipe (ft)
25.14 Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number expresses the nature of the flow. When R e l
lower
ower than 2100 =
laminar flow; when R e higher than 4000 = turbulent flow.
pvD
R e = '

g m e
Q
R e = 3160
v k d
m e = absolute viscosity (slug/ft/s)

vk = kinematic viscosity (cent
(centistokes)
istokes)
25.15 Critical Velocity
In fluid flow, the critical velocity is found at a Reynold s numbers of 2000-4000, i.e.,
when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
131
25.16 Total Head
144 p V 2
H = z + + = z + h + hv
p, 2 g
25.17 Pressure Head
144 p
h =
p,
25.18 Velocity Head (Loss of Static Head)
V 2
hv =
2 g
25.19 Resistance Coefficient
Resistance to flow due to valves, elbows, etc.

L
k = f D
hl hl 2 g

k = =
V 2 V 2
2g
where
H = total head (ft)
z = potential head ab above
ove reference level, i,e., difference iinn elevat
elevation
ion (ft)
p = pressure (psi gauge)
p, = fluid dencity (lb/ft3)
V = mean velocity (ft/min)
g = grav
gravity
ity constant (32,2)
hhv == pressurehead
velocity head(ft)
(ft)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
hl = head loss (see 25.21)
k = resistance coefficient
25.20 Bernoullis Theorem
2 2
V V
z1 + h1 + 1 = zz + h2 + 2 + ht
2g 2g
25.21 Heat Loss

144DP
hl
p,
132
25.22 Flow Coefficient of Valves
29,9d 2
Cv = 1

k 2
25.23 Flow Through a Valve
Condition: viscosity similar to water.

1
é æ 62,4 öù 2
Q = Cv êD P çç ÷÷ú
ë p
è øû,
25.24 Pressure Drop Through Valves
2
æ Q ö
p,
DP = ç ÷
62,4 çè C v ø÷
z = elevation head
h = pressure head
hl = pressure loss
V = mean velocity
Cv = flow coefficient for vvalves
alves
d = diameter, (in.)
k = resistance coefficient of valve
Q = quantity (gal/min)
p, = density (lb/ft3)
25.25 Flow Through Pipe
Q1 = Av
Note: Q can also be expressed in ft3/min but v must then be expressed in ft/min.
Q1 = quantity (ft 3/s)

A = area (ft2)
v = mean velocity (ft/s)
25.26 Velocity vs. Cross-Sectional Area
v1 A2
=
v 2 A1
133
25.27 Potential Energy for Fluids
Ee = W z
E p = W h
W 'v 2
Ev =
2g
25.28 Total Energy of a Liquid
Et = Ee + E p + Ev
Et = total energy

Ee = energy due to elevation (ft- lb
lb))
E p = energy due to pressure
Ev = kinetic energy (ft-lb)
W = weiweight
ght of mass (lb
(lb))
25.29 Power of a Liquid
Rate at which a liquid can do work.
Pe = Wz
P p = Wh
WV 2
Pv =
2g
Pt = Pe + P p + Pv

Pt
hp =
550
P pe =
P = pressure
elevationpower
power (ft-lb/s)
Pv = velocity power
Pt = total power
W = weight of li liquid
quid per unit time (lb/s)
25.30 Flow Trough Nozzles and Orifice
Q = CA(2ghl)1/2
Q = CA[(2g144DP)/p]1/2
134
25.31 Flow Coefficient
C d
C = 1

é æ d o ö 4 ù 2
ê1 - çç ÷÷ ú
êë è d 1 ø úû
Q = rate of flow (ft 3/s)

C = flow coefficient
A = area of orifice (ft2)
hl = loss of head due to flow (ft)
p = density (lb/ft3)
Cd = discharge coefficient
d o = diameter of orifice
d 1 = diameter of pipe upstrea
upstream
m
25.32 Flow Through Pipes
Q = 19,65d 2 ç æ hl ö 2
÷
è k ø
25.33 Flow Through Rectangular Weir
q = 0,415 (L 0,2ho) ho1,5(2g)1/2

If ho ñ than L,
q = 0,386 Lho1,5(2g)1/2
k = resistance coefficient
d = diameter of pipe, iinternal
nternal diameter (ft)
3
q = flow rate (ft /s)
L = length of crest
ho = weir head
g = constant (32,2)
25.34 Flow Through Triangular Weir
1
2 ,5 2
0,31h o ( 2 g )
q =
tan f
135
25.35 Gas Flow Measurements
a) Location of sampling ports

a)
For accurate measurements, the sample ports should be located from one half to two
duct diameters upstream and two to eight duct diameters downstream from disturbances such
as bends, reductions, and others.
b) To obtain accurate results, a minimum of 12 traverse points are required as the
b)
duct cross section as shown in the following sketch:
c) Traverse points for circular stacks

c)
To cover equal areas in a circular stack or duct and thus obtain an accurate traverse,
the following table can be used to locate individual points in the traverse.
Traverse Total traverse points per diameter

point 6 8 10 12 14
1 ,044 ,033 ,025 ,021 ,018
2 ,147 ,105 ,082 ,067 ,057
3 ,295 ,194 ,146 ,118 ,099
4 ,705 ,323 ,226 ,177 ,146
5 ,853 ,677 ,342 ,250 ,201
6 ,956 ,806 ,658 ,355 ,269
7 ,895 ,774 ,645 ,366
8 ,967 ,854 ,750 ,634
9 ,918 ,823 ,731
10 ,975 ,882 ,799
11 ,933 ,854
12 ,979 ,901
13 ,943
14 982
Numbers indicated are

a re fractional distances ooff the diameter.
Example: When a 12-point traverse has to be make on a stack having an inside wall
diameter of 72 inches, where must the fourth traverse point be located?
Solution: (0,177)(72) = 12,7 in. from the iinside
nside wall (ans.)
136

25.36 Pitot Tube Measurements
D p
V = 1096,7( )1 / 2
d
where
BAR
d = 1,325
t + 460
Q = AV
Note: When the pressure of

o f the gas is 29,92 in. Hg and the densit
densityy equal to air
then:
V = 174[D p(t + 460)] 1/2
V = velocity (fpm)
D p = differential pressure ((in.
in. H2O)
3
d = gas density (lb/ft )
BAR = absolute pressure inside duct ( in. Hg)
t = gas temperature (oF)
Q = flow rate (cfm)
A = duct cross section (ft2)
25.37 S-Tube Measurements
The S-Tube operates on the same principle as the pitot tube but is primarily used to
measure gases that contain dust particles which would have the tendency to plug a pitot tube.
To use the S-tube, the tube factor (c s) has to be known or be determined by calibration.
Normally, cs = 0,85 0,90. The velocity is calculat
calculated ollowing formula where  D p
ed by the ffollowing p
and  J have the same meaning as in the preceding formula.
1/2
V = cs 1096,7(D p/d)
25.38 One-Point Traverse
In cases where only approximate flow rate determinations are required, a one-point
reading of the differential pressure can be made in the center of a circular duct. However, the
calculated velocity (V) has to be multiplied by a factor of 0,91 to obtain the approximate
average velocity in the duct.
25.39 Conversion of Flow Rates
273 mmGg
Nm3 = m3(act) ( )( )
T + 273 760
T + 273 760
m3(act) = Nm3 ( )( )
273 mmHg
137
where
Nm3 = volume at standard condition (0oC, sea level)
T = temperature of gas (oC)
25.40 Flow Determination with Orifice Plate
In small diameter pipes, an orifice plate is usually more convenient employed than a
pitot tube to measure flow rates.
Rules to follow
d
D ñ than 0,7
m á than 0,02 D
x1 = 2,5 D
x2 = 8,0 D
For air only, the velocity is calculated by the formula
V = 174 co[D p(t + 460)] 1/2
For gases other than air, use the formula given in 25.30. The flow coefficient (c o) can
be found in the following table.
t able.
Values for co
A2/A1 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7

3 in. pipe ,619 ,631 ,653 ,684 ,728 ,788 ,880
6 in. pipe ,616 ,627 ,648 ,677 ,719 ,777 ,869
12 in. pipe ,610 ,620 ,637 ,663 ,700 ,756 ,848
V = velocity (fpm)
p = differential pressure ((in.
in. H2O)
o
t = temperature of air ( F)
A1 = area of pipe (ft 2)
A2 = area of orifice (ft 2)
138
25.41 Ventury Meters
(Note: d = 0,5 0,33 D)
For only
V = 174 cv [ D p(t + 460)]1/2
where
1
é ù
2
ê ú
ê 1 ú
cv = 0,98 ê 2 ú

æ ö
ê1 - ç A2 ÷ ú
êë çè A1 ø÷ úû
pV == differential
velocity (fpm)
pressure ((in.
in. H2O)
o
t = temperature ( F)
A1 = area of pipe at  D ( ft2)
A2 = area of throat (ft2)
Chapter 26
HEAT TRANSFER
Symbols used:
A = cross-sectional area m2
low m2
A1 = area at right angle to direction of heat fflow
ac = surface area in contact with the gas
c = specific heat kcal/kgoC
cg = specific heat of gas kcal/kgoC
cs = specific heat of solid kcal/kgoC
d = distance m
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
dQ
= quantity of hheat
eat transferred per unit time
d q
dt
= rate of tem
temperature
perature change with distance In the direction the heat flow
dx
d = heat transfer coefficient
I = intensity of radiation (cal/s cm2
k = coefficient of thermal conduct
conductivity
ivity
139
k 1 = natural convect

convection
ion coefficient
Q = quantity of heat (kcal)
Qq = quantity of heat transferred in unit time
Q1 = quantity of heat received
Qr = = quantity of heat radiated
t 1 = initial temperatur
temperaturee (C)
t 2 = final temperature (C)
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
Dr 1 = least temperature difference
Dr 2 = largest temperature difference
t g = temperature of the gas
t s = temperature of the solid
w = weight of body
wg = weight of gas
ws = weight of solid
x = emissivity factor
Xa = area factor
y = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 0,174 x 10-8
m = absolute viscosity (lb/ft h)
o = constant = 1,36 x 10-12
Q = time
26.01 Heat Required for a Temperature Change
Q = cw(t 2 t1)
26.02 Conduction
This is defined as the transfer of heat within a substance or from one substance to
another while they are in contact with each other.
kA
Q = (t2 t1)
d
Fourier s law
dQ dt
= -kA1
d q dx
26.03 Convection
This is defined as the transfer of heat by the motion of the particles of the heated
substance itself. Convection occurs only in liquids and gases by circulation.
Q = k 1A(t2 t 1)

26.04 Radiation
This is defined as the transfer of heat from one body to another without the two being
in contact with each other.
140

Qr
Q1 =
d 2
Stefan-Boltzman law
This law expresses the relationship between the intensity of radiation and the

absolute temperature of the body. For a black body
I = oT4
Hq = ya(To)4
Hq = 0,174o(To/100)4
Emissivity and absorptivity
H = 0,174 x o(To/100)4
Note: A perfect black body

bod y is the best emitter of radiant energy.
e nergy. In other words,
word s,
x = 1,0. For all others substances, x = bigger than 0 and lower than 1.
Heat exchange between two radiant bodies
H12 = 0,174 Xt (T1/100)4 (T2/100)4
Likewise, the heat radiated from a specific area:
H12 = 0,174 Xt Xo (T1/100)4 (T2/100)4

where
1
Xt =
1 1
+ -1
x 1 x 2
Mean radiant temperature

This is defined as the mean temperature of all the surrounding surfaces
+ A2 t 2 + ....... + An t n

A1t 1
MRT =
A 1 + A2 + ...... + An
Logarithmic mean temperature difference
Dt 2 - Dt 1
LMTD = 0,434
Dt
log( Dt 2 )
1
141
26.05 Nusselt Number (Nu)
hD
Nu =
k 2
26.06 Prandl Number (Pr)
Pr = C p
k 2
26.07 General Heat Transfer Equations
Gas to a solid
QQ = d c (T2 T1) acQ
If gas is used to cool a solid
wgcg(t g2 - tg1) = wscs(t s2 ts1)
If gas is used to heat a solid

wgcg(t g1 - tg2) = wscs(t s2 ts1)
26.08 Temperature Equivalents
o 5 o
F = ( C + 32)
9
o 5 o
C = ( F 32)
9
Absolute temperatures
Ranking = oF + 459,6
Kelvin = oC + 273
142
Chapter 27
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
GASES
27.01 Gas Laws
These well known laws apply to the English as well as the metric system of units.
P1V1 = P2V2
P 1V 1
P2 =
V2
P 1V 1
V2 =
P2
Charles law: pressure constant
T1V2 = T2V1
T 2V 1
V2 =
T1
T 1V 2
T2 =
V1
General gas law
T1V2P2 = T2V1P1
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature (K = oC + 273)
27.02 Gas Law Constant
PV
R = = constant
T
R = gas constant
o
R = 0,0821 3 liter-atm/ K
R = 0,73 ft -atm/oR lb-mole
o
R 1544 ft lb/ R lb mole
143
For any gas

w
PV = RT
M
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature
R
w = gas constant
weight gas
M = molecular weight
27.03 Avogadros Law
A mole of any substance contains the same number of molecules. Equal volumes of all
gases under the same temperature and pressure conditions contain the same number of
molecules:
w1 M 1
=
w 2 M 2
w
M == weight (g) weight
molecular
Avogadro s
The number of molecules in a mole of any substance is constant. Avogadro
13
number = 6,024 x 10 (at standard condition). Also: 22,4 liters of any gas at standard
condition contains the above number of molecules.
27.04 Density of a gas
PM
d =
(1000)(0,0821)T
27.05 Standard Condition of a gas
At 0oC, 1 atm.
27.06 Normal Density of a gas
d o = g/liter at 0oC, 1 atm.
d = density (g/cm3)
d o = normal density (g/liter)
P = absolute pressure (atm)
T = absolute temperature (K)
R = gas constant
v volume (liter)
144
27.07 Molecular Weight of Gases
1000d (0,0821
)T w(0,821
)T
M = 22,4 d o = =
P Pv
27.08 Density Changes of Gases
T 1 P 2
d 2 = d 1
T2 P 1
PM
d =
RT
27.09 Moles
mole = w/M
mole fraction = moles/total moles
mole percent = (mole fraction) 100
27.10 Volume Changes of a Gas
T 2 P 1
V2 = V1 ( )( )
T1 P 2
T 1 P 2
V1 = V2 ( )( )
T2 P 1
SOLUTIONS
27.11 Weight Percent of Solutions
This is defined as the number of grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent.
Example: 14 grams of salt
salt dissolved in 100 grams of water fives
fives 114 gram of
solution. Thus,
solute = 14/114 (100) = 12,28 percent
In many instances, the weight of solute is expressed also in terms of the volume of
solution ,e.g., 14 grams of salt per liter of solution.
27.12 Mole Fraction of a Solution
This is defined as the number of gram molecules (moles) of solute per total number of
moles contained in the solution.
Example: 14 grams of NaCl (sodium chloride) are dissolved in 100 grams of w
water.
ater.
(Note: molecular weight of NaCl = 58,46 and water = 18,02). Thus,
145
14
for NaCl, = 0,239 moles
58,46
100
for water, = 5,549 moles
18,02
The total number of m
moles
oles In solution = 0,239 + 5,549 = 5,788. Hence the m
mole
ole
fraction of the solut eis
0,239
= 0,0413 (ans.)
5,788
27.13 Molality of a Solution
The number of mole sof solute per liter of water.

Example: 140 grams of NaCl per 1000 grams of water.
140
58,46 = 2,395 molal
27.13 Molarity of a Solution
A molar solution contains one mole of solute per liter of solution.

Example: The molecular weight of NaCl (sodium chloride) is 58,46. Thus a molar
table salt solution contains 58,46 grams of NaCl per liter of solution.
SOLIDS
27.14 Percent of an Element Contained

Cont ained in a Compound
atomicweig htofelement
percent = (100)
molecular weight of compound
Example: What percent of iiron

ron is contained in Fe2O3?
Solution: atomic weight of Fe = 55,85
molecular weight of Fe2O3 = 159,7
Since there are 2 atoms of Fe in the compound:
(2)(55,85)
percent = (100) = 69,94 percent (ans.)
159,7
27.15 Percent of a Compound Contained

Cont ained in a Substance
percent = molecularweighofcompound (100)

molecular weight of substance
146
Example: What percent of calcium oxide are contained in calcium carbonate?
Solution: mol. wt. of CaO = 56,08

mol. wt. of CaCO3 = 100,09, therefore
56,08
percent = (100) = 56,029 (ans.)
100,09
27.16 Weight Problems
Calculations involving weight and mixture problems can best be solved by writing the
problem in the form of a chemical
che mical equation as shown in the following example.
Example: How m much

uch oxide, CAO, and how much sulfur trioxide, SO3, is required to
produce 168 kg of calcium sulfate, CaSO4?
Solution:
mol.wt = 56,08 + 80,06 = 136,14

CaO + SO3 = CaSO4
kg = x1 + x2 = 168,0
1. kg of CaO needed:

1.
56,08 136,14
= , x1 = 69,20 (ans)
x1 168
2. kg of SO3 needed:
2.
80,06 136,14
= , x2 = 98,80 (ans)
x2 168
or x2 = 168 69,20 = 98,80
Chapter 28
PHYSICS
28.01 Newtons Law of Gravitation
m1 m2
F = g
d 2
where
F = gravitational force
m1, m2 = mass of bodies
d = distance between the centers of gravity of the two bodies
147
g = gravitational constant = 981 cm/s2
28.02 Acceleration  Forces

Forces
The absolute unit is the dyne which expresses the force that produces acceleration, i.e.,
a change in momentum on a body at rest or in motion.
dyne = the force required to produce an acceleration of 1cm/s2 in gra

gramm mass.
F 1 F 2
=
a1 a2
F = force
a = acceleration
m = mass
F
a =
m

28.03 Mass of a Body
Mass expresses the quantity of matter. The metric unit for mass is the gram.
F
m =
a
28.04 Weight of a Body
Weight is defined as the force with which a body is attracted toward the earth
w = mg
28.05 Work Done
W = Fs
Work is expressed as the product of the force acting on a body and the distance the
body has moved against
aga inst the resistance.
W = erg = force of one dyne through one centimeter

= joule = 1.0 x 107 ergs
= g/cm = 980 erg
28.06 Power
The time rate at which work is done.

W
P =
t
148
joules
watts =
seconds
one kilowatt = 1000 watt

one hp = 746 watt

28.07 Molecular Heat of Gases
This is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram-mole of a gas
one degree Celsius.
c p = cv + R
cv = (3/2)R (for monatomic gases only).
where
c p = molecular heat at constant pressure
cv = molecular heat at constant temperature
R = gas constant = 1,988 cal/ oK
28.08 Molecular Heat of Solids
m = xasa + x bs b +   
m = Ms
where
m = molecular heat of solid

M = molecular weight
s = specific heat
x = atomic weight
28.09 Latent Heat of Fusion
This is defined as the heat required to obtain a change of state without a temperature
change in the substance. Latent heat of fusion is expressed in either cal/mol, cal/g.
Example
H2Oice = H2Oliq. = -80 cal/g

= -1558 cal/mole
28.10 Latent Heat of Evaporation
This is defined as the heat required to change a substance from a liquid to a gaseous
state without a change in temperature. This is also known as the enthalpy of evaporation.
Example
H2Oliq. = H2Ovapor = 539 cal/g
= 10,5 cal/mole
149
28.11 Heat of Formation and Reaction
This is defined as the heat units absorbed or evolved in a chemical reaction to form
one mole of a substance.
AB + CD = AC + BD + h
When the heat of formation of individual compounds is known, e.g.,
A + B = AB + a, etc.,
then
AB + CD = AC + BD a b+c+d
and
h = c + d (a + b)
where
A,B,C = compounds weight
a,b,c = heat of formation
h = heat of reaction
28.12.1Joule Equivalent
This is the mechanical equivalent of heat.
kcal
J =
426,9
where
J = joule equivalent (kg/m)
28.13 Temperature of a Mixture
w1c1t 1+ w2 c2 t 2 + .....

Tfinal =
w 1c1 + w2 c2 + ......
28.14 Gas Mixtures
pf = p1 + p2 + p3 +  

wf = w1 + w2 + w3 +  
cv = w1cv1 + w2cv2 +  
c p = w1c p1 + w2c p2 +  
Vf V1 + V2 + V3 +  
150

p1V 1 + p 2V 2 + ....... p 1V 1 + p 2V 2
Taf = =
p1V 1 p 2V 2 RW
+ + ......
T a1 T a 2
c = specific heat
c p = specific heat at cconstant
onstant pressure
cv = specific heat at cconstant
onstant volume
P,p = pressure
w = weight
V,v = volume
Ta = absolute temperatur
temperaturee
Taf = final absolute temperature
t = temperature
t f = final temperature
R = ga gass constant (m-kg/f/kg/oC)
28.15 Gas Constant, R
air2 = 29,3
For O 26,5
28.16 Friction Coefficient
This is defined as the ratio of the force required to move one body over the other to the
total force pressing the two bodies together.
F
k =
Ft
28.17 Moment of Force-Torque
This is the force that producers rotation about an axis.
L = Fd
where
L = torque (dyne-cm)
F = force that produces rotation about center (dyne), and
d = perpendicular distance from the line of action of the fforce
orce to the axis (cm).
151
Chapter 29
PSYCHROMETRY
29.01 Basic Psychrometric Equation
p = p - AP(t t )
where
A = 6,60 x 10-4 (1 + 0,00115 t t ) when oC and mm Hg are used.
29.02 Wet Bulb Depression
The wet bulb depression is expressed:
wet bulb depression = t t

29.03 Relative Humidity
100 p
relative humidity =
p x
p = partial pressure of water vapo

vaporr at dry bulb temperatur
temperaturee
p =
p saturation pressure of water vapor at wet bulb tem
temperat
perature
ure
P = total barometric pressure
t = wet bulb temperatur
temperaturee
t = dry bulb temperature
px = saturation pressure of water vapor at dry bulb temperature
29.04 Dew Point

When the partial pressure of water vapor at a dated temperature equals the saturation
pressure of water vapor at the same temperatur
temperature,
e, the air is saturated, i.e., the dew point
po int has
been reached.
q
hs = h + (T - T s )
970,2
hs = saturation humidity, dew point

h = absolute humidity
q = 0,24 + 0,45 h = heat capacity
T = dry bulb temperature (oF)
Ts = saturation temperature (oF)
152

29.05 Properties of Air and Water Vapor
at 1 atmosphere
Temperature Dry air Water vapor Vapor pressure
o
C kg/m3 kg/m3 atm.
0 1,293 0,804 0,0061
1,1 1,288 0,801 0,0065
2,2
3,3 1,283
1,277 0,798
0,795 0,0071
0,0077
4,4 1,272 0,791 0,0083
5,6 1,267 0,788 0,0089
6,7 1,262 0,785 0,0097
7,8 1,258 0,782 0,0104
8,9 1,251 0,779 0,0112
10,0 1,248 0,775 0,0121
11,1 1,243 0,772 0,0131
12,2 1,239 0,771 0,0140
13,3 1,234 0,767 0,0151
14,4 1,229 0,764 0,0162
15,6 1,224 0,761 0,0174
16,7 1,219 0,758 0,0187
17,8 1,214 0,756 0,0201
18,9 1,210 0,753 0,0215
20,0 1,205 0,750 0,0231
21,1 1,200 0,747 0,0247
22,2 1,195 0,745 0,0267
23,3 1,190 0,742 0,0283
24,4 1,187 0,739 0,0302
25,6 1,182 0,735 0,0323
26,7 1,177 0,734 0,0345
27,8 1,173 0,731 0,0368
28,9 1,169 0,727 0,0393
30,0 1,165 0,726 0,0419
31,1 1,160 0,723 0,0446
32,2 1,157 0,721 0,0475
33,3 1,152 0,718 0,0506
34,4 1,149 0,714 0,0538
35,6 1,144 0,713 0,0572
36,7 1,139 0,710 0,0608
37,8 1,136 0,708 0,0646
38,9 1,131 0,705 0,0686
40,0 1,128 0,703 0,0729
41,1 1,123 0,700 0,0772
42,2 1,120 0,698 0,0819
43,3 1,115 0,695 0,0886
44,4 1,112 0,694 0,0919
45,5 1,109 0,690 0,0973
46,7 1,104 0,689 0,1030
153
PART V
EMISSION CONTROL AND PLANT

EQUIPMENT
154
Chapter 30
TEST FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
Formulas used to determinate the particulate emission rate are given. They apply to
tests performed with a dry gas meter. For details of the testing procedures, the reader is
advised to refer to  Standard Perform
Performance
ance for Station
Stationary
ary Sources , Federal Regis
Register,
ter,
Dec.23,1971.
30.01 Data needed for Stack Testing
A = area of stack at sample point (ft2)

D = total weight of particulate collected(g)
d = nozzle diameter of sample tube (in.)
Fs = Pitot tube correction factor
CO2 = percent CO2 in stack gas (by volume, dry)
O2 = percent O2 in stack gas (by volume, dry)
N2 = percent N2 in stack gas (by volume, dry)
P b = absolute barometric pressure (in. Hg)
Po = abs
absolute
olute static stack pressure (in. Hg)
1/2
DPavg. = average square root of Pitot tube reading (in.
(in. H2O)
T s = o
absolute stack temperature ( R)
t = sampling time (min)
Vm = net meter volume recorded (ft3)
w = total water collected (ml)
30.02 Summary of Results
Gc = average density of the stack gas, relative to air  ..

Grains/ACI = gas concentration in stack gas  ..
3
MVm = wet meter volume at meter condition (ft )  ..
3
MVs = wet meter volume at stack condition (ft )  ..
3 o
MVstd = dry meter volume at sstandard
tandard condition (ft @ 70 F, 1 atm.)  ..
Mw = average molecular weight of stack gas  ..
Mf = percent moisture in stack gas (decimal) ..
Pm = average absolute meter pressure (in. Hg)  ..
Qs = actual stack gas flow rate (ACTM)  ..
Vs = average stack gas velocity (fps)
Vv = water vapor volume at meter condition (ft)  ..
30.03 Calculations
a) Conversion of water collected to gas at meter conditions

a)
(for gas meter, internally corrected to 70 oF)
P
Pm = P b - ( o ) =    in.Hg
13,6
w 3
Vv 1,415 ( )    ft
Pm
b) Percent moisture in flow gas
155

V v
Mf = = percent ( expressed as a decimal)
Vv + V m
c)Density of gas relative to air
Step 1 Determination of molecular weight of gas:
CO2
CO2 = 44(1- Mf ) =   .
100
O2
O2 = 32(1- Mf ) =   .
100
N 2
N2 = 28(1- Mf ) =   .
100
H2O = 18Mf =   .
Mw = Total =   .
Step 2 Determination of density relative to air:
M w
Gd = =   .
28,95
d)Average velocity of gas
29,92T s 1 / 2
Vs = 2,9Fs ( ) x (D pavg)1/2 =   ft/s
Ps Gd
e)Stack gas flow rate

Qs = VsA60 =   .ACFM
f)Conversion of wet meter volume to stack conditions
MVm = Vv + Vm =   ..ft3
P m T s
MVs = MVm ( )( ) =   . ft3
Ps 530
g)Conversion of dry meter volume to standard conditions
MVstd = Vm( P m ) =   .DSCF

20,92
156
h)Grain loading
D
Grains/ACF = 15,43 ( ) =   .
MVs
D
Grain/DSCF = 15,43 ( ) =   .
MVstd
i) Emission rate

i)
60
lb/h = DQ s ( )454 =   .
MVs
j) Percent isokinetic sampling

j)
305,6 MV s
percent iso = =   . percent
Vs td 2
Chapter 31
USEFUL DATA FOR EMISSION CONTROL
31.01 Molecular Weights of Selected Gases
Gas
Ammonia Formula
NH3 Molecular
17,03weight
Carbon dioxide CO2 44,01
Carbon disulfide CS2 76,14
Carbon monoxide CO 28,01
Chlorine Cl2 70,91
Fluorine F2 38,00
Hydrogen Chloride HCl 36,47
Hydrogen H2 2,016
Hydrogen fluoride HF 20,01
Hydrogen sulfide H2 S 34,08
Nitric oxide NO 30,01
Nitrogen N2 28,02
Nitrogen dioxide NO 46,01
Nitrous oxide N2O2 44,02
Oxygen O2 32,00
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64,07
157

31.02 Conversion Factors for Emission Rates
Multiply by to obtain
g/s 3,6 kg/h
g/s 86,4 kg/day
kg/h 0,27778 g/s
Chapter 32
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
32.01 Drum Dryers
a) Evaporation rate

a)
WM
R = 2000
1- M
where
M = mi - mo
b) Dryer volume

b)
V = 0,7854 D2L
c) Specific rate of evaporation

c)
R
sv = V
R = evaporation rate (lb H2O/h)

W = feed rate (tph)
mi = moisture of feed at dryer inlet (decimal)
mo = moisture of feed at dryer outlet (decimal)
D = internal diameter of dryer (ft)
L = internal length of dryer (ft)
V = internal volume of dryer (ft 3)
sv = specific evaporation rate (lb H2O/h/ ft 3)
sh = specific heat consumption (Btu/lb)
M = water evaporation
Q = firing rate (Btu/h)
t = retention
ret ention time (min.)
S = slope of dryer (degrees0
N = speed of dryer (rpm)
158
d) Specific heat consumption

d)
Q
sh =
R
e) Feed retention time (for approximation only)

e)
t = 20,56
L
SND
32.02 Slurry Pumps
a) Specific gravity of slurry

a)
The specific gravity of the slurry can be obtained directly from the table given in 3.01
or, when the specific gravity of the dry solids is not 2.70, can be calculated by the following
formula:
100 s d
sg =
(100 - M f ) + M f s d
b) In 3.04 a formula is given that users the pulp density of the slurry as a variable.
Another formula that is useful:
WW a 0,2
Q =
(100 - M f ) s g
c) Power required for pumping
c)
Qht s g
hp =
3960p e me
d) Friction factor for pipe lines

d)
Ff = 0,9 y
s g d
Note: Use 0,85 if y is not known.
sg = specific gravity of slurry

sd = specific gravity of dry solids
Wc = clinker output (tph)
Wa = lb dry solids per ton of clinker
Mf = slurry moisture content (percent)
Q = slurry flow rate (gpm)
hp = horsepower required to pump slurry
ht = total
to tal heat (ft)
pme =
= pump efficiency
mechanical and electrical efficiency of m
motor
otor and drive
e
Ff = friction factor (ft/ft)
y = yield stress (lb/ft2)
159
d = internal pipe diameter (in.)
32.03 Bucket Elevators
a) Elevator capacity

a)
Vve fd
C = 1,8
s
Note: f = normally 0,45 to 0,65
b) Elevator, horsepower required

b)
C (33 + h sin Q
hp = 1,1
760w
C = capacity (tph)
V = bucket volume (ft3)
ve = elevator velocity (fps)
s = bucket spacing (ft)
f = bucket load factor
3
d == bulk
w density
bucket widthof(ft)
material (lb/ fftt )
h = height of elevator (ft, sprocket to sprocket)
Q = angle of inclination
32.04 Belt Conveyors
a) Conveyor capacity

a)
60
C = Avdr.
2000
Note: A = 0,09r 2
b) Horsepower required for belt conveyor
hp = 0,08148(C)1/3 [5,7 + (L)1/2] t  .. + 0,001242C sinQ (33 + I.)
For horizontal conveyors
hp = 0,57967 (C)1/3
A = cross-sectional area of mmaterial (ftt 2)

aterial on belt (f
v = belt speed (fpm)
r = material width on belt (ft)
n = efficiency (0,8-0,9)
L = conveyor belt llength
ength (f
(ft.
t. gulley to pulley)
C = capacity (tph)
d = density of material (lb/ft 3)
material
Q = angle of incli
inclination
nation
160
32.05 Screw Conveyors
a) Screw conveyor capacity

a)
C = 0,005625 ADnkd
k, performance factor
conveyor10
length (ft) 0,995 k
20 0,98
30 0,97
40 0,96
50 0,945
60 0,93
70 0,92
80 0,91
90 0,895
100 0,88
b) Horsepower required

b)
C C sin Q
hp = (L +30) ( +- )1,1
582 270
A = cross-sectional area of helix (ft2)

D = diameter of helix (ft)
n = conveyor speed (rpm)
k = performance factor
d = bulk density of material (lb/ft 3)
C = capacity (tph)
L = conveyor length (ft)
Q = conveyor angle of inclination
32.06 Water Pumps
a) Centrifugal pump head

a)
D
n
H = ( 1 )2
1900
b) Horsepower required to pump water
b)
QHs
hp =
3960 e
H = head developed by pump (ft of H2O)

D1 = diameter of impeller (in.)
n = impeller speed (rpm)
Q = water flow rate (gpm)
hp horsepower needed to drive pump
s = specific gravity of water
e = pump efficiency (decimal)
161

32.07 Storage Tanks
a) Contents in vertical cylindrical tanks

a)
Q = 7,481 D2HI
Note: This formula applies only

o nly to flat bottom
botto m tanks.
b) Contents in cones

b)
V = 0,3333 R 2h
C = 2,49367 R 2h
c) Compressed air receivers
The minimum size receiver to be used is
dp i
vmin =
p o + 14,7
C = tank content (gal)

D = tank diameter (ft)
H = height of tank (ft)
VI = volume of cone (ft3)
R = radm of cone (ft)
h = height of cone (ft)
vmin = minimum volume required (ft3)
d = first-stage displacement of compressor (cfm)
pi = inlet pressure (psi absolute)
po = outlet pressure (psi absolute)
32.08 Drag Chains
a) Drag chain capacity

a)
C = 1,8 whskd
k, performance factor
Drag chain length (ft) k
20 0,995
40 0,978
60 0,963
80 0,946
100 0,930
120 0,914
140 0,898
160 0,882
180 0,866
200 0,850

L + 16, 4 ( g + 0,8 kwm ) n C sin Q
hp = ( )[ ] +-
3,3 132 270
162
C = capacity (tph)
w = width of conveyor (ft)
h = depth of material (ft)
s = drag chain speed (ft/s)
k = performance factor
d = bulk density of material conveyed (lb/ft3)
L = length of conveyor
g = weight of chain (lb/ft)
wm = weight of material in drag chain (lb/ft)
n = drag chain speed (ft/s)
Q = angle of inclination
32.09 Jaw and Gyratory Crushers
a) Jaw crusher capacity

a)
Q = fdlwjna 0,8
FACTOR  f
Corrugated plates
Type of rock f
Normal 3,05 x 10-5
Screened 2,54 x 10-5
large 2,07 x 10-5
Smooth plates
Type of rock f
Normal 4,14 x 10-5
Screened 3,64 x 10-5
large 3,12 x 10-5
Correction factor  a
Jaw angle (o) 26 24 22 20 18
 a 1,0 1,06 1,12 1,1
1,188 1,24

b)
hp = 0,1w2s
Q = capacity (tph)
f = factor (see table)
d = density (lb/ft 3)
l == length
w of discharge
width of discharge opening (in.)
opening (in.)
n = strokes per min
a = correction factor for jaw angle
163
hp = motor size required

w2 = width of swing jjaw
aw (in.)
s = maximum feed size (in.)
32.10 Stack and Chimneys
a) Theoretical draft
1 1
d t = 0,256hPB -
Ta + 460 Ts + 460
c) Draft loss
c)
T s + 460 W 0,022

h
d l = 0,0942 ( )( )2 ( 1 + )
D4 100,0 D
d) Available (natural draft)

d)
d nnat.
at. = d t - d l
where
d t = theoretical draft (in. H2O)
d l = draft loss ( iin.
n. H2O)
h = stack height (ft)
PB = barometric pressure (in. Hg)
Ta = ambient ai airr temperature (oF)
Ts = average stack temperature (oF)
D = diameter of stack (ft)
W = gas fl flow
ow rate (l (lb/h)
b/h)
164
P A R T VI
APPENDIX
165

Section A
MATHEMATICS
ALGEBRA
A1.01 Exponents
(am)(an) = am+n
(am)n = am n
(am)(bm) = (ab)m
am
n
= a m-n
a
n
an
= æ
a ö
ç ÷
b n è b ø
a1 / 2 = a
a1 / 3 = 3
a
a1 / 4 = 4
a
a1 / k = k
a
a 3 / 2 = a3
1
a -n =
an
A1.02 Fractions
a c a±c
± =
b b b
a c ac
* =
b d bd
a c ad a d
¸ = = *
b d bc b c
166
A1.03 Radicals
( a)n
n
= a
n
an = a
n
a n
b = n
ab

n
a a
n
= n
b b
A1.04 Factoring
ax + ay = a(x +y)
2 2
a b = (a + b)(a- b)
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 2ab + b2 = (a b)2
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 ab + b2)
a3 b3 = (a b)(a2 + ab + b2)
A1.05 Scientific Notations
1,2 x 102 = 120
1,2 x 103 = 1200
1,2 x 104 = 12000
1,2 x 10-1 = 0,12
1,2 x 10-2 = 0,012
1,2 x 10-3 = 0,0012

167

A1.06 Logarithms
log x + log y = log (xy)
x
log x - log y = log
y
x log y = log (yx)
log an = n log a
1
log n x = log x
n
1
loga b =
log b a
log10 N = 0,4343 loge N
loge N = 2,3026 log10 N

In 3,16 = loge 3,16
log b Nn = n log b N
A1.07 Determinants
ax + by + cz = d
ex + fy + gz = h
ix + jy + kz = l
Solutions
dfk + bgl + cjh

- cfl - gjd - khb
x =
afk + bgi
+ cje
cje - cfi - gja - keb
chk + dgi + cle

- chi - gla - ked
y =
afk + bgi
+ cje - cfi - gja - keb
afl + bhi + dje

- dfi - hja - leb
z =
afk + bgi
+ cje - cfi - gja - keb
168
A1.08 Quadratic Equation
ax2 + bx +c = 0
- b ± b 2 - 4ac
x =
2
If
b2 4ac is ñ 0, the roots are real and unequal
b2 4ac is = 0, the roots are real and equal
b2 4ac is á 0, the roots are imaginary
A1.09 Powers of ten
pico = 10-12 deka = 101

nano = 10-9 hecto = 102
micro = 10-6 kilo = 103
-3 6
mili = 10 -2 mega = 109
centi = 10 gigaa = 10
deci = 10-1 tera = 1012
169
A1.10 Power and Roots
x X2 X3 x 3
x
1 1 1 1,000 1,000
2 4 8 1,414 1,260
3 9 27 1,732 1,442
4 16 64 2,000 1,587
5 25 125 2,236 1,710
6 36 216 2,449 1,817
7 49 343 2,646 1,913
8 64 512 2,828 2,000
9 81 729 3,000 2,080
10 100 1000 3,162 2,154
11 121 1331 3,317 2,224
12 144 1728 3,464 2,289
13 169 2197 3,606 2,351
14 196 2744 3,742 2,410
15 225 3375 3,873 2,466
16 256 4096 4,000 2,520
17 289 4913 4,123 2,571
18 324 5832 4,243 2,621
19 361 6859 4,359 2,668
20 400 8000 4,472 2,714
21 441 9261 4,583 2,759
22
23 484
529 10648
12167 4,690
4,796 2,802
2,844
24 576 13824 4,899 2,884
25 625 15625 5,000 2,924
26 676 17576 5,099 2,962
27 729 19683 5,196 3,000
28 784 21952 5,291 3,037
29 841 24389 5,385 3,072
30 900 27000 5,477 3,107
31 961 29791 5,568 3,141
32 1024 32768 5,657 3,175
33 1089 35937 5,745 3,208
34 1156 39304 5,831 3,240
35 1225 42875 5,916 3,271
36 1296 46656 6,000 3,303
37 1369 50653 6,083 3,332
38 1144 54872 6,164 3,362
39
40 1521
1600 59319
64000 6,245
6,325 3,391
3,420
41 1681 68921 6,403 3,448
42 1764 74088 6,481 3,476
43 1849 79507 6,557 3,503
44 1936 85184 6,633 3,530
45 2025 91125 6,708 3,557
46 2116 97336 6,782 3,583
47 2209 103823 6,856 3,609
48 2304 110592 6,928 3,634
49 2401 117649 7,000 3,659
50 2500 125000 7,071 3,684
170
A1.11 Fractions and Decimal Equivalents
1/32 = 0,03125 17/32 = 0,53125

1/16 = 0,0625 9/16 = 0,5625
3/32 = 0,09375 19/32 = 0,59375
1/8 = 0,125 5/8 = 0,625
5/32 = 0,15625 21/32 = 0,65625
3/16
7/32 =
= 0,1875
0,21875 11/16
23/32 =
= 0,6875
0,71875
¼ = 0,25 ¾ = 0,75
9/32 = 0,28125 25/32 = 0,78125
5/16 = 0,3125 13/16 = 0,8125
11/32 = 0,40625 27/32 = 0,843
0,84375
75
3/8 = 0,375 7/8 = 0,875
13/32 = 0,40625 29/32 = 0,9062
0,906255
7/16 = 0,4375 15/16 = 0,9375
15/32 = 0,46875 31/32 = 0,968
0,96875
75
½ = 0,5
TRIGONOMETRY
A2.01 Right Triangle
a c
sin A = csc A =
c a
b c
cos A = sec A =
c b
a b
tan A = cot A =
b a
1
sin A =
csc A
171
1
cos A =
sec A
sin A
tan A =
cos A
cos A
cot A = sin A
sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A
csc2 A = 1 + cot2 A
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A sin2 A = 1 2sin2 A = 2cos2 A 1
= ±ç
æ 1 - cos A ö
2
sin ½ A ÷
è 2 ø
1
= ±ç
æ 1 - cos A ö
2
tan ½ A ÷
è 1 + cos A ø
A2.02 Any Triangle
a + b + c
s =
2
172
Law of Sines
a b c
= =
sin A sin
sin B sin C
Law of Cosines
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A

b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
Law of Tangents
tan 1 / 2( A - B) a -b

= where a ñ b
tan 1/2(A + B) a+b
tan 1 / 2( B - C ) b-c

= where b ñ c
tan 1/2(B + C) b+c
tan 1 / 2( A - C ) a-c

= where a ñ c
tan 1/2(A + C) a+c
Newtons Formula
c a+b
=
sin 1/2 C cos 1 / 2( A - B)
Tangents of Half Angles
1
é ( s - a)( s - b)( s - c ) ù 2
ê úû
tan 1/2A = ë
s

( s - a )
1
é ( s - a)( s - b)( s - c) ù 2
ê úû
tan 1/2B = ë
s

( s - b )
1
é ( s - a)( s - b)( s - c) ù 2
êë s úû
tan 1/2C =
( s - c )
173
SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLES
Given Use
One side and two angles Law of sines
Two sides
sides and an angle opposite one of them Law of sines
Two sides and their included angle Law of tangents
Three sides Tangent of half angles
Area
A = [s(s a)(s b)(s c)]1/2
a 2 sin
sin B sin
sin C
A =
2 sin A
a 2 sin
sin A sin
sin C
A =
2 sin B
2
a sin
sin B sin
sin B
A = 2 sin C
A = ½ bc sin A
A = ½ ac sin B
A = ½ ab sin C
STATISTICS
A3.01 Standard Deviation
When calculating the standard deviation of a population larger than 30 use the formula
1
é ( x - x ) + ( x 2 - x ) + ..... + ( xn - x ) ù
2 2 2 2
s = ê 1 ú
ë n û
For samples whose total number is less than 30, (n á 30) use
1
é ( x - x ) + ( x 2 - x ) + ..... + ( xn - x ) ù
2 2 2 2
s = ê 1 ú
ë n -1 û
If  n is suffi
sufficiently
ciently larg
largee and thei
theirr distributi
distribution
on normal th
then
en
68,26 percent = ± s from mean
95 percent = ± 2s from mean
99,6 percent = ± 3s from mean
174

A3.02 Variance
s
cv = 100
x
A3.03 Coefficient of Variation
( x1 - x ) 2 + ( x 2 - x ) 2 + ..... + ( x n - x ) 2

o
2
=
n
A3.04 Relative Frequency
number of samples in range

p =
number of samples out of range
A3.05 Geometric Mean
Gm = ( x 1 x 2 .......x n ) n

log x1 + log
x 2 + .....+ log x n
log G m =
n
A3.06 Least Squares
To determine the corelations between two variables solve the simultanous equations
for a and b
å x = n + å x b
2
å xy = å xa + å x b 2
where x and
and y are the values of the plotted variables and n = the number of samples.
After these values have been found, the best line to fit the plotted points (least square
equation) becomes:
Y = a + bx
A3.07 Coefficient of Correlation
The coefficient of correlation is a measure of the proximity of the ploted points on a

graph to the straight line represented by the least square equation
1/ 2
é (a å y + bå xy ) - y å y ù
r = ê ú
êë å y 2 _ y å y úû
175
where
Y = å y
n
When  r  approaches unity, there is a good correlation, when is approaches zero, there
exists too wide a scatter to obtain a correlation.
Symbols used (in A3.01 to A3.05)
s = standard deviation
x = mean
x1, x2 = individual observations
n = total number of observat
observations
ions
2
a = variance of the samples
p = relative frequency
FINANCES
A4.01 Compound Interest
Sn = Fer n
where
Sn = value after  n years due to compoudi
compouding
ng iinterest rate  r 
nterest rate
F = initial amount invested
Example: What is the value after 21 years when $1250 is invested at a compound
interest rate of 5,5 percent?
Sn = 1250(0,0525)(21) = 3764,61 (ans.)
A4.02 Total Annual Cash Flow
C = I+D
C = R E
C = P+D
where
C = annual cash flow

I = annual income
D = annual depreciation
R = annual expenses
P = after tax profit
176

A4.03 After Tax Profit
P = (100 t)(R E
E))
where
P,
t =R, tax
andrate
E have the same
(expressed asmeaning as in 4.02 and
a decimal)
Example: A company had $ 25 million in revenues and $ 0,95 million of expenses in

one year. What is the after tax profit when the tax rate assessed is 50 percent?
P = (1,00 0,05)(1,25 0,95) x 106 = 150,000 (ans)
A4.04 Straight Line Depreciation
I -
- L
D =
n
where
D = straight line depreciation
I = initial investment value
L = expected salvage value at end of useful life
n = expected useful life
Example: An office copier is being purchased for a cost of $5800. Its useful life is
expected to be six years; after these six years its salvage value is estimated at $1350. What is
the annual depreciation on this copier when the straight line depreciation on this copier when
the straight line depreciation method is used?
D = 5800 - 1350 = 741,67 (ans)

6
A4.05 Double-declining Balance Depreciation
2( I -
- d c )
D =
n
where
D = double-declining balance depreciat
depreciationion
I = initial investment value
d c = cumulative depreciation charged iinn previous years
n = useful life
177
A4.06 Sum-of-Years Digit Depreciation
2(n - y + 1)
D =
n(n + 1)
where
D = sum-of-years digit depreciat
depreciation
ion
n = useful life
y = consecutive number of years from start of investment to year where D
applies.
A4.07 Sixth-Tenth Factor
This factor is used to estimate the costs to replace an old by a new identical unit.
0,6
æ a ö
Cf = ç ÷ C o
è b ø
where
Cf = new costs
Co = old costs
a = new capacity
b = old capacity
A4.08 Value of an Investment After Depreciation
Q = pe-r n
kn
æ r ö
Q = p ç1 - ÷
è k ø
where
Q = final value
p = initial value when new
r = rate of annual depreciat
depreciation
ion (decimal)
n = number of years
k = number of time per yyear
ear depreciation is figured
A4.09 Return on Investment, ROI
profits per year

ROI =
investment
+ years of life

total saving
ROI = original investment
178
A4.10 Simple Compound Interest
Sci = p(1 + i)n
A4.11 Present Worth
Worth after n years
Pv = P(I + i)n
I
P = Pv
(I + i) n
A4.12 Equal Payment

Payment Series Compound Amount
Amount
( I + i ) n - I
sumn = R
i
where
sumn = worth after n years
R = annual payment
é ( I + i ) n - I ù
percent or equal
eq ual value = R ê n ú

ë i ( I + i ) û
Note: Pv = percent worth

P p = principal
i = interest
n = number of years
179
A4.13 Compound Interest Factors (I + i)n
Percent compound
compound intere
interest,
st, i
n
5,00 5,25 5,50 5,75 6,00 6,25 6,50
1 1,050 1,0525 1,0550 1,0575 1,0600 1,0625 1,0659
2 1,1025 1,1078 1,1130 1,1183 1,1236 1,1289 1,1342
3 1,1576 1,1659 1,1742 1,1826 1,1910 1,1995 1,2079
4 1,2155 1,2271 1,2388 1,2506 1,2625 1,2744 1,2865
56 1,2763
1,3401 1,2915
1,3594 1,3070
1,3788 1,3225
1,3986 1,3382
1,4185 1,3541
1,4387 1,3701
1,4591
7 1,4071 1,4302 1,4547 1,4790 1,5036 1,5286 1,5540
8 1,4775 1,5058 1,5347 1,5640 1,5938 1,6242 1,6550
9 1,5513 1,5849 1,6191 1,6540 1,6895 1,7257 1,7626
10 1,6289 1,6681 1,7081 1,7491 1,7908 1,8335 1,8771
11 1,7103 1,7557 1,8021 1,8496 1,8983 1,9481 1,9992
12 1,7959 1,8478 1,9012 1,9560 2,0122 2,0699 2,1291
13 1,8856 1,9449 2,0058 2,0684 2,1329 2,1993 2,2675
14 1,9799 2,0470 2,1161 2,1874 2,2609 2,3367 2,4149
15 2,0789 2,1544 2,2325 2,3132 2,3966 2,4828 2,5718
16 2,1829 2,2675 2,3553 2,4462 2,5404 2,6379 2,7390
17 2,2920 2,3866 2,4848 2,5868 2,6928 2,8029 2,9170
18 2,4066 2,5119 2,6215 2,7356 2,8543 2,9780 3,1067
19 2,5270 2,6437 2,7656 2,8929 3,0256 3,1641 3,3086
20 2,6533 2,7825 2,9178 3,0592 3,2071 3,3619 3,5236
21 2,7860 2,9286 3,0782 3,2351 3,3996 3,5720 3,7527
22 2,9253 3,0824 3,2475 3,4211 3,6035 3,7952 3,9966
23 3,0715 3,2442 3,4262 3,6178 3,8197 4,0324 4,2564
24 3,2251 3,4145 3,6146 3,8259 4,0489 4,2844 4,5331
25 3,3864 3,5938 3,8134 4,0458 4,2919 4,5522 4,8277
Percent compound
compound intere
interest,
st, i
n
6,75 7,00 7,25 7,50 7,75 8,00 8,25
1 1,0675 1,0700 1,0725 1,0750 1,0775 1,0800 1,0825
2 1,1396 1,1449 1,1503 1,1556 1,1610 1,1664 1,1718
3 1,2165 1,2250 1,2336 1,2423 1,2510 1,2597 1,2685
4 1,2986 1,3108 1,3231 1,3355 1,3479 1,3605 1,3731
5 1,3862 1,4026 1,4190 1,4356 1,4524 1,4693 1,4864
6 1,4798 1,5007 1,5219 1,5433 1,5650 1,5869 1,6090
7 1,5797 1,6058 1,6322 1,6590 1,6862 1,7938 1,7418
8 1,6863 1,7182 1,7506 1,7835 1,8169 1,8509 1,8855
9 1,8002 1,8385 1,8775 1,9172 1,9577 1,9990 2,0410
10 1,9217 1,9672 2,0136 2,0610 2,1095 1,1589 2,2094
11 2,0514 2,1040 2,1596 2,2156 2,2730 2,3316 2,3917
12 2,1899 2,2522 2,3162 2,3818 2,4491 2,5182 2,5890
13 2,3377 2,4098 2,4841 2,5604 2,6389 2,7196 2,8026
14 2,4955 2,5786 2,6642 2,7524 2,8434 2,9372 3,0338
15 2,6639 2,7590 2,8573 2,9589 3,0638 3,1722 3,2841
16 2,8437 2,9522 3,0645 3,1808 3,3012 3,4259 3,5551
17 3,0357 3,1588 3,2867 3,4194 3,5571 3,7000 3,8483
18 3,2406 3,3799 3,5249 3,6758 3,8328 3,9960 4,1658
19 3,4593 3,6165 3,7805 3,9515 4,1298 4,3157 4,5095
20 3,6928 3,8697 4,0546 4,2479 4,4499 4,6610 4,8816
21 3,9421 4,1406 4,3485 4,5664 4,7947 5,0338 5,2843
22 4,2082 4,4304 4,6638 4,9089 5,1663 5,4365 5,7202
23 4,4922 4,7405 5,0019 5,2771 5,5667 5,8715 6,1922
24 4,7954 5,0724 5,3646 5,6729 5,9981 6,3412 6,7030
25 5,1191 5,4274 5,7535 6,0983 6,4630 6,8485 7,2560
180
A4.14 Discouted Cash Flow Factors
DCF
Year 10 percent 25 percent 40 percent
0 1,000 1,000 1,000
1 0,952 0,885 0,824
2 0,861 0,689 0,553
3 0,779 0,532 0,370
4 0,705 0,418 0,248
5 0,638 0,326 0,166
6 0,577 0,254 0,112
7 0,522 0,197 0,075
8 0,473 0,154 0,050
9 0,428 0,119 0,034
10 0,387 0,092 0,023
11 0,350 0,073 0,015
12 0,317 0,057 0,010
13 0,287 0,044 0,007
14 0,259 0,034 0,005
15 0,235 0,027 0,003
16 0,212 0,021 0,002
17 0,192 0,016 0,001
18 0,184 0,013 0,001
19 0,157 0,010 0,001
20 0,142 0,008 -
A4.15 Deposit Calculation
This type of calculation is used to determine the value of an account after  n year
ears
when an annual deposit of  l|l| is made to the account.
n é (l + i) n - l ù
Sn = (l)(l + i) + z
êë i úû
where
Sn = value of account after  n years
l = initial capital invested i account
i = interest rate (expressed as a decimal)
n = number of years
z = annual deposit into account
Example: What is the account balance after 15 years when the initial deposit is
$150 000 , na annual amount of $240,00 is deposited, and the account pays 5,5% compound
interest?
15
é (1 + 0,055
)15 - 1ù
Sn (1500)(1 0,055) 240 ê ú
ë 0,055 û
Sn = 8726,79 (ans.)
181
SAFETY FORMULAS
A5.01 Accident Frequency Rate
6
n(1,0 x 10 )
f =
h
Accident frequency rate is defined in terms of number of accsidents per milion man-
hours worked.
f = frequency rate
n = number of accsidents during period under investigation
h = number of mman-hours
an-hours worked during the same period
A5.02 Severity rate
Accident severity rate is defined in terms of the number of days lost due to accidents
per 1000 man-hours
man-hour s worked.
1000 d
s =
d
where
s = severity rate (days lost/ 1000 man-hours)
d = days lost in period
h = total m
man-hours
an-hours worked in same period
A5.03 Safety Performance
An individual group, department, or plant safety performance can be stated in terms of

another s group known standard performance as follows:
100 f
percent frequency =
f std.
100 s
percent severity =
s std.
where f sstr.
tr. and sstr. are the frequency and severity rates of other groups performing
similar duties.
182

PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY
Plane Figures
A6.01 Rectangle
area = ab
A6.02 Parallelogram
area = ab
A6.03 Triangle
area = 0,5 (ab)
Let x = 0,5(b + c + d)
then
area = [x(x b)(x d)]]1/2

c)(x d)
183
A6.04 Circle
circumstance = pD
= 2pr
area = 0,25pD2
= pr 2
0,25c 2 + h 2
r = 2h
1/2
c = 2[h(D h)]
= 2r sin ½ Q
h = r (r 2 0,25c2)1/2
Q
s = p D
360
= 0,01745r Q
A6.05 Circular Sector
area = 0,5 rs
area = 0,008727 r 2Q
A6.06 Circular Segment
area = 0,5[rs c(r h)]

æ Q ö - æ c ( r - h) ö
= p r 2 ç
area ÷ ç ÷
è 360 ø è 2 ø
184

A.07 Circular Ring
area = 0,7854(D2 d 2)
A6.08 Ellipse
area 0,25pAa
A5.09 Parabola
area = 0,6667 ha
185

A6.10 Polygon
area = 0,5psr
where n = nnumber
umber of sides
areas
n area
5 1,7205s2
6 2,5981s2
7 3,6339s2
8 4,8264s2
9 6,1818s2
A6.11 Trapezoid
area = 0,5[b(H + h) + ch + aH]
A6.12 Catenary
y = a cos hx
Solids
186
A6.13 Cube
volume = a3
surface area = 6a2
A6.14 Cylinder
volume = 0,7854D2h
surface area = pDh (without end surface)
= pD(0,5D + h) (end surface included)
A6.15 Pyramid
volume = 1/3 (area of base)h

(Note: for area of base see 6.10)
lateral area = 0,5 (perimeter of base)s
187
A6.16 Cone
volume = 1,0472 r 2h

surface area = pr(r 2 + h2)1/2
A6.17 Frustum of a Cone
volume = 1,0472 h(r 2 + Rr + R 2)

surface area = ps(R + r)
A6.18 Sphere
volume = 0,5236D3
surface area = pD2
188
A6.19 Segment of a Sphere
é c 2 + 4h 2 hù
volume = p h 2 ê - ú
ë 8h 3û
spherical surface = 0,7854(r 2 + 4h2)

total surface = 0,7854(c2+ 8rh)
A6.20 Sector of a Sphere
volume = 2,0944 r 2h

total surface = 1,571 r(4h + c)
A6.21 Torus
volume = 0,25(p2d 2D)
surface = Dp2d

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Part 1 Cement Chemistry

Chapter 1 QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS

1.01 Ignition Loss

Chapter 2 KILN FEED MIX CALCULATIONS

2.01 CaCO3 Required to Obtain a Given C 3S in the Clinker

Chapter 3 KILN FEED SLURRY

3.01 Specific Gravity and Pulp Density of Slurries

Chapter 4 CHEMICAL AND PHISIKAL PROPERTIES OF

Chapter 5 FORMULA AND DATA USED IIN

Chapter 6 pH: HYDROGEN-ION-CONCENTRATIONS

Chapter 7 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF KILN

7.01 Technical Information of Kiln Equipment

Chapter 8 and 9 KILN PERFORMANCE

Chapter 10 and 11 HEAT BALANCE

Chapter 12 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF TH

Chapter 13 SPESIFIC HEATS, HEAT TRANSFER

13.01 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker

13.04 Mean Specific

Chapter 14 USEFUL FORMULAS

14.01 Cooling of Kiln Exit gases By Water

Chapter 15 CHAIN SYSTEMS IN WET PROCESS KILNS

15.01 Chain Angle of Garland Hung Chains

15.12 Kiln Chain Data-Proof Coil (Oval Links)

Chapter 16 KILN REFRACTORY

16.01 Refractory Shapes

Chapter 17 TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF GRINDING

17.01 Technical Data of Grinding Circuit

Chapter 18 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION

18.01 Mill Critical Speed

Chapter 19 GRINDING MILL INVESTIGATION

19.01 Mill Critical speed

19.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter

Chapter 20 USEFUL DATA FOR GRINDING MILL STUDY

Chapter 21 GRINDING AIDS AND CEMENT FINESS

21.01 Grinding Aid Solutions

Part IV Engineering Formulas

Chapter 22 STEAM ENGINEERING

Chapter 23 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter 24 FAN ENGINEERING

24.01 Fan Laws

Chapter 25 Fluid Flow

Chapter 26 HEAT TRANSFER

26.01 Heat Required for a Temperature Change

Chapter 27 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

27.01 Gas Laws

28.01 Newton s Law of Gravitation

28.07 Molecular Heat of Gases

29.01 Basic Psychrometric Equation

Part V Emission Control and Plant Equipment

Chapter 30 TEST FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

30.01 Data Needed for Stack Testing

Chapter 31 USEFUL DATA FOR EMISSION CONTROL

31.01 Molecular Weights of Selected Gases

Chapter 32 STORAGE AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT

A2.01 Right Triangle

A3.01 Standard Deviation

A4.15 Deposit Calculation

A5. Safety Formulas

A5.01 Accident Frequency Rate

A6. Plane and Solid Geometry

QUALITY CONTROL FORMULAS

1.01 Ignition Loss

Ignition loss is usually determined by tests in a laboratory furnace. It can also be