The Basics of

Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

The Basics of Syntax Introducing Noun

Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Course Readings Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
The following readings have been posted to the Moodle Phrases
course site: Some Further
Details
▶ Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp. 194-198, 204-215) Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp. 74-99)
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The System Thus Far Syntax

The Fundamental Question: Course Readings

What are the rules and mental representations that Introduction

Lexical Categories
underlie our ability to speak and understand a language?
Phrase Structure
Rules
The Answer Thus Far: Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ Mental Representations:
Some Further
▶ A ‘mental lexicon’ listing the morphemes (words and Details
affixes) of the language. Introducing Verb
▶ For each morpheme, a representation of the phonemes Phrases

that constitute it. Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases
▶ The Rules: Summary
▶ Morphology: Rules for combining morphemes into words.
▶ Right Hand Head Rule, Morphophonemics

▶ Phonology: Rules affecting how the word is pronounced.

▶ The Syllabification Rule, Aspiration Rule, etc...

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 The Basics of
And Now...Syntax! Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

In This Unit: Lexical Categories

We will explore a third major category of rules and Phrase Structure

Rules
representations, those that concern sentences.
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Vocabulary: Syntax Some Further

Details

▶ The rules of sentence formation. Introducing Verb

Phrases
▶ The rules that state how words can be combined into Introducing
Prepositional
sentences. Phrases

Summary
The dog chased the cat. * Dog the cat chased the.

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 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Course Readings
▶ The rules for making sentences don’t refer to specific Introduction
words (e.g. ‘dog’, ‘run’) Lexical Categories

▶ Rather, they refer to types or categories of words Phrase Structure

Rules
(e.g. ‘noun’, ‘verb’)
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Illustration: Some Further

Details

1. NOT a Realistic Syntactic Rule: Introducing Verb

Phrases
“A sentence can be formed from ‘Dave’ and ‘danced’”
Introducing
2. A More Realistic Syntactic Rule: Prepositional
Phrases
“A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb”
Summary

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 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Course Readings
▶ The rules for making sentences don’t refer to specific Introduction
words (e.g. ‘dog’, ‘run’) Lexical Categories

▶ Rather, they refer to types or categories of words Phrase Structure

Rules
(e.g. ‘noun’, ‘verb’)
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Illustration: Some Further

Details

1. NOT a Realistic Syntactic Rule: Introducing Verb

Phrases
“A sentence can be formed from ‘Dave’ and ‘danced’”
Introducing
2. A More Realistic Syntactic Rule: Prepositional
Phrases
“A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb”
Summary

Evidence:
▶ If all we had were rules like (1), we’d need a ridiculous number of
them (separate rules for ‘cat’, ‘dog’, ‘duck’, ‘desk’?!)
▶ When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know
how to form sentences with it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories
▶ Imagine ‘snerd’ = ‘game that can be won in under 10 hours’ Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories
▶ Imagine ‘snerd’ = ‘game that can be won in under 10 hours’ Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all Introducing Noun
Phrases
good-sounding sentences:
Some Further
▶ This game is a real snerd. Details
▶ Don’t buy that snerd. Introducing Verb
▶ Snerds really annoy me. Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories
▶ Imagine ‘snerd’ = ‘game that can be won in under 10 hours’ Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all Introducing Noun
Phrases
good-sounding sentences:
Some Further
▶ This game is a real snerd. Details
▶ Don’t buy that snerd. Introducing Verb
▶ Snerds really annoy me. Phrases

Introducing
▶ You also know that these are not good-sounding sentences: Prepositional
Phrases
▶ * I snerd every weekend. Summary
▶ * I play very snerd.

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Conclusion: Rules

▶ Even though you hadn’t heard ‘snerd’ in a sentence, you knew Introducing Noun
Phrases
right away how to use it in sentences.
Some Further
▶ So, knowing how to use ‘snerd’ couldn’t be based in rules Details
specific to ‘snerd’ (cause you weren’t shown any). Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Conclusion: Rules

▶ Even though you hadn’t heard ‘snerd’ in a sentence, you knew Introducing Noun
Phrases
right away how to use it in sentences.
Some Further
▶ So, knowing how to use ‘snerd’ couldn’t be based in rules Details
specific to ‘snerd’ (cause you weren’t shown any). Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ So, the rules for forming sentences don’t refer to specific words
Introducing
(e.g. ‘snerd’), but to categories of words (e.g. ‘noun’) Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Course Readings
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how
Introduction
to form sentences with it.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Conclusion: Rules

▶ Even though you hadn’t heard ‘snerd’ in a sentence, you knew Introducing Noun
Phrases
right away how to use it in sentences.
Some Further
▶ So, knowing how to use ‘snerd’ couldn’t be based in rules Details
specific to ‘snerd’ (cause you weren’t shown any). Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ So, the rules for forming sentences don’t refer to specific words
Introducing
(e.g. ‘snerd’), but to categories of words (e.g. ‘noun’) Prepositional
Phrases
▶ When you learned ‘snerd’, you could tell it was a noun. Summary
▶ Knowing this, the rules for nouns in English told you how to
form sentences with it.

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 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Course Readings

Crucial Fact: Introduction

Lexical Categories
▶ The rules for making sentences don’t refer to specific Phrase Structure
Rules
words (e.g. ‘dog’, ‘run’)
Introducing Noun
▶ Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. Phrases

‘noun’, ‘verb’) Some Further

Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Vocabulary: Introducing
Prepositional
Syntactic category (‘lexical category’, ‘part of speech’) = Phrases
the word categories that the rules of syntax make reference to Summary

▶ Many of these will be familiar to you from language

classes...

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 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
▶ Examples: Course Readings

dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Introduction

▶ Main Characteristic: Lexical Categories

Nouns can appear alone after “the”: Phrase Structure

Rules
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd)
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
▶ Examples: Course Readings

dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Introduction

▶ Main Characteristic: Lexical Categories

Nouns can appear alone after “the”: Phrase Structure

Rules
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
Verb: (V)
Some Further
▶ Examples: Details

jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ Main Characteristic:
Introducing
Verbs can appear alone after “will” Prepositional
Phrases
(will jump, will run, will love, will ponder)
Summary

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 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
▶ Examples: Course Readings

dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Introduction

▶ Main Characteristic: Lexical Categories

Nouns can appear alone after “the”: Phrase Structure

Rules
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
Verb: (V)
Some Further
▶ Examples: Details

jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ Main Characteristic:
Introducing
Verbs can appear alone after “will” Prepositional
Phrases
(will jump, will run, will love, will ponder)
Summary
Adjective: (A)
▶ Examples:
happy, tall, little, wonderful, former, ugly, doable
▶ Main Characteristic:
Adjective can come between “the” and a N
(the happy dog, the former mayor, the. doable idea)
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 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
But wait, didn’t we learn back in grade school that:
Introduction
▶ Noun = ‘a person, place or thing’? Lexical Categories

▶ Verb = ‘an action’? Phrase Structure

Rules
▶ Adjective = ‘a quality’? Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
But wait, didn’t we learn back in grade school that:
Introduction
▶ Noun = ‘a person, place or thing’? Lexical Categories

▶ Verb = ‘an action’? Phrase Structure

Rules
▶ Adjective = ‘a quality’? Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Answer: Details
Those definitions aren’t totally correct: Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ Not all verbs describe actions (‘love’, ‘know’)
Introducing
Prepositional
▶ Not all adjectives describe qualities (‘former’) Phrases

Summary
▶ Saying ‘nouns’ describe ‘things’ is empty:
(anything can be a ‘thing’, including actions)

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 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
But wait, didn’t we learn back in grade school that:
Introduction
▶ Noun = ‘a person, place or thing’? Lexical Categories

▶ Verb = ‘an action’? Phrase Structure

Rules
▶ Adjective = ‘a quality’? Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Answer: Details
The correct definitions are in terms of where in a sentence they Introducing Verb
Phrases
can go:
Introducing
▶ A ‘noun’ can (e.g.) come alone right after “the” Prepositional
Phrases
▶ A ‘verb’ can (e.g.) come alone right after “will” Summary

▶ An ‘adjective’ can (e.g.) come between “the” and a noun.

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 The Basics of
Some More Syntactic Categories Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
Here are some more syntactic categories, which may be
Lexical Categories
new to you....
Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Determiner: (D) Phrases
▶ Examples: Some Further
Details
the, a, some, every, no, most
Introducing Verb
▶ Main Characteristic: (don’t worry about this for now) Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Preposition: (P) Phrases

▶ Examples: Summary

to, for, of, in, with, over, under, without, inside

▶ Main Characteristic: (don’t worry about this for now)

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 The Basics of
Towards Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

What We Know So Far: Course Readings

▶ Languages have rules for forming sentences. Introduction

▶ The rules don’t refer to specific words, but to word categories. Lexical Categories

▶ The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P Phrase Structure

Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Now, let’s start figuring out the actual rules! Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

What We Know So Far: Course Readings

▶ Languages have rules for forming sentences. Introduction

▶ The rules don’t refer to specific words, but to word categories. Lexical Categories

▶ The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P Phrase Structure

Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Now, let’s start figuring out the actual rules! Some Further
Details

Opening Observation: Introducing Verb

Phrases
You can form a sentence of English by combining a N and a V.
Introducing
▶ Dogs run. Prepositional
Phrases
▶ Boys dance. Summary

▶ Girls laugh.

A Formal Notation:
S→NV
“A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb”
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 The Basics of
The Basics of Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

A Formal Notation:
S→NV Course Readings

Introduction
“A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb”
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
▶ Rules in this notation are phrase structure rules. Rules

Introducing Noun
▶ They look like our earlier morphology rules... Phrases

Some Further
▶ Except there is no ‘+’ after the arrow. Details
▶ Because these rules make phrases, not words Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
The Basics of Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

A Formal Notation:
S→NV Course Readings

Introduction
“A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb”
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
▶ Rules in this notation are phrase structure rules. Rules

Introducing Noun
▶ They look like our earlier morphology rules... Phrases

Some Further
▶ Except there is no ‘+’ after the arrow. Details
▶ Because these rules make phrases, not words Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ As in our morphology unit, we can use ‘tree structures’ to
Introducing
illustrate the way these rules make larger structures: Prepositional
Phrases

S S S Summary

N V N V N V

Dogs run Boys dance Girls laugh

“The noun ‘dogs’ combines with the verb ‘run’ to make a sentence”
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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Details
Old dogs chased young cats
Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats S→ANVAN Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats S→ANVAN Details

Introducing Verb
Some old dogs chased the young cats Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats S→ANVAN Details

Some old dogs chased the young cats S→DANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats S→ANVAN Details

Some old dogs chased the young cats S→DANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Observation 2: Phrases

▶ All these rules above are getting tedious... Summary

▶ They are also missing an obvious pattern:

The Pattern:
Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N,
(iii) D A N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Course Readings
▶ There are many more rules to English syntax besides ‘S → N V’
Introduction
▶ There are many sentences that can’t be formed from this rule. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Sentence Rule Needed
Introducing Noun
Dogs chase cats S→NVN Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats S→DNVDN Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats S→ANVAN Details

Some old dogs chased the young cats S→DANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Observation 2: Phrases

▶ All these rules above are getting tedious... Summary

▶ They are also missing an obvious pattern:

The Pattern:
Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N,
(iii) D A N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Course Readings

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Introduction
(iii) D A N. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Course Readings

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Introduction
(iii) D A N. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern: Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ English treats all these as ‘the same kind of thing’: Some Further
N DN AN DAN Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Course Readings

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Introduction
(iii) D A N. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern: Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ English treats all these as ‘the same kind of thing’: Some Further
N DN AN DAN Details

▶ Let’s call this kind of ‘thing’ a Noun Phrase (NP) Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Course Readings

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Introduction
(iii) D A N. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern: Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ English treats all these as ‘the same kind of thing’: Some Further
N DN AN DAN Details

▶ Let’s call this kind of ‘thing’ a Noun Phrase (NP) Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ The following rules now capture ‘The Pattern’ Introducing
Prepositional
▶ NP → N Phrases
▶ NP → D N Summary
▶ NP → A N
▶ NP → D A N

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Course Readings

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Introduction
(iii) D A N. Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern: Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ English treats all these as ‘the same kind of thing’: Some Further
N DN AN DAN Details

▶ Let’s call this kind of ‘thing’ a Noun Phrase (NP) Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ The following rules now capture ‘The Pattern’ Introducing
Prepositional
▶ NP → N Phrases
▶ NP → D N Summary
▶ NP → A N
▶ NP → D A N
▶ We can now also simplify our rules for sentences to just these:
▶ S → NP V
▶ S → NP V NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Course Readings

Introduction
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
NP → N S → NP V Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
NP → D N S → NP V NP Rules

NP → A N Introducing Noun
Phrases
NP → D A N
Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Course Readings

Introduction
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
NP → N S → NP V Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
NP → D N S → NP V NP Rules

NP → A N Introducing Noun
Phrases
NP → D A N
Some Further
Details
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Introducing Verb
sentences: Phrases

S Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V Summary

D N run

some dogs
“Some dogs run”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Course Readings

Introduction
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
NP → N S → NP V Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
NP → D N S → NP V NP Rules

NP → A N Introducing Noun
Phrases
NP → D A N Some Further
Details
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Introducing Verb
sentences: Phrases

S Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V NP Summary

D A N chase A N

the young cats old dogs

“The young cats chase old dogs”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Course Readings

Introduction
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
NP → N S → NP V Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
NP → D N S → NP V NP Rules

NP → A N Introducing Noun
Phrases
NP → D A N Some Further
Details
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Introducing Verb
sentences: Phrases

S Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V NP Summary

N chase D N

Dogs most cats

“Dogs chase most cats”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Condensing our Rules for NPs Syntax

Course Readings
Our Phrase Structure Rules Introduction

PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Lexical Categories

NP → N S → NP V Phrase Structure
Rules
NP → D N S → NP V NP Introducing Noun

NP → A N Phrases

Some Further
NP → D A N Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Now let’s try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Condensing our Rules for NPs Syntax

Course Readings
Our Phrase Structure Rules Introduction

PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Lexical Categories

NP → N S → NP V Phrase Structure
Rules
NP → D N S → NP V NP Introducing Noun

NP → A N Phrases

Some Further
NP → D A N Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Now let’s try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Phrases
What These Rules Say: Introducing
▶ An NP has to have a N in it. Prepositional
Phrases
▶ An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A Summary
▶ If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A
▶ If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Course Readings
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the
Introduction
thing is optional.
Lexical Categories

▶ Illustration: Phrase Structure

Rules
NP → (D) (A) N
Introducing Noun
‘NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N’ Phrases

Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Course Readings
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the
Introduction
thing is optional.
Lexical Categories

▶ Illustration: Phrase Structure

Rules
NP → (D) (A) N
Introducing Noun
‘NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N’ Phrases

Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
What This Rule Says: Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

▶ An NP has to have a N in it. Introducing Verb

Phrases
▶ An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A
Introducing
▶ If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A Prepositional
Phrases
▶ If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D.
Summary

Conclusion:
This one rule (with parentheses) can replace our four earlier
rules for NPs.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Course Readings
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the
Introduction
thing is optional.
Lexical Categories

▶ Illustration: Phrase Structure

Rules
NP → (D) (A) N
Introducing Noun
‘NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N’ Phrases

Some Further
Details
Our New Phrase Structure Rules: Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Introducing Verb

Phrases
NP → (D) (A) N S → NP V Introducing
S → NP V NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and Words Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
A Technical Problem for our PS Rules:
Lexical Categories
▶ Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from Phrase Structure
Rules
smaller phrases / lexical categories:
▶ S → NP V Introducing Noun
Phrases
▶ S → NP V NP
Some Further
▶ NP → (D) (A) N Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’
▶ But, they don’t link lexical categories to specific words Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ Nothing in these rules says ‘dog’ is N, or ‘chase’ is V.
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ So, these rules alone don’t make full English sentences. Summary
(Only the ‘skeleton’ of a sentence.)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the ‘Mental Lexicon’ Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
What can we add so these ‘skeletons’ become full sentences?
Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the ‘Mental Lexicon’ Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
What can we add so these ‘skeletons’ become full sentences?
Introduction

Lexical Categories
Answer: The Mental Lexicon!
Phrase Structure
Our ‘mental lexicon (dictionary)’ lists for every word: Rules

▶ How the word is pronounced (it’s phonemic representation) Introducing Noun

Phrases
▶ What the word means Some Further
Details
▶ The word’s syntactic category (whether it’s a N, V, A, etc.) Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
A Picture of The Mental Lexicon: Phrases

Introducing
Dog Jump Prepositional
Sound: /dAg/ Sound: /Ã2mp/ Phrases

Part of Speech: Noun (N) Part of Speech: Verb (V) Summary

Meaning: canis familiaris Meaning: to leap

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the ‘Mental Lexicon’ Syntax

Question:
Course Readings
What can we add so these ‘skeletons’ become full sentences?
Introduction

Lexical Categories
Answer: The Mental Lexicon!
Phrase Structure
Our ‘mental lexicon (dictionary)’ lists for every word: Rules

▶ How the word is pronounced (it’s phonemic representation) Introducing Noun

Phrases
▶ What the word means Some Further
Details
▶ The word’s syntactic category (whether it’s a N, V, A, etc.) Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Key Idea: Phrases

Introducing
▶ Our mental lexicon can tell us which words can go where in a Prepositional
Phrases
‘sentence skeleton’.
Summary
▶ So, the full procedure for making a sentence consults the mental
lexicon.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories
Step One: Phrase Structure
Use the phrase structure rules to make a syntactic tree Rules

structure. Introducing Noun

Phrases

Some Further
S → NP V Details
NP → A N S Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
NP V Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
A N Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

S Course Readings

Introduction

NP V Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
A N Introducing Noun
Phrases
Step Two: Some Further
Details
Go to the mental lexicon; look for words that match the lexical Parenthesis Notation
categories in the tree. Accessing the ‘Mental
Lexicon’

Dog Jump Introducing Verb

Phrases
Sound: /dAg/ Sound: /Ã2mp/
Introducing
Part of Speech: Noun (N) Part of Speech: Verb (V) Prepositional
Meaning: canis familiaris Meaning: to leap Phrases

Summary
Old
Sound: /owld/
Part of Speech: Adjective (A)
Meaning: Advanced in age
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories
Step Three:
Phrase Structure
Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the Rules
lexical category labels in the tree Introducing Noun
Phrases
S Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation

NP V Accessing the ‘Mental

Lexicon’

Introducing Verb
Phrases
A N jump
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
old dogs
Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

The dog chased the cat down Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing

Prepositional
The dog chased the cat down the hill Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing

Prepositional
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Course Readings
▶ We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Introduction
▶ S → NP V Lexical Categories
▶ S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ These two rules don’t cover all sentences of English:
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Sentence Rule Needed Details
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introducing Verb
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Phrases

The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing

Prepositional
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Summary

Problem:
▶ Again, all these different rules are getting tedious.
▶ Again, these separate rules are missing an obvious pattern...

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings

The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction

The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing Noun
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Some Further
Details
The Pattern:
Introducing Verb
All the following combine with NP to make a sentence: Phrases

▶ V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ VP
Summary
▶ V P NP

▶ V NP

▶ V NP P

▶ V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings

The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction

The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing Noun
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Some Further
Details
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Verb
English treats all these as ‘the same type of thing’: Phrases

▶ V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ VP
Summary
▶ V P NP

▶ V NP

▶ V NP P

▶ V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings
The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Let’s call this ‘kind of a thing’ a Verb Phrase (VP) Introducing Verb
Phrases
(cause there’s always a V in it).
Introducing
▶ V Prepositional
Phrases

▶ VP Summary

▶ V P NP

▶ V NP

▶ V NP P

▶ V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings

The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction

The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing Noun
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Some Further
Details
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Verb
We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: Phrases

▶ V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ VP
Summary
▶ V P NP

▶ V NP

▶ V NP P

▶ V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings

The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction

The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing Noun
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Some Further
Details
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Verb
We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: Phrases

▶ VP → V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ VP → V P
Summary
▶ VP → V P NP

▶ VP → V NP

▶ VP → V NP P

▶ VP → V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S → NP V Course Readings

The dog ran down S → NP V P Introduction

The dog ran down the hill S → NP V P NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat S → NP V NP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down S → NP V NP P Introducing Noun
The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP V NP P NP Phrases

Some Further
Details
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Verb
Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one: Phrases

▶ VP → V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
▶ VP → V P
Summary
▶ VP → V P NP

▶ VP → V NP

▶ VP → V NP P

▶ VP → V NP P NP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax
Sentence Rule Needed
The dog ran S → NP VP Course Readings
The dog ran down S → NP VP Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S → NP VP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S → NP VP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S → NP VP Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S → NP VP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one: Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ VP → V Introducing
Prepositional
▶ VP → V P Phrases

Summary
▶ VP → V P NP

▶ VP → V NP

▶ VP → V NP P

▶ VP → V NP P NP

▶ S → NP VP
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Course Readings

For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction

NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V Lexical Categories

VP → V P Phrase Structure
Rules
VP → V P NP
Introducing Noun
VP → V NP Phrases
VP → V NP P Some Further
VP → V NP P NP Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Course Readings

For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction

NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V Lexical Categories

VP → V P Phrase Structure
Rules
VP → V P NP
Introducing Noun
VP → V NP Phrases
VP → V NP P Some Further
VP → V NP P NP Details

Introducing Verb
Observations: Phrases

▶ Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing

Prepositional
▶ A VP has to have a V in it. Phrases
▶ A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it Summary
▶ A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
▶ If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Course Readings

For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction

NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V Lexical Categories

VP → V P Phrase Structure
Rules
VP → V P NP
Introducing Noun
VP → V NP Phrases
VP → V NP P Some Further
VP → V NP P NP Details

Introducing Verb
Observations: Phrases

▶ Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing

Prepositional
▶ A VP has to have a V in it. Phrases
▶ A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it Summary
▶ A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
▶ If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P
▶ Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule:
▶ VP → V (NP) (P) (NP)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Course Readings

For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction

NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Observations: Phrases

▶ Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing

Prepositional
▶ A VP has to have a V in it. Phrases
▶ A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it Summary
▶ A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
▶ If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P
▶ Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule:
▶ VP → V (NP) (P) (NP)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

▶ These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
Rules
create rather complex sentences of English. Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

▶ These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
Rules
create rather complex sentences of English. Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
S Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
NP VP
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
N V P
Summary

Dave fell down

“Dave fell down.”

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

▶ These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
Rules
create rather complex sentences of English. Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
S Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
NP VP
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
A N V NP
Summary

Ugly cats like D N

this food
“Ugly cats like this food.”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

▶ These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
Rules
create rather complex sentences of English. Introducing Noun
Phrases

S Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
NP VP Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
D A N V NP P NP Phrases

Summary

the old man put A N into D A N

broken cups a wooden box

“The old man put broken cups into a wooden box.”
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! Rules

Introducing Noun
▶ The boy in the yard jumped. Phrases

Some Further
▶ The dog outside the fence barked. Details

Introducing Verb
▶ The dog outside barked. Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! Rules

Introducing Noun
▶ The boy in the yard jumped. Phrases

Some Further
▶ The dog outside the fence barked. Details

Introducing Verb
▶ The dog outside barked. Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Neded Change to PS Rules: NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Illustration: Details

Introducing Verb
▶ The dog outside barked Phrases
The dog outside the fence barked. Introducing
Prepositional
▶ The dog climbed down Phrases

The dog climbed down the tree. Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

English treats ‘P’ and ‘P NP’ as the same ‘type’ of thing. Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Let’s call this type of thing a ‘Propositional Phrase’ (PP) Introducing Verb
Phrases
(since there’s always a P in it).
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

These rules let us say PP is either P or P followed by NP: Introducing Verb

Phrases
▶ PP → P Introducing
Prepositional
▶ PP → P NP Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ PP → P Introducing
Prepositional
▶ PP → P NP Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (P) (NP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Apparent Pattern: Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ PP → P (NP) Introducing
(a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P) Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP) S → NP VP VP → V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
For PPs Rules

PP → P (NP) Introducing Noun

Phrases

Some Further
Apparent Pattern: Details
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Capturing the Pattern: Prepositional
Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: Phrases

Summary
▶ PP → P (NP)
(a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP) Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP) Phrase Structure
PP → P (NP) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP) Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP) Phrase Structure
PP → P (NP) Rules

Introducing Noun
These 4 rules can create very complex sentences of English. Phrases
S Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
NP VP Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
D N PP V NP PP Phrases

Summary
the boys P NP kicked D N P NP

in D N the ball down D N

this class the hall

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
▶ Syntax = (the study of) the rules of sentence formation Lexical Categories

▶ Phrase Structure
These rules give a general recipe for making sentences. Rules
▶ They don’t mention specific words (‘cat’, ‘jump’, ‘dog’)
Introducing Noun
▶ Instead, they mention categories of words Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
▶ Syntax = (the study of) the rules of sentence formation Lexical Categories

▶ Phrase Structure
These rules give a general recipe for making sentences. Rules
▶ They don’t mention specific words (‘cat’, ‘jump’, ‘dog’)
Introducing Noun
▶ Instead, they mention categories of words Phrases

Some Further
Details
▶ Syntactic category = Introducing Verb
Phrases
the word-categories that the rules of syntax refer to.
▶ Introducing
Noun (N) dog, cat, table, happiness... Prepositional
▶ Verb (V) jump, sleep, love, think... Phrases
▶ Adjective (A) tall, ugly, dead, uncool... Summary
▶ Determiner (D) the, a, this, many, most...
▶ Preposition (P) in, on, to, with, for...

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
▶ Sentences are not just strings of words. Lexical Categories
▶ They have a complex internal structure: Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs.
▶ Introducing Noun
NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Phrases
▶ VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs
Some Further
▶ PPs are made out of Ps and NPs Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Course Readings

Introduction
▶ Sentences are not just strings of words. Lexical Categories
▶ They have a complex internal structure: Phrase Structure
Rules
▶ Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs.
▶ Introducing Noun
NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Phrases
▶ VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs
Some Further
▶ PPs are made out of Ps and NPs Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
▶ We can express these groupings with ‘Phrase Structure Introducing
(PS) Rules’: Prepositional
Phrases
▶ S → NP VP
Summary
▶ NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
▶ VP → V (NP) (PP)
▶ PP → P (NP)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details
▶ Step One: Use PS rules to make a tree structure.
Introducing Verb
Phrases
S
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP VP
Summary

A N V PP

P NP

D N
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details
▶ Step Two:
Introducing Verb
Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. Phrases
S Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP VP
Summary

A N V PP

P NP

D N
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details
▶ Step Two:
Introducing Verb
Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. Phrases

Introducing
▶ A = ‘angry’ Prepositional
Phrases
▶ N = ‘bees’
▶ V = ‘sting’ Summary

▶ P = ‘on’
▶ D = ‘the’
▶ N = ‘face’

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details
▶ Step Three:
Introducing Verb
Insert those words into the tree structure, under the appropriate Phrases
category labels. Introducing
Prepositional
▶ A = ‘angry’ Phrases

▶ N = ‘bees’ Summary

▶ V = ‘sting’
▶ P = ‘on’
▶ D = ‘the’
▶ N = ‘face’

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Course Readings
S → NP VP
Introduction
NP → (D) (A) N (PP)
Lexical Categories
VP → V (NP) (PP)
PP → P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Phrases
rules and our ‘mental lexicon’: Some Further
Details
▶ Step Three: S
Introducing Verb
Phrases
NP VP Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
A N V PP Summary

Angry bees sting P NP

on D N

. . . . . . . the
. . . . . . . . face
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .