EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF 5kVA

STANDBY GENERATOR FUELED WITH DESERT DATE (BALANITES

AEGYPTIACA) BIODIESEL BLEND

SEMINAR I (LITERATURE REVIEW)

BY

MUHAMMAD KIBIYA MU’AZU

SPS/17/PME/00019

SUPERVISORS

PROF. IBRAHIM AHMED RUFA’I

DR. ISA ALIYU YOLA

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, BAYERO UNIVERSITY
KANO, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN
ENERGY ENGINEERING.

JULY, 2021

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

It is a known fact that, the world population is increasing every day and as the population
increases the energy demand and consumption also increases. Energy is the most fundamental
requirement for human existence and activities of any nation [ CITATION Reb11 \l 1033 ] . Access to
modern energy services remains a problem in Sub- Saharan Africa in which about 590 million
people remain without access to electricity [ CITATION Lin18 \l 1033 ]. Energy can either be
renewable or non-renewable but basically over 86% of the total world’s energy sources are non-
renewable in nature and is seriously depleting with time (Atadashi, Aroua, & Aziz, 2011). Apart
from its depleting, its products of combustion contribute immensely to greenhouse gas emissions
which give rise to climate change and ozone depletion [ CITATION See16 \l 1033 ]. The largest
source of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities in the United States is from burning of
fossil fuels for electricity, heat and transportation. Over the past two centuries mankind has
increased the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere from 280 to 380 parts per million by
volume and it is growing faster every day (Lamina & Shennawy, 2013). This leads to intense
search for an alternative and sustainable source. One of the alternative sources is biofuel, which
is gradually being adopted as alternative to fossil fuel for automobile, thermal and power
generation.

Nigeria is among the world’s ten most important exporters of petroleum, but has several
difficulties in its domestic energy generation and supply. Power outages are frequent in the cities
and 49% of the population has no access to electricity at all. The use of fossil fuels and firewood
causes a lot of environmental problems and the population increases in combination with a
growing economy resulting in unmanageable amount of waste in the cities. The use of biofuels
has the potentials to alleviate some of these problems [ CITATION Maf13 \l 1033 ]. The Federal
Government of Nigeria has plans to set up a $50 billion biofuel industry equity fund to develop
the domestic biofuel sector. A vibrant domestic biofuel industry will provide alternative clean
fuel for the country, curtail the importation of fossil fuel products and help to conserve foreign
exchange [ CITATION God17 \l 1033 ]. And presently Nigeria imports about 80% of her petroleum
based products from oversea and the fall in price of crude oil and other micro economic activities
had led to recession since 2015 [ CITATION Das18 \l 1033 ].

1.2 Statement of Problem

The ideal emission of greenhouse gases by the prime mover of a generator depends on its size,
efficiency and vintage of the combustion technology as well as maintenance and operational
practices. Based on the standard a 100% biodiesel is supposed to have 135.68 J/kg heat content,
0.00945 kg of CO2/kg of fuel, 0.00000014 g of CH4/ kg of fuel, and 0.000000001 kg of N2O/ kg
of fuel, (EPA, 2019). While Nigeria ambient air quality standard indicates: particulates 20μg/m 3,

2
sulphur dioxide 0.01ppm (26 μg/m3), non methane hydrocarbon 160 μg/m3, CO 10 – 20ppm
(11.4 – 22.8 μg/m3), and NOx 0.04 – 0.06ppm (75.0 - 113 μg/m3) ( get the decument)

Nigeria, the largest importer of diesel generators have an estimated emission of 9 million metric
tons of CO2 each year and greater than the emissions made from Medepu coal plant in South
Africa. Coal power plants were considered as the worst energy option for environment might
produce less harmful emissions than small capacity generators [ CITATION Tod14 \l 1033 ] . The
research conducted by Ayodele & Ademola, (2020) shows a CO concentration of 1013.4 μg/m 3,
NOx of 78.8 μg/m3, and 58.7 μg/m3 of Particulate Matter. 90% of the businesses and 30% of
homes are using diesel powered generators this indicates that 15 million generators in use in
Nigeria do emits about 40 toxic air contaminants eg benzene, arsenic, and formaldehyde which
causes cancer and lungs related diseases. It also contains pollutants eg CO, NO x, and
PM[ CITATION Niy11 \l 1033 ]

These emissions from the generators lead to problems such as air pollution, diseases, low
economic growth, low labor productivity and low Growth Domestic Product (GDP) (see
appendix). This study is meant to use biofuel from desert date seed in order to reduce the use
fossil fuels due to its environmental effects and the availability of the desert date plants in the
Northwestern part of Nigeria.

1.3 Significance of the Study

The use of fossil fuels in Northwestern part of Nigeria as the major source to fueled prime mover
of standby generator causes problems such as emissions of some greenhouse gases this lead to
high diseases, low labor productivity and lastly low growth domestic product (GDP). This
research is meant to study fuel properties of biodiesel from desert date seeds and experimentally
establish its performance parameters if fueled to 5kVA standby generator so that it may be used
as an alternative energy source, reduces the emission of some greenhouse gases, reduces
desertification, and increase growth domestic product (GDP).

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this research is to undertake an experimental and numerical investigation of 5kVA
prime mover run on desert date biodiesel blend. The objectives of the study are;

i. To determine the fuel properties of biodiesel produced from desert date seeds.
ii. To experimentally establish the performance characteristics of the prime mover fueled
with desert date biodiesel blends used to power 5kVA prime mover.
iii. To develop a numerical model for the combustion of desert date biodiesel in the
engine and simulate the model and validate it using the experimental data generated in
ii.
iv. To evaluate the economic and environmental effects of powering the engine using
desert date biodiesel blends

3
1.5 Scope, Delimitation, and Limitation of the Study

Scope

This research covers determining the fuel properties of biodiesel produced from desert date seeds
blends powered to a prime mover of a 5kVA standby generator. Experimental and Numerical
investigating the performance characteristics e.g fuel consumption and emissions, load, brake
thermal efficiency, brake power and mechanical efficiency of the engine. Validating the results
using relevant software and comparing it with the gases emitted by the generator’s prime mover
if fueled with normal diesel to measure the extent of effects it has both environmentally and
economically.

Delimitations

The research is delimited to determining the fuel properties and testing the performance of the
biodiesel blends from desert date seeds using relevant software and evaluating the economic and
environmental effects of powering the engine using desert date biodiesel blends.

Limitations

The research is limited to the use of biodiesel blends produced from desert date seeds source
from within Northwestern part of Nigeria.

2.0 THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS ON FUELING AN ENGINE OF 5kVA STANDBY

GENERATOR WITH DESERT DATE BIODIESEL BLENDS

2.1 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel

2.1.1 Biodiesel

According ASTM D6751, biodiesel is defined as monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from
vegetables oils and animal fats (insert referefence). The physical and chemical parameters to be
considered in the analysis of a biodiesel include: moisture content, specific gravity, kinematic viscosity,
flash point, free fatty acids saponification value, iodine value, refractive index, cetane number and carbon
residue[ CITATION Law19 \l 1033 ]. In order for vegetable oils and fats to be compatible with the diesel
engine, it is necessary to reduce their viscosity. This can be done by breaking down triglyceride bonds,
with the final product being referred to as biodiesel. There are four methods in which oils and fats can be
converted into biodiesel: transesterification, blending, microemulsions and pyrolysis. Among these
methods, transesterification is the most commonly used method. This process is achieved by reaction of a
triglyceride molecule with an excess of alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce glycerin and fatty
esters [ CITATION Gha06 \l 1033 ].

C6H8O6+ CH3OH→C6H9O2 + CH2OH…………. (1)

4
Combustion of biodiesel

Combustion is defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of hydrogen and carbon in the fuel with
the oxygen in the air, resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat. For combustion to take place
the following conditions are necessary: a combustible mixture, some means to initiate combustion, and
stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber. During the process of combustions,
carbon, hydrogen, etc combines with oxygen with liberation of heat.

The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of carbon and hydrogen. A good fuel should
have the following characteristics: High calorific value, Moderate ignition temperature, Low content of
non- combustible matters, Low moisture content, Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO,
SOx, H2S, Combustion should be controllable, and Easy to transport and readily available at low cost
[ CITATION Sye10 \l 1033 ] The ideal combustion equation for biodiesel is the C19 chain equation:

C 19 H 36 O 2 +27 O 2 → 19 CO2 +18 H 2 O ………………….(4)

Ideal Combustion of Biodiesel

Factors affecting combustion in compression ignition engine are: Ignition quality of fuel (cetane number),
Injection pressure of droplet size, Injection advance angle, Compression ratio, Intake temperature, Jacket
water temperature, Intake pressure, supercharging, Engine speed, Load and air- fuel ratio, Engine size,
and Type of combustion chamber.

2.1.2 Combustion of Liquid Fuels

Droplet combustion

The combustion of liquid fuel is typically accomplished by injecting a liquid through an orifice into a gas-
phase combustion environment. Turbulence inside of the liquid stream causes the emerging liquid stream
to break up into a tangle of liquid strands that subsequently evolve into a dense cloud of droplets that
penetrate through the gas into the combustion zone. Heat transfer to the droplet increases vapor pressure,
and thus fuel evaporation into the gas phase, until subsequent gas-phase ignition commences. A non-
premixed flame surrounds the droplet or a droplet group. It is important to note that the vapor itself is
what ultimately burns. The collection of these concurrent processes is called spray combustion [ CITATION
War06 \l 1033 ].

Combustion of single droplets

It is assumed that, combustion of a dense cloud of many droplets emerging from a fuel spray can be
viewed as an ensemble of single droplet combustion. This assumption is analogous to the assumption that
turbulent flame can be modeled as an ensemble of laminar flames. Three phases of droplet combustion
are identified, determined by different physical phenomena:

Heating phase: Heat from the gas phase causes the droplet surface to heat up. Much of the energy is
converted into the droplet until the entire droplet is approaching a boiling temperature.

Fuel evaporating stage: Fuel evaporates into the gas phase and a combustible mixture is formed

5
Combustion phase: The mixture ignites and burns as a spherically symmetric, laminar non premixed
flame; the droplet diameter now decreases in time.

Combustion of droplets groups

The first step towards modeling of spray combustion is to assume that the burning spray is merely an
ensemble of single, non-intersecting, burning droplets. The droplets emerge from the jet as a dense cloud
of drops with a wide range of diameters. Evaporation of the droplets and diffusion of the fuel into the gas
phase leads to the formation of a combustible mixture, which ignites at sufficiently high temperatures. If
dilute sprays are considered (distance between the droplets is large in comparison to the droplet
diameter), the processes during ignition and combustion can be known by an isolated examination of the
droplets. While in a dense sprays, the droplets are too close for their interaction to be neglected.

Formation of sprays

The spray is formed, as a fuel jet (coming e.g from a nozzle) is shattered by shear forces during injection.
This process is similar to the formation of turbulent structures in shear layers. The liquid fragments,
which are not yet spheres, are launched into the flow fields of oxidizer and combustion products. There
are several mechanisms which lead to a break-up of the fuel jet which are governed by an interaction of
stabilizing and destabilizing processes. There are two important dimensionless numbers characterizing
these processes, they are:

Weber number and the Ohnesorge number. The Weber number Weg is a measure for the ratio between
drag forces and surface tension

We g=ρ g d 1 ¿ ¿……………..(6) (check of its importance)

Where

ρ g , is the density of the gas phase,

d 1 , the diameter,

v1 , v gthe velocities of the liquid and the gas phase respectively, and

σ the surface tension.

The Ohnesorge number Ohd describes the ratio of viscous effects in the liquid and the surface tension

μ1
Ohd= …………………………….(7)
√ ρ1 d 1 σ
Where

μ1 is the velocity of the liquid and

ρ1 is the density.

6
Depending on these numbers, different jet break-up regimes can be identified.

For very low velocities no jet is obtained. This is the drip regime. If the velocity of the fluid is large
enough, but still low, the break-up of the fuel jet is governed by the Rayleigh mechanism, which is a
competition of liquid inertia and surface tension. It leads to the formation of droplets which have a
diameter approximately twice the jet diameter. If the jet velocity increases, a transition to the first wind-
induced regime occurs (for Weg = 1). Here the jet is twisted and breaks up to droplets which have
approximately the same size as the diameter of the jet. At still higher velocities surface instabilities add to
the helical instabilities, and breakup results in a variety of different droplet sizes with diameters up to the
injector diameter. For very large Weber numbers (Weg ¿ 10−¿40) the breakup starts right at the injector
exit. In this regime, which is also called atomization regime, very small droplets are formed. If the
Ohnesorge number is large (Oh ¿ 2– 4), viscous effects damp the instabilities leading to a break-up and
thus stable jets are obtained. The distribution of droplet diameters in a spray is not uniform.

Spray combustion modes

After the formation of the spray which is a dispersed liquid phase in the gas phase, evaporation and
mixing is leading to the formation of combustible mixtures. Due to the complicated structure of the spray
(with respect to spatial structure, droplet size distribution, spray density, etc) several combustion modes
are observed.

2.1.3 Experimental Investigation of Flames

The state of a reacting gas mixture at one spatial location is described completely when the velocity υ
temperature Т, pressure р, density ρ, and the mole fractions xi or mass fractions wi are known[ CITATION
War06 \l 1033 ].

i. Velocity measurements

The measurement of velocities in gaseous flows is usually called anemometry. A simple device for
measuring velocities is the hot – wire anemometer in which the axis of a thin platinum wire is suspended
normal to the flow. The wire temperature is sustained above the gas temperature by electrical heating.
The heat transfer from the wire is related to the approach velocity. One of the disadvantages of the hot
wire anemometry is that changes or fluctuations in the temperature or composition of the gas are
interpreted as changes in the velocity. At higher temperatures, the wire can act catalytically with fuel-air
mixtures. But still, the hot wire has been a major tool for air velocity measurements upstream of a flame.

ii. Density measurements

Density ρ (or concentration c= ρ/M) is usually inferred from the ideal gas equation of state combined with
a measurement of temperature and pressure. A direct measurement of density can be inferred from the
extinction (caused by either absorption or scattering; σ e xt =σ|¿|¿ + σ scatter , see equation below) of a laser
beam as it penetrates a medium; in accordance with the Lambert Beer law, the adsorbance A is given by

I laser
A = log I ( )
ext
= l.c i . σ i .ext ……………….(8)

7
 I laser
Where I = path length in the sample of concentration c i with the extinction coefficient σ i . ext and is
I ext
the ratio of initial light intensity and that after path length l.

Accurate measurements are difficult when the ratio is close to 1 (transparent medium) or 0 (opaque
medium) for a given path length.

iii. Concentration measurements

a) Probe samples: A method often used in combustion diagnostics to measure the composition is the
sampling by means of probes. A section tube is introduced into the system. The walls of the probe are
cooled so that further chemical reaction of the sample flowing inside the tube is halted, called freezing of
the reaction. The frozen sample is then analyzed for its chemical constituents using a wide variety of
techniques. The analysis is rarely controversial but great controversy exists as to how representative the
cooled sample is of the gas near the probe if the probe were absent as important radical species such as
OH, O, and H stop reacting inside the tube.

b) Raman spectroscopy: As indicated in the figure below, it is profitable to view the scattering process
as absorption of a laser photon that results in the molecule being excited to an upper virtual state, which
has a shorter half life of ca. 10 femtoseconds. A photon is re-emitted as the molecule returns to the
original state in the case of Rayleigh scattered light. From the virtual state, the molecule can return to a
state other than the original one. When this happens, the emitted photon has less or more energy than the
absorbed laser photon. This process is called stokes or anti stokes Roman scattering. In either event, the
energy difference between the laser photon and the emitted photon is proportional to the spacing of the
vibration energy level Ei

The Raman process would be the method of choice in nearly all combustion research but is weak that is
the Raman scattering cross section is small (-2000 times smaller than that of Rayleigh scattering).
Therefore, only very powerful lasers allow the use of this effect in combustion diagnostics and again only
species with concentrations above 1% of the gas mixture would be studied.

c) CARS spectroscopy: Closely related to Raman spectroscopy is the CARS spectroscopy in this method
additional light with frequency vs is irradiated besides the so called pump laser. Interaction of the laser the
light with molecules generates light with frequency VCARS which is given by VCARS = 2vp - vs

iv. Temperature measurement

Temperature fields can be measured vary easily by thermocouples which are pairs of junctions between
different metals. A voltage which is approximately proportional to the temperature difference between the
junctions is induced. Usually different metal combinations are used depending on the temperature range.
The main disadvantage is that the method measures the temperature of the metal-metal junction which has
to be related to the surrounding gas temperature.

v. Pressure measurements

In unconfined subsonic flow flames, the pressure is nearly constant while in confined the pressure is often
steady with a slight gradient of pressure maintaining the subsonic flow accounting for acceleration of the

8
flow. These average pressures are suitably measured with conventional liquid or electronic manometers.
Quite often in combustion the pressure varies with time.

vi. Measurement of particle size

In multi-plate combustion systems (spray combustion, coal combustion, soot formation etc.) not only
velocity, temperature and concentration but also the size and distribution of fuel particles (coal particles
or droplets) are desired. In this case, laser spectroscopic methods can be applied too. But for liquids, a
technique based on refraction of light through the droplet called the phase Dopper technique. When
particle size is less than 1μm as in the case for soot, cigarette smoke, dust, viruses one has to use
collective scattering since scattering from a single particle is weak and in the Rayleigh limit, is
proportional to d6.

2.1.4 Transport Phenomena

Molecular transport processes i.e diffusion, heat conduction and viscosity, the physical properties of these
processes are commonly transported by the movement of the molecules in the gas. Diffusion is the mass
transport caused by concentration gradients, velocity is the momentum transport caused by velocity
gradients, and heat conduction is the energy transport caused by temperature gradients and there are other
phenomena such as mass transport which is also caused by temperature gradients or energy transport
caused by concentration gradients too. But the influence of the later is usually small and often neglected
in the simulation of combustion processes[ CITATION War06 \l 1033 ].

Simple physical model of transport processes

A simple model for transport processes is obtained by considering two neighboring gas layers in a system
as shown below. If there is gradient ∂զ ∕ ∂z of a property q in z- direction, the molecules at z have the
mean property q and at z + dz the mean property q + (∂զ ∕ ∂z) dz. The motion is in complete disorder. The
statistical velocity is given by a Maxwell-Boitzmann distribution stating that the number of particles in a
velocity interval ∆υ is N(υ) ∆υ ∞ υ2 exp(-υ2/KT) ∆υ. The molecular motion causes some molecules to
move from one layer to another. Because the gas layers have different mean properties, different mean
amounts of momentum, energy and mass are transferred in both directions. A continues molecular
exchange called a flux results. From kinetic theory of gases it follows that the transport is faster is faster if
the mean velocity of the molecules is faster and if the mean free path of the molecules is larger. The
simplified kinetic theory of gases is based on the assumption that the particles are rigid spheres which
interact in a completely elastic way. In reality, there are deviations from these assumptions. Molecules
have a complicated structure, which is distinctly different from a spherical geometry. Furthermore, the
model of elastic collisions assumes that the particles do not interact expect during the collision, whereas
in reality forces of attraction are present e.g Van-der-Waals forces. The intermolecular potential
describing the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules or atoms differs from the ideal potential of
rigid spheres.

Heat conduction in gases

For transport of energy Q through area A, the empirically determined Fourier law of heat conduction
states that the heat flux density jq is proportional to the temperature gradient

9
 ∂Q ∂T
Jq = =λ ………………..(9)
∂ t .. A ∂z

This means that heat flux occurs from a region of high temperature towards one with a lower temperature.
The symbol λ is called thermal conductivity.

Figure 2.1 One – dimensional Conduction heat transfer [ CITATION Aza20 \l 1033 ]

Viscosity of gases

Newton’s law of viscosity states for the transport of momentum, the momentum flux density j mv is
proportional to the velocity gradient.

∂(mu) ∂u
Jmv = = -μ ∂ z ………………..(10)
∂t . A

Thus momentum is transported from regions of high velocity regions to regions of law velocity and the
symbol μ is called coefficient of viscosity and the above equation is valid where only a gradient in z-
direction occurs. Another method is based on Hagen-Poiseulle’s law for laminar flow, which states that
the volume ∆V flowing through a capillary tube per time ∆t is inversely proportional to the coefficient of
viscosity with r = radius of the capillary tube, l = length, ∆p = pressure difference.

∆V π r4∆ p
∆t
= ………………………………(11)
8 μl

This is the result of integration of the former equation. The kinetic theory of gases, using the
intermolecular potential model of rigid spheres predicts μto be proportional to a product of particle
density (n), mean velocity υ, molecular mass m and mean free path l coll, μ ∝ [ n ].υ. m.lcoll, leading to;

5 √ πmkT 2 m
μ = 16 2 or μ = 5 . c . λ ………………….(12)
πσ v

10
A refined prediction of μ, again includes a real gas effects by considering an intermolecular potential of
the Lennard Jones 6-12 type. The inclusion of real gas effects modifies the rigid sphere result by a factor
Ὡ(2.2) (reduced collision integral)

5 √ πmkT μ rigid sphere

μ = 16 2 (2.2 ) = ………………….(13)
πσ Ὡ Ὡ
(2.2)

Analogous to the thermal conductivity, the coefficient of viscosity does not depend on the pressure and is
proportional to the square root of the temperature (μ ᷉ T 1/ 2).But for practical application the convenient
relation is used.

−8 √ MT
μ = 2.6693 ×10 …………………….(14)
σ 2 Ὡ (2.2)

Diffusion in gases

For the mass transport caused by concentration gradient Fick’s law states that the mass flux j m is
proportional to the concentration gradient

∂m ∂c
jm = ∂ t . A = -DM ∂ z …………………………..(15)

The coefficient of proportionality D is called the diffusion coefficient (M is the molar mass)

3 √ πmkT 1 6μ 6
D= 8 2 = = v ………………………(16)
ρ 5ρ 5
πσ

2.1.5 American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) standard and European
Standard for biodiesel (en 14214)

The American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) specification for biodiesel (B100)
is ASTM D 6751-03. There exists a common European standard for biodiesel EN 14214 ie automotive
fuels- fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for diesel engines requirements and test method. ASTM standards
and properties for biodiesel and general applicable requirements and test methods for biodiesel after EN
14214 are summarized in table 2.1 and 2.2 below:

Table 2.1 ASTM D – 6751 Standards for Biodiesel

S/N Parameter Value (as per standard) Value (as per

experimental results)

1. Flash point 130oC min (150oC average) 240.00

2. Water and sediment 0.05% by vol, max

3. Kinematic viscosity at 30oC 1.9 – 6.0 mm2/s 6.00 cst

4. Rams bottom carbon residue % 0.10

11
 mass

5. Sulfuted ash 0.020% by mass, max

6. Sulfur 0.050% by mass, max

7. Copper strip corrosion No. 3 max

8. Cetane Number 47 min 43.00

9. Carbon residue 0.050% by mass,max

10. Acid number mgKOH/g 0.80 max

11. Free glycerin 0.020%

12. Total glycerin (free glycerin and 0.24% by mass, max

unconverted glycerides
combined)

13. Phosphorus content 0.001 % by mass,max

14. Distillation 99% @360oC

Table 2.2 General applicable requirements and test methods for biodiesel after EN 14214 [ CITATION
Dom06 \l 1033 ]

S/N Property Units Maximum Minimum Test method

1. Ester content % 96.5 - Pr EN14103

2. Density at 150C Kg/m3 860 900 EN ISO 3675

EN ISO 12185

3. Viscosity at 400C mm2 3.5 5.0 EN ISO 310

0
4. Flash point C Above 101 - ISO/CD 3679

5. Sulfur content Mg/kg - 10 -

6. Carbon residue % - 0.3 EN ISO 10370

7. Cetane Number - 51.0 - EN ISO 5165

8. Sulphated ash content % - 0.02 ISO 3987

9. Water content mg/kg - 500 EN ISO 12937

10. Total contamination mg/kg - 24 EN 12662

11. Copper strip corrosion (3Hr rating Class1 Class1 EN ISO 2160

12
 at 500C

12. Thermal stability - - - -

13. Oxidation stability,1100C hours 6 - PrEN14112

14. Acid value Mg KOH/g - 0.5 PrEN14104

15. Iodine value - - 120 PrEN14111

16. Linolenic acid methyl ester % - 12 PrEN14103

17. Poly unsaturated (≥double % - 1 -

bonds) methyl ester

18. Methanol content % - 0.2 PrEN14110

19. Monoglyceride content % - 0.8 Pr EN14105

20. Diglyceride content % - 0.2 PrEN14105

21. Triglyceride content % - 0.2 PrEN14105

22. Free glycerol % - 0.02 PrEN14105

PrEN14106

23. Total glycerol % - 0.25 PrEN14105

24. Alkaline metals (Na+ K) mg/kg - 5 PrEN14108

PrEN14109

25. Phosphorus content mg/kg - 10 PrEN14107

The flash point is the temperature where the vapor above the fuel reaches the lower flammability limit
and will ignite under given set of test conditions specified by ASTMD93 [ CITATION Ter13 \l 1033 ].
Minimum flash point is set to assure that excess methanol was removed during the manufacturing
process, since methanol reduces the flash point. In addition, presence of methanol in biodiesel can also
affect fuel pumps, seals and elastomers, and can result in poor combustion properties.

The basic property of a diesel fuel is its cetane number determining first of all the ignition quality, which
is a pre-requisite for operation of a compression- ignition engine. In some cases the cetane number of a
fuel may be increased by the use of special additives (nitrates and various peroxides) in an amount of 0.5
to 3.0% [ CITATION Kol84 \l 1033 ].

Requirements for free water droplets and levels of sediment-related particulate matter eliminate the use of
improper processing such as poor drying techniques during manufacturing and improper handling during
transport or storage. Excess water in the fuel cannot only lead to corrosion; it can foster the growth of
microorganisms.

13
Sulfur is limited in order to reduce sulfate and sulfuric acid pollutant emissions and to protect exhaust
catalyst systems. The copper strip corrosion test is an indicator of potential difficulties with copper and
bronze fuel system components. Prolonged contact with these components can cause fuel degradation and
sediment formation. Cetane number is a measure of combustion quality for diesel fuel under compression.
An adequate cetane number is required for good engine performance.

Cloud point is important for ensuring good performance in cold temperatures. Its value is determined by
the local climate.

Carbon residue measures the tendency of a fuel to form carbon deposits in an engine. Acid number is
primarily an indicator of free fatty acids in biodiesel and increases if a fuel is not properly manufactured
or has undergone oxidative degradation. Fuel system deposits and reduced life of fuel pumps and filters
contribute to an acid number higher than 0.80.

Free and total glycerin numbers are a measure of the unconverted (triglyceride) or partially converted
triglycerides (monoglycerides and diglycerides) as well as by-product triglycerols present in the fuel.
High amounts of free and total glycerin can cause fouling in storage tanks, fuel systems, and engines,
along with plugging filters and producing other problems.

Slight amount of phosphorous content in Biodiesel can damage catalytic converters. Phosphorous levels
above 10 ppm are present in some vegetable oils, and this requirement ensures that a phosphorous level
reduction process is conducted. The T90 distillation specification prevents contamination in fuels with
high boiling materials.

2.2 Performance and Emission Parameters of an Internal Combustion Engine

Engine

Every machine contains an engine, which is the unit that converts the fuel into usable energy. For this
reason, an engine is sometimes called the machine’s prime mover. The function of internal combustion
engine is the production of mechanical power from the chemical energy contained in the fuel. In internal
combustion engines, energy is released through burning or oxidizing the fuel inside the engine. The fuel-
air mixture before combustion and the burned products after combustion are the actual working fluids of
the process. The work transfers which give the desired power output occur directly between these
working fluids and the mechanical components of the engine (John, 1988).

14
 Figure 2.2 Basic components of an Engine

Theoretical cycle

Generally the theory of internal combustion engines is based upon the use of thermodynamic
relationships and their approximation to the real conditions by taking into account the real factors.
Therefore, profound study of the theoretical (thermodynamic) cycles on the basis of the thermodynamics
knowledge is a prerequisite for successful study of the processes occurring in the cylinders of actual auto-
mobile and tractor engines. Unlike the actual processes occurring in the cylinders of engines, the closed
theoretical (ideal) cycles are accomplished in an imaginary heat engine and show the following features:

a. Conversion of heat into mechanical energy is accomplished in a closed space by one and the same
constant amount of working medium.

b. The composition and heat capacity of the working medium remain unchanged.

c. Heat is fed from an external sourc,e at a constant pressure and a constant volume only.

d. The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic, i.e. without heat exchange with the
environment, the specific-heat ratios being equal and constant.

e. In the theoretical cycles no heat losses take place (including those for friction, radiation, hydraulic
losses, etc.), except for heat transfer to the heat sink. This loss is the only and indispensable in the case of
a closed theoretic.al cycle.

Open theoretical cycles

The quantitative indices of closed theoretical cycles are far from the real values and do not account for the
three processes occurring in any real engine. First, this is the process of working medium intake and
exhaust which is completely excluded from the closed cycle because of the assumption that the working
medium and its specific heat are constant. In real engine each cycle is accomplished with participation of
a fresh mixture and each cycle is followed by cleaning the cylinder of waste gases. While in the real cycle
the specific heat of the working medium is dependent on the temperature and constantly varying
composition of the working medium. Secondly, the combustion process is replaced in the closed
theoretical cycle by a heat transfer process from an external source. In a real engine the combustion

15
process proceeds in time following a complex law with intensive heat exchange. Thirdly, they do not take
into account additional losses caused by the continuous heat exchange between the working medium and
the surrounding through the cylinder walls, cylinder block head, piston crown, and also by leaks of
working medium through clearances between the cylinder and the piston, by overcoming mechanical and
hydraulic resistances. Besides, heat losses in a real engine are dependent upon the temperature of the
residual gases and excessive air or upon chemically incomplete combustion of the fuel (Kolchin, 1984).

Therefore, the open theoretical cycles far more exactly depict the processes occurring in real engines and
the quantitative figures of the parameters of these cycles may serve the purpose of assessing the
corresponding parameters of actual processes. Due to their thermodynamic relations being far more
complicated, the quantitative analysis of the open cycles is more intricate than that of the closed cycles.
An algorithm and a program for computations on a B9CM-6 computer have been developed for the
analysis of open theoretical cycles with heat added at constant volume.

The change in the quantitative indices of an actual open cycle utilizing a certain fuel is dependent, only
upon four independent variables: compression ratio E, temperature T, and pressure pa at the beginning of
compression and the excess air factor a (Kolchin, 1984).

The actual cycle

The actual cycle experienced by internal combustion engines is an open cycle with changing composition,
actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency due to various losses occurring in
the actual engine. These major losses are:

i. Time loss factor: loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air and also for combustion

ii. Heat loss factor: loss of heat gasses to cylinder walls

iii. Exhaust blow down factor: loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust
valve.

2.2.1 Performance parameters of an internal combustion engine

The basic design and performance parameters in internal combustion engines includes, power
(indicated, brake, and effective), pressure (mean effective, indicated and effective), efficiency
(mechanical/overall, thermal, and indicated), torque (brake) and more.

i. Power

The power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by the dynamometer is the product of torque
and angular speed:

P = 2πNT ……………….(17)

Where N is the crankshaft rotational speed in (rev/min)

T is the torque

16
Note that torque is a measure of an engine's ability to do work; power is the rate at which work is
done. The value of engine power measured as described above is called brake power Pb.

ii. Indicated power (I.P)

The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is called indicated
power given by the relation [ CITATION Raj14 \l 1033 ];

npmi LANk ×10

I.P =
6
……………(18)

Where n = Number of cylinders,

pmi=¿ Indicated mean effective pressure (bar),

L = Length of stroke (m),

A = Area of piston (m2)

N = Speed (r.p.m)

k = ½ for 4 stroke engine and 1 for 2 stroke

iii. Brake power (B.P)

This is the power developed by an engine at the output shaft and given by relation;

2 πNT
B.P = ……………….(19)
60× 1000

Where N = Speed (r.p.m),

T = Torque in (Nm)

iv. Effective power

This is the power at the engine crankshaft per unit time denoted by Ne. The value of Ne in kW
can be determined by the indicated power through the mechanical efficiency:

Ne = Niɳ m…………………..(20)

Where: Ni is the indicated power and

ɳ m is the mechanical efficiency

17
v. Mean effective pressure

This is defined as average pressure in the cylinder for a complete engine cycle. By definition
mean effective pressure is the ratio between the work and engine displacement[ CITATION
Ken03 \l 1033 ].

W
Pme = ………………(21)
Vd

W =Pme V d ……………(22)

Where Pme = mean effective pressure in Pa

W = work performed in a complete engine cycle in Joule

V d = engine (cylinder) displacement in m3

There is a relationship between the power of the engine and the work produced

nr P
W= ……………….(23)
ne

Where nr = number of crankshaft rotations for a complete engine cycle (2 for 4 stroke engine)

P = engine power and

n e= engine speed

nr P
Pme = ……………………………(24)
ne V d

Power is the product of torque and speed

P=ωT =2 π n e T …………………..(25)

2 π nr T
Pme = ………………………..(26)
Vd

For an engine with multiple cylinders, the total volumetric capacity is taken into account. For n c
being the number of cylinders, the expression of mep becomes

2 π nr T
Pme =
nc V d
……………..(27)

18
Note that mean effective pressure is only a parameter to measure engine performance and does
not reflect the actual pressure inside an individual combustion chamber.

There are three different mean effective pressures;

a) Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP): This is the mean effective pressure calculated with
indicated power (work). This parameter does not take into account the efficiency of the engine.

b) Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP): This is the mean effective pressure calculated from
the dynamometer power (torque). This is the actual output of the internal combustion engine at
the crankshaft. It also takes into account the engine efficiency.

c) Function mean effective pressure (FMEP): This is an indicator of the mean effective pressure
of the engine lost through function and it’s the difference between IMEP and BMEP

FMEP = IMEP – BMEP …………………(28)

The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) can equally be expressed as;

W c ,i ƪ f , i m f Q LHV
imep =
Vd
= Vd
……………(29)

Where W c , i is the indicated work per cycle which is sum of the compression stroke work and the
expansion stroke work:

W c , i=W c +W s………….(30)

iv. Brake torque

Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer.' The engine is clamped on a test bed
and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor is coupled electromagnetically,
hydraulically, or by mechanical friction to a stator, which is supported in low friction bearings.
The stator is balanced with the rotor stationary. The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor
turning is measured by balancing the stator with weights, springs, or pneumatic means.

T = Fb ………………….(31)

ix. Specific fuel consumption

In engine tests, the fuel consumption is measured as a flow rate, mass flow per unit time m f. A
more useful parameter is the specific fuel consumption (sfc) the fuel flow rate per unit power
output. It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work.

sfc = mf/p …………………(32)

19
Where: mf is the mass flow rate and

p is the power
x. Mechanical losses

These are losses due to overcoming various resistances which are evaluated by the value of
mechanical loss power or the value of work corresponding to the mechanical loss power related
to unit displacement. When carrying out preliminary computations on engines, mechanical losses
evaluated in terms of mean pressure pm may be approximately defined by the linear dependences
on the mean piston speed vp.m. The relations to be used to calculate the mean pressure depend on
the type of engine example: for carburetor engines having up to six cylinders:

Pm = 0.049 + 0.0152vp.m for four stroke engine diesel engines having open combustion chambers
Pm = 0.089 + 0.0113vp.m, for pre chamber diesel engines, Pm = 0.103 + 0.0153vp.m and for swirl-
chamber diesel engines Pm = 0.089 + 0.0133vp.m.

The mean pressure of mechanical losses Pm is computed using the relation for calculating Pm for
carburetor engines having up to six cylinders through Pm for swirl-chamber and neglecting the
quality of the oils used, thermal condition of the engine, type and surface friction and
supercharging. When a driven supercharger (mechanical supercharging) is used the losses in the
engine increase by the value of its drive power (Kolchin, 1984).

xi. Mechanical efficiency

The ratio of the mean effective pressure to the indicated pressure is called the mechanical
efficiency of an engine:

Pe Pm
ɳ m= = 1- ……………..(33)
Pi Pi

With an increase in engine losses, ɳ mdecreases also. The value of mechanical efficiency growth
with a decrease in the losses caused by friction and driving the auxiliaries, and also with
increasing the load to a certain limit.

xii. The thermal efficiency

This is the ratio of heat converted into useful mechanical work to the overall amount of heat
applied to the working medium:

Q1−Q2 Q2
ɳt = Q1
= 1- …………(34)
Q1

where Q1, is the amount of heat supplied to the working medium from an external source; Q 2, is
the amount of heat rejected from the working medium to the heat sink.

20
The effective efficiency or thermal efficiency ɳe and the effective specific fuel consumption ge
are characteristics of engine economical operation. The ratio of an amount of heat equivalent to
the useful work applied to the engine crankshaft to the total amount of heat admitted to the
engine with the fuel is called the effective efficiency:

ɳe = Le/Hu…………………….(35)

where Le is the heat equivalent to the effective work in MJ/kg of fuel

Hu is the lower heat of fuel combustion in MJ/kg of fuel

The relation between the effective efficiency and mechanical efficiency of an engine is
determined by the expression:

ɳe = ɳi ɳm…………………………..(36)

With the engine operating on a liquid fuel

pe αLo
ɳe= ρ ɳ = H ……….…..(37)
k v u

The effective efficiency is a characteristic of how the fuel heat is utilized in the engine with due
considerations to all losses, thermal, or mechanical. Higher values of effective efficiency ɳe in
diesel engines are mainly due to their higher values of excess air factor and, therefore, more
complete combustion of the fuel. The effective specific fuel consumption of a liquid fuel is given
by:

ge = 3600/( H u ɳ e ¿ ………………(38)

For the modern automotive engines the effective specific fuel consumption under nominal load
for diesel engines with open chambers is between 250 – 245 g/(kWh) (Kolchin, 1984).

xiii. The indicated efficiency

The indicated efficiency ɳ t is characteristic of the extent of the fuel heat consumption in an
actual cycle to obtain useful work. It represents the ratio of heat equivalent to the indicated cycle
work to the overall amount of heat admitted to the cylinder with the fuel.

ɳ i=L / H ………………(39)
i u

Where Li is the heat equivalent to the indicated work and Hu is the lower heat of fuel combustion.
Therefore, the indicated efficiency accounts for all heat losses of an actual cycle.

21
2.2.2 Emissions and emission index

Levels of emissions of oxides of nitrogen (nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2, usually
grouped together as NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and
particulates are important engine operating characteristics. The concentrations of gaseous
emissions in the engine exhaust gases are usually measured in parts per million or % by volume.
Specific emissions are the volume of pollutant per unit volume of the fuel:

v NO x
sNOx = …………...(40)
V

With similar expressions for sCO, sHC, and sParticulate matter

2.3 Numerical Model of Operation of Prime Mover of a Standby Generator

Simulation is the execution of model, represented by a computer program that gives information about the
system being investigated. Mathematical modeling is used widely to study the performance of technical
objects. This modeling process shows the software simulation of a real system can be successfully
combined with a traditional form of electromechanical converter’s study [ CITATION Nad15 \l 1033 ].

The development and design of modern electromechanical converter are based on computer mathematical
models using this models one may predict the behavior of electromechanical converters with given
parameters in various modes and optimize parameters to achieve the best performances. Things to
consider are; Diesel power plant’s structure, synchronous generator’s model, test bed, synchronous
generators characteristic.

A G-T Power is the market leading engine simulation software used by major engine manufacturer for the
design and development of their engines. It is applicable to any size and type of engine and its installed
base includes highly diverse group of car, truck, marine, locomotive, power generation, mining and
construction, agricultural and lawn and garden equipment manufacturers. It contains a comprehensive
industry’s advanced set of models for engine performance analysis, providing the breadth of features
required to allow the engineer to analyze a number of engine configurations and performance
characteristics including; torque and power curves, air flow, volume efficiency, fuel consumption,
emissions etc.

GT-SUITE commercial software was used by Dhanesh, Aditya, & Jeevan, (2019) to develop one
dimensional model of single cylinder four stroke direct injection diesel engine which provide model for
students to conduct performance analysis during the laboratory period e.g valve lift profile optimization,
thermal analysis of cylinder, engine noise analysis at intake and exhaust etc. The model design covers the
engine cycle consisting of intake, compression, power and exhaust.

It is observed that after the installation of three – way catalytic converter, universal gasoline engine often
experience significant power loss. In order to solve the problem, a numerical engine simulation technique
was employed to explore a high efficiency performance optimization method based on one dimensional
simulated engine by using GT Power software. The method was applied to simulate the performance
optimization approach, formulated and proto type trial production and experiments were carried out. The

22
optimized engine performed better after the catalytic converter was installed than it did before its
installation. The proposed performance optimization method was validated accurate, efficient and worth
applying in the engineering field [ CITATION Wan16 \l 1033 ].

The software has been recognized for its high degree of accuracy in predicting the behavior of complex
engine related phenomenon. At its core, the GT- Power solver is based on the ID solution of the fully
unsteady, non- linear Navier- Stokes equations. This combination of solvers provides for unmatched
model accuracy for both macro level quantities such as torque, bsfc, airflow etc as well as detailed micro
level quantities such as crank angle resolved cylinder pressure resulting from multi pulse injection
strategies as well as emission species concentrations anywhere in the system [ CITATION Man16 \l 1033 ].

2.4 Economic and Environmental Effects of Operation of Internal Combustion Engine

2.4.1 Economic effects

No any Nation can develop without electricity; two of the 17 sustainable development goals adopted by
the United Nations in September 2015 are to ensure access to affordable, reliable and modern energy for
all by 2030. It is established that over 40% of electricity consumed annually in West African Countries
are from generators and is very expensive with $28 billion to $50 billion spent by generator users on fuels
annually also. This corresponds to an average service cost of $0.30/kWh for the fuel alone which is higher
than the cost of grid based energy ($0.10 – 0.3/kWh)[ CITATION Nic19 \l 1033 ]. The recent estimate by
the Nigeria Labor Congress shows that as much as N3.5 tn ( approx. $17 billion USD) is spent annually
by industrial generator users. These generators are used in institutional, commercial and large housing
sites.

With 6,500 MW, the installed capacity of Nigeria's public electricity grid is at best 30% of the current
requirements, and on average most homes have access to public electricity supply for 6 hours daily. To
address electricity supply shortfalls for most Nigerians means procurement and installation of private
diesel-powered generators. Current estimates indicate that over 90% of businesses and 30% of homes
have diesel-powered generators, meaning that there are currently about 15 million generators in use in
Africa's most populous nation.

2.4.2 Environmental effects

Emissions from fossil fuels combustion are of global concern due to their effects on public health and
environment. Man made emissions of greenhouse gases have increased by 70% of which more than 70%
of it is from carbon dioxide emission from the combustion of fossil fuels. In the developing world,
automobile air pollution is mostly a problem in large cities with high levels of traffics, such as Mexico
City, Bangkok, New Delhi and Lagos (Nigeria). Burning of fossil fuels has caused poor and outdoor air
quality in the country, which has significantly contributed to public health and environmental issues. It
was observed that the total amount of greenhouse emitted into the environment for the period 1980- 2014
was 7.3 Χ 108 t CO2 with a highest emission of CO 2 in 2008 by gasoline and 1993 by diesel [ CITATION
Giw17 \l 1033 ]. A 40% of global CO2 emissions are from electricity generation through the combustion
of fossil fuels to generate heat needed to power steam turbines. Burning these fuels results in the
production of CO2 which is the primary heat trapping, “greenhouse gas” responsible for global warming
[ CITATION Lam131 \l 1033 ].

23
 As a source of pollution, generators are often not considered since their fuel consumption can be lumped
in with the transport sector in official statistics. Generators consumed the same fuel and also emit the
same pollutants as cars and trucks only that, they are used in closer proximity to people’s homes and
businesses. Therefore the emissions from generators may represent meaningful but largely unaccounted
or misclassified [ CITATION Nic19 \l 1033 ]. In a research conducted by Olusegun & Adeoye, (2016) in
which the sample of the generators used ranged from 1- 25Kva found the following results: mean
concentration of PM1 (4.7 – 219.2 μg/m 3), PM3 (7.8 – 251.6 μg/m3), CO2 (4.5 – 10.9%) CH 4 (0.0 –
1.2ppm), CO (141.1 – 416.7ppm), NO x (4.0 – 85.7ppm) Sulphur Oxides (3.5 – 65.6ppm) and Hydrogen
Sulphide (0.0 – 0.7ppm). The ailments frequently suffered by the exposed residents are; nasal congestion
(66%), cough (33%), headache (24%) and fever (12%). The noise levels and pollutants concentrations
released from the diesel powered generators were experimentally determined by Solomon, Collins, &
Hezekiah, (2019) using appropriate measuring instruments. Both the measured noise levels and pollutants
concentration (CO, CO2, and PM2,5) emanating from the generators were considerably higher than the
recommended maximum limits by WHO and ASHRAE.

Nigeria’s total greenhouse gas emissions in 2014 were 492.44 million metric tons of CO 2 equivalent (Mt
CO2 e), totaling 1.01% of global greenhouse gas emissions. 38.2% of greenhouse gas emissions come
from the land use change and forestry sector in Nigeria, followed by the energy, waste, agriculture and
the industrial processes sector which contributed 32.6%, 14%, 13% and 2.1% respectively to greenhouse
gas emissions. In its intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), Nigeria pledges to
unconditionally reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% by the year 2030 compared to business as usual
(BAU) emission levels. It aims to achieve this goal by improving energy efficiency by 20%, providing
13gW of renewable electricity to rural communities that are currently not connected to the electric power
grid, and by ending the flaring of gas (Ivan & Branko, 2019).

Diesel emissions from domestic generators in Nigeria surpass those from workplaces, trucks, and buses,
and pose greater risks to human health and the environment due to proximity to homes and prolonged
duration of use. More than 40 toxic air contaminants, including many known or suspected cancer-causing
substances, such as benzene, arsenic, and formaldehyde were found in diesel exhaust and other harmful
environmental pollutants, including nitrogen oxide, currently the single most important ozone-depleting
emission. Exposure to diesel exhaust has been linked to lung cancer in occupational settings. Regional
surveys suggest that Nigeria's asthma prevalence among adults increased from 5.1–7.5% in 2003 to 13.1–
14.2% in 2006, and Nigeria currently has the highest prevalence of asthma in Africa, after South Africa
[ CITATION Niy11 \l 1033 ].

The aggregate effect of all these generators is huge, Nigeria as a case study is the largest importer of
diesel generator with an estimated nine million units in use. These generators produce an estimate of
about 29 million metric tons of CO 2 each year. This is greater than expected emissions from the
controversial Medupi coal plant in South Africa. A coal plant is usually considered as the worst energy
option for the environment which produces about 1000gCO 2/kWh, a 5kW diesel generator emits twice as
much. Electricity generation is one of the contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Transitioning
the world’s energy economy to a lower carbon future will require significant investment in a variety of
cleaner technologies, including renewable and nuclear power [ CITATION Pau12 \l 1033 ].

24
Depletion of resources and changes in climatic conditions remains as the major environmental challenges
globally. People’s activities as a result of the combustion of fossils fuels, cement manufacturing and land
use for agricultural purposes causes carbon dioxide emissions which are basically gaseous substances.
Globally, there has been a serious concern about the cumulative increased level of emissions of gas which
are being trapped into the atmosphere. It was observed that emission of carbon dioxide is the main source
of greenhouse gas emission and need to be reduced through reduction of deforestation and conservation
of land, controlling of wildfire, adopting better methods of combustion residues of crops and effective use
of energy [ CITATION Olu18 \l 1033 ].

Diesel engines are sources of small soot or smoke particles, as well as hydrocarbons and oxides
of nitrogen. Table 2.3 outlines the dimensions of the problem.

Table 2.3 Automotive urban air pollution problem( MOVE TO APPENDIX)

Automobile emission Truck emissio

s ns
S/ Pollutant Impact Mobile Uncontrolled Reductio SI Diesel
N source vehicles(g/k n in new engines(g/k g/km
emissio m) vehicles m)
n as % %
of total
1. Oxides of Reactant in 40 - 60 2.5 75 7 12
nitrogen photochemic
(NO and al smog;
NO2) NO2 is toxic
2. Carbon Toxic 90 65 95 150 17
monoxide
(CO)
3. Unburned Reactant in 30 - 50 10 90 17 3
Hydrocarbo photochemic
ns (HC, al smog;
many
hydrocarbon
compounds)
4. Particulates Reduces 50 0.56 40 Negligible 0.5
(soot and visibility:
absorbed some of HC
hydrocarbon compounds
compounds) mutagenic

Table 2.4 Typical diesel exhausts emission (Puneet & Sharma, 2015) (check for WHO)

S/N Component Concentration

1. Component naturally occurring in air N2 70 – 75 % vol

25
 O2 5 – 15 % vol

CO2 2 – 12 % vol

H 2O 2 – 10 % vol

2. Regulated harmful components CO 100 – 1000ppm

HC 50 – 500ppm

NOX 30 – 600ppm

SOX Proportional to fuel content

PM 20 – 200mg/m2

3. Unregulated harmful components Ammonia 1.25mg/km

Cyanides 0.625mg/km

Benzene 3.75mg/km

Toluene 1.25mg/km

Aldehydes 0.0mg/km

3.0 ADVANCED RESEARCH ON FUELING A 5kVA ENGINE WITH DESERT DATE

BIODIESEL BLENDS

3.1 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Produced from Desert Date Seeds

The fuel properties of a Balanites aegyptiaca seeds as potential alternative to diesel for domestic usage
revealed high crude protein of 22.09% [ CITATION Cho20 \l 1033 ], saponificaton value of 216.43 mg
KOH/g, 172.5meqKOH/g ,and 168.6mg KOH/g (Chomini, et al., 2020), (Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, &
Maryam, 2016) and [ CITATION Das18 \l 1033 ] respectively. The Iodine value was found to 77.08g/100g,
78.7g/100g [ CITATION Cho20 \l 1033 ] and [ CITATION Das18 \l 1033 ]. The peroxide value of 4.84
meq/Kg was obtained by Chomini, et al., (2020) while Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam, (2016)
obtained 9.37meq/kg. Free fatty acid of Balanites aegyptiaca seeds was found to be 0.47meq/g and 0.18
mgKOH/kg, (Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam, 2016) and [ CITATION Das18 \l 1033 ] respectively.

The specific gravity of the seeds was found to be 0.9199, 0.927, and 0.97 as proved by Seer, Saidat,
Abdulwahab, & Maryam, (2016), Dass, et al., (2018) and [ CITATION Nik132 \l 1033 ] respectively. The
yield point of the seeds was 49.9%, 80%, and 90% as found by Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam,
(2016), Dass, et al., (2018) and [ CITATION Nik132 \l 1033 ]. The acid value content was 2.18mgKOH/g
and 0.925mgKOH/g (Chomini, et al., 2020), and (Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam, 2016). While
the moisture content was found by Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam, (2016), and [ CITATION
Nik132 \l 1033 ] to be 9.8% and 8.73% crude fat (56.75%), peroxide value (4.84 meq/Kg), acid value
(2.18 mg KOH/g), , viscosity value (150.3 mm 2/s), cetane number (54.08), and calorific value (39.03

26
MJ/kg[ CITATION Cho20 \l 1033 ]. These properties are closely to standard specification so can be good
potential feedstock for the production of biodiesel which can be used as an alternative energy source.
Balanites aegyptiaca is a potential feedstock for the production of biodiesel which can be used as an
alternative energy carrier in the dryland areas of Nigeria. Development of the technology for harnessing
the potentials in Balanites aegyptiaca will certainly contribute to the energy security of this vulnerable
region[ CITATION Abd20 \l 1033 ].

In a research conducted by Seer, Saidat, Abdulwahab, & Maryam (2016), the production of the biodiesel
was conducted using transesterification process by varying catalyst concentration, oil to methanol molar
ratio, reaction time and reaction temperature which shows the following; cloud point 8 ˚C pour point -13˚C
flash point 170˚C, viscosity 5.2 and the yield was found to be 82%. Based on this investigation the seed
oil was found to be economically viable oil source because the oil content was found to be high and
composed of moderately long chain fatty acids with a degree of unsaturation, making it good feedstock
for biodiesel production.

Balanites aegyptiaca seeds are good source of oil which can be used as a diesel substitute, the oil was
extracted from the seed using hexane (40- 60 ˚C). The oil yield was found to be 34.52% while the yield of
the biodiesel after 12-24hours reaction was 90%, three fatty acids in the extracted oil were identified as;
Palmitic acid, Linoliec and Stearic acids with 14.73%, 75.86% and 9.4% respectively. The oil exhibited
good physical and chemical properties which can be used in biodiesel production as the fuel properties
were within ASTM 6751 standard specification[ CITATION Gut121 \l 1033 ].

The increasing demand of conventional source of fuel has made people to consider an alternative fuel
source that can substitute the present demand by some percentage. As the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca
have low moisture content of 8.73% which is an indication of a reasonable shelf life for the seed. The
average oil content obtained is about 37.2%. Its fuel properties were found to be; specific gravity, 0.97;
density, 0.95g/cm3 and the Flash point 176˚C and 170˚C [ CITATION Nik132 \l 1033 ] and (Seer, Saidat,
Abdulwahab, & Maryam 2016). The oil exhibits good physical and chemical properties which can be
used in biodiesel production as the fuel properties were within ASTM 6751 standard specification. Fuel
properties like calorific value, flash point and cetane value of biodiesel blends were found comparable
with petroleum diesel. Performance results reveal that most of the biodiesel give higher brake thermal
efficiency and lower brake specific fuel consumption. Emission results showed that in most cases,
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is increased, and Hydocarbon (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO) and Particulate
matter (PM) emissions are decreased B 20 blend of biodiesel with diesel was found the best suitable blend
for engine.

3.2 Performance and Emission Parameters of Biodiesel Fuelled Engines

3.2.1 Performance parameters of biodiesel fueled engines

The rise in the price of conventional fuel and its shortage in supply have increased the interest in the field
of the alternative sources for petroleum fuels. The performance emission and combustion characteristics
of balanites aegyptiaca biodiesel and its blends were carried out by Mallesh & H.K, (2014). The engine
performance studied are; brake horse power, brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency,
exhaust temperature and mechanical efficiency. While the emission characteristics studied are CO, HC,

27
NOX and smoke opacity. The results obtained were then compared to those of pure diesel and other neat
oils available. Based on the results, it was observed that performance characteristics are reduced and
emission characteristics are lowered. This may be attributed due to lower calorific value, higher viscosity
and delayed combustion process and B10 and B20 blends were found to be best suited for biodiesel
engine. It equally indicates that biodiesel from desert date and its blends can be used as an alternative fuel
in diesel engines.

In an experiment conducted by Puneet & Sharma, (2015) on performance and emission characteristics of
biodiesel fuelled diesel engines shows a general trend in brake specific fuel consumption for different
biodiesel followed by decrease in BSFC with the increase in engine speed and brake power, the brake
thermal efficiency varies from one source of biodiesel to another. The emission characteristics consists of
CO, HC, NOX, smoke opacity, based on the report, the CO and HC emissions were reduced while N 2O
emissions increases with increase in biodiesel content [ CITATION Pex18 \l 1033 ].

3.2.2 Emissions parameters of biodiesel fueled engines

With the steady increase in combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, the products of combustion are distinctly
identified as a severe source of environmental damage. The major products of combustion are carbon
dioxide and water which were considered harmless before. But now even the carbon dioxide is becoming
a significant source in the atmospheric balance and concerns of a global greenhouse effect. Less obvious
products of combustion are nitric oxides (NO x) these oxides are the major contributor of photochemical
smog and ozone in the urban air [ CITATION War06 \l 1033 ].

3.4 Numerical Model of Operation of Prime Mover of a Standby Generator

Exhaust gases from marine diesel engines are the primary sources of emissions from ships and
significantly contribute to environmental pollution due to the characteristics of the combustion process.
Several models of slow- speed diesel engines have been developed and analyzed (Giuseppe, Amedeo,
Paolo, & Adolfe, 2016). A MATLAB program was used by Esmaeil, Elkamel, & Mahmoud, (2006) for a
three dimensional simulation of multi pollutants (CO, NO X, SO2, and TH) dispersion from an industrial
stack using a multiple cell model. The program verification was conducted by checking the simulation
results against experimental data and Gaussian Model and better agreement were obtained in comparison
with the Gaussian model.

A MATLAB software was developed to determine the performance of a four stroke compression ignition
internal combustion (IC) engine. The modeling of this process begins with the simulation of one cylinder
of the four stroke IC engine which is assumed to have an ideal pressure – volume (P – V) relationship
allowing for computation of peak performance. The simulation is modeled for ideal cycle system with
eneryption of thermodynamic laws of heat transfer and then it is also modeled for the prediction of
emissions. While the second phase of the model focuses on fuel cycle system where all the real factors are
to be considered for the prediction of performance parameters and emissions along with the
thermodynamics model to compute heat release. Performance parameters computed include; brake power
and brake specific fuel consumption for an engine’s entire operating range [ CITATION Har14 \l 1033 ].

In another research Prasada, Victor, & Anuradha, (2017) investigated the performance and emission
characteristics of single cylinder four stroke indirect diesel injection (IDI) engine fueled with rice bran

28
methyl ester (RBME) with isopropanol additive. The investigation is done through a combination of
experimental data analysis and artificial neural network (ANN) modeling. The study used Indirect diesel
injection engine experimental data to evaluate nine engine performance and emission parameters
including exhaust gas temperature (EGT), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake thermal
efficiency (B.The) and various emissions like hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen oxide and smoke. It was found that ANN was able to predict the engine performance and exhaust
emissions with a correlation of 0.995, 0.980, 0.999, 0.985, 0.999, 0.999, 0.980, 0.999, for EGT, BSFC,
B.The, HC, O2, CO2, CO, NOX, smoke respectively.

An engine model proposal was made to predict the performance and exhaust gas emissions of a single
cylinder four stroke direct injection engine which was fueled with diesel and palm oil methyl ester of B7
(blends 7% palm oil methyl ester with 93% diesel by volume) and B10. The optimum compression ratio
which yields better performance was identified. The result indicates that biodiesel resulting from palm oil
methyl ester could represent a superior alternative to diesel fuel when the engine operates with variable
compression ratio. The blends when used as fuel result in a reduction of the brake specific fuel
consumption and brake thermal efficiency, while NO X emissions was increased when the engine’s
operated with biodiesel blends [ CITATION Ald16 \l 1033 ].

In a research conducted by Yahuza, Dandakouta, Ibrahim, & Dasin, (2018) model was developed using
GT-Power, an engine cycle simulation for a biodiesel ethanol- diesel (BED) fueled direct injection
compression ignition engine corresponding to a 4.5 liter, TecQuipment TD 115 MK-11 Single cylinder
diesel engine was used. A quasi- dimensional, multi- zone engine model of single cylinder four stroke
compression ignition engines was developed using GT-Power Software and applied to study the engine
combustion characteristics with both reference diesel fuel and biodiesel – ethanol – diesel fuel. The
engine model was calibrated both for diesel and biodiesel ethanol- diesel fuels and the following
conclusions were drawn;

The maximum value of pressure of 108.5 bar occurred at 11.2 ˚ TDCF for 2080 rpm while the minimum
value of 2.1 bar was found at 404.2 ˚ TDC for 1760 rpm when the simulation was conducted with BED 30.
This minimum value remains almost the same for all the speed conditions up to the end of the combustion
process.

For BED 30, from 0 – 360˚ of crank angle ( between power and exhaust strokes) the pressure fluctuates
with uniform trends for all the speeds conditions and after 360 ˚ TDC the pressure drops drastically to
allow a new intake, which is in conformity with what (Tat et al 2013) in their work.

The results show a steady increase of the mass flow rate with speeds with lowest values of 0.18 kg/s for
BED 30 and 0.17 kg/s for diesel at 1760 rpm. This testifies the hypothesis of (Tat et al 2013) that mass
flow rate at the boundary for proper combustion in CI engine should have the values between 0.17 kg/s to
0.222kg/s.

A several output files that contain simulation results in various formats are produced whenever a
simulation is run using GT- SUITE. Most of the outputs are available in the post processing application
GT- POST is powerful tool that can be used to view animation and other analysis output. And after the
simulations, report tables that summarize the simulations can be produced. The reports contain important
information about the simulation and simulation result in a tabular form. The simulation result is all of the

29
engine performance data with the different engine speeds (rpm). This model was running on any different
speed in rpm. The work was based on simulation result of engine performance on the following; exhaust
valve lift, intake valve lift, air fuel ratio, indicated power (ip), brake power (bp), brake mean effective
pressure (bmep), indicated mean effective pressure (imep), engine cylinder pressure, brake torque (bt),
indicated torque (it), indicated specific fuel consumption (bsfc) [ CITATION Som08 \l 1033 ].

In a research conducted by Nurun, Mohammad, & Prasad, (2018) a thermodynamic model was developed
to analyze engine performance and combustion behavior of a single cylinder four stroke naturally
aspirated, direct injection (DI) diesel engine. The model was developed using commercial GT- Power
software. Various sub models for different systems including intake, exhaust, fuel injection, combustion
and heat transfer rate were combined for thermodynamic analysis for the engine performance and
combustion behavior. In the analysis, the engine rotational speed, start of injection timing and
compression ratio were considered as variables in which the rotational speed was varied between 800-
2500 rpm, compression ratio were changed from 13-25. The performance and combustion parameters
were found.

3.5 Economic and Environmental Effects of Operation of Standby Generator’s Prime Mover

3.5.1 Economic effects

The continued heavy dependence on fossil fuel powered generators in Nigeria by government institutions,
businesses and households for electricity supply constitutes a major threat to the nation’s climate change
plans. An assessment of the economic implication of electricity self generation in Nigeria was made
[ CITATION Ugw12 \l 1033 ]. In this regard, energy and exergetic utilization efficiencies of 19 different
generators and gas turbines from Afam power station were assessed based on real data obtained through
survey of companies, oral interview, individuals and also experiments carried out during the course of
study. The results of the analysis indicate that the economic losses associated with self- generation of
electricity is high. Compared to an average power holding company of Nigeria tariff of #12.20/kWh, the
average costs of self generation for petrol, diesel and natural gas generators were found to be
#46,30/kWh, #47.74/kWh and #6.44/kWh, while the average cost rates of exergy losses were found to be
#1,076.34, # 114,16534 and # 238,810.76 respectively.

With an installed capacity of 13,308 mW, only 6,158 mW were operational in 2014. Of these, only
between 3,000 MW to 4,500 MW are actually being generated due to unavailability of gas, breakdowns,
water shortage and grid constraints. The poor performance of the power plants has led to acute shortage
of power across the country. Altogether, up to 2,700 MW of power generation capabilities are regularly
lost due to gas constraints in a country with one of the largest natural gas deposit in the world. About 500
MW are lost due to water management, while several hundred megawatts are regularly lost due to line
constraints. Industry, commerce and private households are suffering from a severe shortfall in electricity
generation [ CITATION Ker15 \l 1033 ]. Nigeria is one of the many developing countries where electricity
is unreliable and the impact of using generators to supplement grid based supply is what the International
Finance Corporation explores in a report titled Dirty Footprint of Broken Grid. Nigeria with some other
countries like India, Iraq, Pakistan, Venezuela and Bangladesh is the six biggest users of back-up
generators.

30
In western Africa, private generators provide the equivalent of 40% of what’s generated by grid. In the
sub region’s largest economy Nigeria, the study conservatively estimates the installed capacity of
generators is between 15- 20gW compared with a grid capacity of 5- 15 gW. In sub Saharan Africa, one
out of every five liters of diesel and petrol is used in a back – up generator [ CITATION Yin19 \l 1033 ].
Nigeria was considered as prominent country in Sub-Saharan Africa plagued with protracted, erratic low
power supply. In an experiment to investigate the noise level and pollutants (CO, CO 2 and particulate
matter (PM2,5)) concentrations associated with prevalent use of diesel powered generators in the country
with the aim of providing information on the level of gaseous, particulate and noise pollutants that are
related to diesel powered generators that could assist in policy formation and create public awareness on
the possible health issues. Findings from this experiment reveal ranges of 72.6 – 115.6dB, 19 – 198ppm,
501 – 5,805ppm, and 221 – 492µg/m3 for the noise levels, CO, CO2 and particulate matter (PM2,5)
concentrations respectively were obtained. Both the averages and ranges of the noise levels and pollutants
concentrations were considerably higher than the recommended maximum limits. Thus, the study
indicates that, the air quality index revealed very unhealthy and hazardous [ CITATION Giw19 \l 1033 ].

3.5.2 Environmental effects

Most people in Nigeria uses electricity generators of varying capacities as an alternative source due to
unreliability of electricity supply from National grid. To evaluate the impact of emissions from
generating sets on air quality and human health in selected areas of Abeokuta City, Nigeria. The
following were obtained: level of particulates matter (PM 1, PM3), CO, CO2, Sulphur Oxides, NOX,
hydrogen sulphide and methane were monitored using portable samplers. Copies of questionnaires were
administered to generator operators and nearby residents so as to collect additional information. The
capacities of sampled generators ranged from 1 – 25 kVA. Findings revealed a range of mean
concentrations of PM1 (4.7 - 219 µg/m3), PM3 (7.8 – 251.6 µg/m3), carbon dioxide (4.5 – 10.9%), methane
(0.0 – 1.2 ppm), carbon monoxide (141.1– 4167.0 ppm), NO X (4.0 – 85.7 ppm), methane (2.3 – 31.0
ppm), sulphur oxides (3.5 – 65.6 ppm) and hydrogen sulphide (0.0 – 0.7 ppm) were highest at generator
sites.. Ailments frequency suffered by the exposed residents includes nasal congestion (66%), cough
(33%), headache (24%) and fever (12%). A national policy on appropriate use of electricity generator is
urgently needed in Nigeria [ CITATION Olu16 \l 1033 ]. There was information that 11 lung cancer cases
were caused as a result of exposure to diesel motor exhaust in Europe and Canada [ CITATION Wil11 \l
1033 ].

The use of generators in urban settlements in Nigeria over the years has been a major source of concern
to the health and comfort of building occupants.. Measurement of noise levels were taken with the use of
digital sound level meter with compliance to National Environmental Standards and Regulations
Enforcement Agency (NESREA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards.
The findings of the study revealed that the mean indoor noise levels of 79.97dB, 87.4 dB during use of
generators in residential buildings were highest and above the permissible limits within some areas in
Ibadan [ CITATION Ake18 \l 1033 ]. Access to affordable and clean energy has been a problem to millions
of people around the world especially the rural and poor in developing countries. This made them to
resort to use fuel wood as the primary source of domestic energy which causes deforestation, biodiversity
loss and climate change impacts there by undermining environmental sustainability in the country
[ CITATION Jac18 \l 1033 ]. These social, environmental, and economical problems can be omitted by use
of renewable energy sources [ CITATION Mah20 \l 1033 ].

31
4.0 RESULTS OF THE REVIEW

These results include the data obtained from experimental and the numerical investigation, e.g
fuel properties and characteristics which involves the calorific value, viscosity, density, flash,
pour, cloud points. The performance characteristics which includes plotting of graphs of brake
thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust temperatures, mechanical efficiency
against brake power. While the emission characteristics can be obtained by plotting a graph of
gases emitted against the brake power. Lastly the experimental parameters and the numerical
parameters will be validated by using relevant software to show the extent of accuracy of the
experimental results.

4.1 Knowledge Gaps Discovered in the Theory or Practice

There were researches conducted on the analysis of chemical and physical properties of a biodiesel
obtained from Desert dates seeds (Balanites aegyptiaca). But there were limited researches in applying
the biodiesel to run a prime mover of standby generator, study the performance parameters and compare
the analyzed parameters with an ideal biodiesel. There were also little researches on finding the
economic and environmental effects of operating the generator’s prime mover with desert date biodiesel
blends.

4.2 Discussion of the Findings

The increase in price of conventional fuel and its shortages in supply have lead to search of an
alternative source. The performance emission and combustion characteristics of balanites
aegyptiaca biodiesel and its blends when compared with pure biodiesel and other neat oils
indicate that performance characteristics are reduced while the emission characteristics are
lowered (Mallesh, Amanath, & Hebhal, 2014). It was also found out that, the performance
parameters slightly decrease with little impact on production of harmful emissions components
[ CITATION Pex18 \l 1033 ].

The Kyoto protocol covers six greenhouse gases namely; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphurhexafluoride. Three of the six Kyoto these six
are of primary concern due to their relevance to human activities. The sources of greenhouse
gases can be fossil fuels for electricity, heat and transport. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is the vast
majority and contributes to global warming and a small amount of metane (CH 4) and nitrous
oxide (N2O). Man made emissions of greenhouse gases have increase by 70% of which more
than 70% of it is from carbon dioxide (CO2) emission from the combustion of fossil fuels while
in the developing world, automobile air pollution is mostly a problem. With 30% - 40% of the
current requirement in Nigeria, most Nigerians procure and install a private diesel powered
generators to address the shortfall. Diesel emissions from domestic generators in Nigeria surpass
those from work places, trucks, and buses and pose greater risk to human health and environment
due to proximity to homes and prolonged usage. It is found out that exposure to diesel exhaust
32
has being linked to lung cancer in occupational settings. Regional surveys suggest that Nigeria’s
asthma prevalence among adults increased from 5.1–7.5% in 2003 to 13.1–14.2% in 2006, and
Nigeria currently has the highest prevalence of asthma in Africa, after South Africa [ CITATION
Niy11 \l 1033 ].

GT-SUITE commercial software was used by Dhanesh, Aditya, & Jeevan, (2019) to develop one
dimensional model of single cylinder four stroke direct injection diesel engine which provide
model for students to conduct performance analysis during the laboratory period e.g valve lift
profile optimization, thermal analysis of cylinder, engine noise analysis at intake and exhaust etc.
The model design covers the engine cycle consisting of intake, compression, power and exhaust.
The software has been recognized for its high degree of accuracy in predicting the behavior of
complex engine related phenomenon.

It is found from the literature that the continued dependence on fossil fuel powered generators in
Nigeria by government institutions, businesses and households for electricity supply constitutes a
major threat to the nation’s climate change plans [ CITATION Ugw12 \l 1033 ]. With an installed
capacity of 13,308 mW, only 6,158 mW were operational in 2014. Of these, only between 3,000
MW to 4,500 MW are actually being generated due to unavailability of gas, breakdowns, water
shortage and grid constraints. Nigeria is one of the many developing countries where electricity
is unreliable and the impact of using generators to supplement grid based supply is what the
International Finance Corporation explores in a report titled Dirty Footprint of Broken Grid.
Nigeria with some other countries like India, Iraq, Pakistan, Venezuela and Bangladesh is the six
biggest users of back-up generator.

In an experiment to investigate the noise level and pollutants (CO, CO 2 and particulate matter
(PM2,5) concentrations associated with prevalent use of diesel powered generators in the country
with the aim of providing information on the level of gaseous, particulate and noise pollutants
that are related to diesel powered generators that could assist in policy formation and create
public awareness on the possible health issues. Findings from this experiment reveal ranges of
72.6 – 115.6dB, 19 – 198ppm, 501 – 5,805ppm, and 221 – 492µg/m 3 for the noise levels, CO,
CO2 and particulate matter (PM2,5) concentrations respectively were obtained. Both the averages
and ranges of the noise levels and pollutants concentrations were considerably higher than the
recommended maximum limits. Thus, the study indicates that, the air quality index revealed very
unhealthy and hazardous [ CITATION Giw19 \l 1033 ]. Nigerian uses electricity generators of
varying capacities as an alternative source due to unreliability of electricity supply from National
grid. [ CITATION Olu16 \l 1033 ]. There was information that 11 lung cancer cases were caused as a
result of exposure to diesel motor exhaust in Europe and Canada [ CITATION Wil11 \l 1033 ]. It is
found out that the use of generators in urban settlements in Nigeria over the years has been a
major source of concern to the health and comfort of building occupants [ CITATION Ake18 \l
1033 ]. Human have relied on renewable and non- renewable energy sources for daily survival
and development drive. Access to affordable and clean energy has been a problem to millions of
people around the world especially the rural and poor in developing countries. This made them to
33
resort to use fuel wood as the primary source of domestic energy which causes deforestation,
biodiversity loss and climate change impacts there by undermining environmental sustainability
in the country [ CITATION Jac18 \l 1033 ].

4.3 Justification for the Study

There is a growing concern on the effects of fossil fuel emissions on human health and its social
and financial effects. Many sources of renewable energy are being researched and implemented
for power production. In particular, the biodiesel energy productions from various biodiesel
seeds are very popular. Biodiesel from desert date seeds can equally act as alternative source of
energy since based on the literatures it was found to have high oil content, less emission of
greenhouse gases, readily biodegradable and the seeds can be obtained in the dryland areas.
There were researches on biofuel production from desert date seeds but limited only to the
production and analysis. The biofuels produced are not tested to fuel a prime mover and
evaluating the effects of the gases emitted.

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

It is important to use all the possible means to find the available sources of alternative energy
sources in order to reduce overdependence on limited sources which may deplete or be harmful
to human health. Comparing the performance parameters of the engine fueled with biodiesel
blends from the desert date seed’s oil with normal biodiesel will help in concluding whether the
biofuel may be used to fueled the prime mover of the standby generators in our homes and
working places or otherwise. This may drastically reduce overdependence on fossil fuels which
its emissions cause global warming, low labor productivity and low Growth Domestic Product
(GDP).

5.2 Recommendation

It is recommended that biodiesel from desert date seed oil can be use to fueled the prime mover
of standby generators at home and working places to reduce the usage of fossil fuels which will
deplete sooner or later and its emissions of harmful to human health.

34
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