Declaration

We declared that this project is our own original work, has not been presented for a degree in
this or any other universities, and all sources of materials used for the project have been fully
acknowledged by the guidance of Mr.Teketay M.

Daniel Alemu
Semahegn Ewnetu
Taye Muluken
Yeshambel Yalew
Student Name Signature
This Project has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.

The project has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor

Mr.Teketay M.

Project Advisor Signature

Approval by Board of Examiners

_______________________ _________

Chair Person Signature

_______________________ _________

Project Advisor Signature

_______________________ _________

Project Examiner 1 Signature

_______________________ _________

Project Examiner 2 Signature

i
 Acknowledgement

With a deep sense of gratitude, we wish to express our sincere thanks to our advisor,
Mr.Teketay M. Faculty of Electrical Engineering instructor, for giving the initiation to work
this project. We would like to thank our faculty for giving the opportunity and platform to
make our effort successfully.
We also have great thanks all our friends for providing a solid background for our study and
research. They have been great sources of inspiration to us and we thank them from the
bottom of our heart.
Finally, we would like to thank all who direct and indirect support focus to complete this final
thesis project on its specified time.

ii
 Abstract

Zenzelema is a small village town which grows fast. Nearer to this town the agricultural and
environmental science campus has been built six hundred meter far away from the town. In
this town, the students and other university members are move for enjoyment or any other
case from the campus to the town during the night time and they are vulnerable to accidents.
The main aim of this study is, therefore, to contribute to a better understanding of the
potential impact of PV systems to the society for minimizing the problems occurred due to the
darkness of the street. Here we calculate and design the appropriate lighting geometry, solar
PV design requirements and the appropriate lighting control mechanisms using Lighting
Dependent Resistor Sensor (LDR) and Relay switch.
Solar photovoltaic power generation system is one of the burning research fields these days,
even governments are also making plans toward increasing the amount of power generation
from renewable energy sources because in future viability and crisis of conventional energy
sources will increase. To implement the simulation of this project we use Nsol!4 and proteus
software’s.

To implement this project it requires a total initial investment of $7395.91only. The total
initial cost may vary from (10%-15%) due to variation cost of equipment’s and man power.
Actually its initial investment is too high but once the project is implemented it does not
require much extra cost as compare with other source of energy.

iii
Table of Contents
Declaration................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................ii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................iii
List of Symbols .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................................viii
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objectives of the Project ................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Methodology Used in this Project ................................................................................... 3
1.5 Benefits and Beneficiaries of the project .......................................................................... 4
1.6 Major Assumptions Made for the Work ........................................................................... 4
1.7 Scope of the Project .......................................................................................................... 4
1.8 Organizations of the Project.............................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 6
2. Review of Related Literatures ................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 7
3. Sizing the PV Panel and Battery Stand alone ......................................................................... 7
3.1 Solar PV System Sizing .................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Stand-alone PV Systems ................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 10
4 .Basic Lighting Laws and Pole Spacing Geometry ............................................................... 10
4.1 Types of Lighting Laws .................................................................................................. 10
4.2 Pole Spacing ................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Pole Height ..................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Units ................................................................................................................................ 11
4.5 Lighting Efficacy ............................................................................................................ 12
4.6 Lighting Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 13
5. System Design and Analysis ................................................................................................ 13

iv
 5.1 Photovoltaic System Components .................................................................................. 13
5.1.1 Solar Cell Overview ................................................................................................. 13
5.1.2 Charge Controller ..................................................................................................... 19
5.1.3 Battery ...................................................................................................................... 20
5.1.4 LED Solar Street Lighting........................................................................................ 22
5.1.5 DC wiring cable ....................................................................................................... 23
5.2. System Design Analysis ................................................................................................ 25
5.3. Automatic Solar Street Light Control by Using Relay and LDR Sensor ...................... 33
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................ 40
6. Result and Discussion........................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................. 43
7. Conclusion and Recommendations for future work ............................................................. 43
7.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 43
7.2. Recommendations for Future work ............................................................................... 44
References ................................................................................................................................ 45

v
 List of Symbols

A Ampere
E Iluminance
Hrs. Hours
Hz Hertz
I Current
L Length
P Power
V Voltage
W Watt

vi
 List of Figures

Fig.1. 1: flow chart of methodolog…………………………………………………………….3

Fig.1. 2: Schematic diagram of solar PV System with lighting control………………………3
Fig 5.1: Solar cell…………………………………………………….………………………13
Fig 5.2: P-N junction illustration of PV cell…………………………………………………14
Fig. 5.3: Flow of current……………………………………………………………………..14
Fig.5.4: Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays……………………………………..15
Fig. 5.5: Series connection of solar cell……………………………………………………..18
Fig. 5.6: Parallel connection of solar cell……………………………………………………18
Fig.5.7: Diagram of Charge Controller……………………………………………………...19
Fig 5.8: Diagram of lead acid battery………………………………………………………..20
Fig 5.9: A120w aluminium shell LED street light lamp…………………………………….26
Fig 5.10: Pole spacing geometry………………………………………………………….....27
Fig5.11: Final design schematic diagrams……………………………………….………….33
Fig 5.12: Variations of the out puts and inverting input of the comparator………………....34
Fig.5.13: Over all schematic diagram of the automatic lighting control…………………....35
Fig.5.14: Create a new file or to open an already existing file……………………………...38
Fig.5.15: Open an existing file via a standard file dialog box……………………………....38
Fig.5.16: Start a new file, using an existing file as the initial data………………………….39
Fig.6.1: Array vs. Global horizontal insolation by month…………………………………..40
Fig.6.2: Array load ratio and normalized load for each month……………………………..40
Fig. 6.3: Relationship of current, voltage and power for each month……………………....41
Fig.6.4: Loss of load probability analysis for each month……………………………….....41
Fig.6.5: Battery state of charging for each month…………………………………………..42
Fig.6.6: Simulation result of the street lighting control…………………………………….42

vii
 List of Tables

Table 5.1: Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) annual average weather condition data in 2014…………....25
Table 5.2: Electrical system loads…………………………………………………………....28
Table 5. 3: Financial data requirement……………………………………………………….37

viii
 List of Abbreviations

AC Alternative Current
Cd Candela
DC Direct Current
DoD Depth of Discharge
EEPCO Ethiopian Electric power corporation
Eg Energy gap
Emf Electromotive force
ET Ethiopia
Fc Foot candle
HPS High Pressure Sodium
Isc Short circuit current
LED Light Emitting Diode
LPS Low Pressure Sodium
MH Mounting Height
PV Photovoltaic
NSOL Networks and Systems Optimization
Laboratory
STC Standard Test Condition
TV Television
UV Ultraviolet
Voc Open circuit voltage
Wp Peak power

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Solar energy is the light that comes from the sun and the earth’s most abundant energy source.
Every day the sun radiates extra ordinary amounts of energy into space and due to the
development of technology such as the solar cell, we are able to collect this energy and
convert it into usable electricity. The diesel and the hydro power potentials are getting worse
and the steadily increasing environmental concern have initiated a major concern for the
exploitation of renewable sources of energy for the generation of electric power. Of the
promising sources solar energy is the one. There are several applications of solar energy; but
hereby we focus on how to apply for street lighting. Solar energy technology provides an
economical and sustainable solution where street lights are required in the absence of practical
local mains power supply. The generated electricity can either be used directly during the day
or may be stored in the batteries for use during night hours [2].

At dusk, they turn on (usually automatically, although some of them include a switch for on,
off and automatic) and remain illuminated overnight, depending on how much sunlight they
receive during the day. Discharging time is generally 8 to 10 hours. Solar lights are easily
installed and maintained, and provide a cheaper alternative to wired lamps. LED Street
lighting is a fresh new alternative to traditional street lamps such as LPS, HPS street lights.
LED lighting provides a multitude of advantages over conventional incandescent light: High
quality solar panel absorbs sunlight and convert into electric energy, then charges
maintenance-free battery and finally LED street lights automatically when day off, auto-off
when day break. The working method of solar street lights is: solar panel absorbs sunlight and
converts it to electricity to drive 120W LED Street light. The whole system is mainly
composed by 120W LED street lighting, solar panel, lead acid battery and charge controller,
pole (suggest 10-12m height) [3].

Automatic street light system is very common nowadays as it provides intelligent street
lighting mechanism. It provides light automatically during night without any human
interference .The circuit of a street light that automatically switches ON when the night falls
and turns OFF when the sun rises. In fact you can use the circuit for implementing any type of
automatic night light.

1
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Ethiopia is a country endowed with abundant natural resources; among this hydropower is the
major source of energy. Rarely other sources of energy came into practice: such as geothermal,
wind, natural gases solar and coal. In spite of this the electricity coverage of the country is
very small; that means the power provided from EEPCo is not covering the country demand.
Generally, the statements of the problem on this project are:
 The power provided from EEPCO is not sufficient
 Un familiar with solar electric power for street lighting
When we come to in our project the agricultural and environmental science campus has been
built six hundred meter far away from the town, in this town, the students and other university
members are move for enjoyment or any other case from the campus to the town during the
night time and they are vulnerable to accidents.
Therefore, to meet the challenges of power stress on regards to efficient and reliability besides
the wide range of services required to our newly designing street lighting therefore, come up
these stress and reliability of power that allocated from EEPCO is replaced by solar PV
system to the specified areas; that power can be provided for some other services required.

1.3 Objectives of the Project

General Objective
The general objective of the project is to design solar power generation and automatic lighting
control for street lighting from Zenzelma small town to Zenzelma campus.
Specific Objectives

 To come up with appropriate sizing the PV-panel, battery and charge controller.
 To calculate the cost analysis of the equipment’s.
 To determine the intensity, illumination level of light.
 To determine the distance between two luminaries.
 To select and design the appropriate lighting control devices.

2
1.4 Methodology Used in this Project

This topic explains detail about the methodology of the whole system and flow of step that
used in “design of solar Pv technology for Zenzelma town street lighting’’. In the progress of
this project we go through different helpful methods to accomplish the project in the time
allotted.
To work this project the following methodology has been done:
 Data collection: this includes average maximum temperature, average minimum
temperature, and average sunshine duration.
 Field survey on Zenzelma town to know the area of field.
 Interview with the consultant to have idea on the existing system and the total
number of loads used on the field.
 Design of power generation based on data collected and load demand.
 Simulation result.

Data Field Interview Design

collection survey

Fig.1. 1: Flow chart of methodology

Simulation
results

Charge
PV cell Load
controller

LDR
Battery sensor

Fig.1. 2: Schematic diagram of solar PV System with lighting control.

3
1.5 Benefits and Beneficiaries of the project

Benefits
After the project has been completed;
 All university members and nearby society can freely move here and there
 It contributes electric power for our country.
 To show comparative advantage of the proposed system over the existing one.
 Get solar energy which will drive continuous lighting system
 Obtain extra/alternative source of energy
Beneficiaries
 Primary Beneficial’s are the university students and other university members.
 The second one is the nearby societies

1.6 Major Assumptions Made for the Work

Up to now we have taken the following assumptions.

 System nominal voltage for our solar array is 48V.

 Safety factor for PV module and charge controller is 1.3 (due to the energy lost in the

system).

 The panel generation factor is 5.5 sun shine duration per day.

 To optimize the battery losses we take battery loss factor of 0.85 and depth of

discharge loss factor of 0.6.

 The average weather condition for Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) is taken from 2014 data.

1.7 Scope of the Project

For this final thesis we tried to go through:
 Design the solar lighting system for the Zenzelma town to the campus street road.
 Simulate the design using appropriate software.
 At the end implement the hardware implementation.

4
1.8 Organizations of the Project

The first Chapter:-Deals about the introduction of solar street lighting, statement of the
problem, objectives, methodology and significance of the project.
The second chapter:-Deals about Basic Lighting Laws and Pole Spacing Geometry, pole
height, units, lighting efficacy and lighting efficiency.
The third chapter:-Deals about Sizing the PV panel and battery stand alone, Solar PV system
sizing, and size of PV module. Size of battery, size of solar charge controller and wire sizing.
The fourth chapter:-Deals about Major Assumptions Made for the Work, Scope of the Project
and Review of Related Literatures.
The fifth chapter:-Deals about System Design and Analysis, Photovoltaic System
Components, Characteristics of mono crystalline PV module, Characteristic of deep cycle
lead acid battery and Cost Estimation.
The six chapter:-Deals about result and discussion of our work.
The seventh chapter:-Deals about Conclusion and Recommendations for future work.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2. Review of Related Literatures

Applications of solar energy to power stand-alone area and street lighting were built in 2007
by Joshua David Bollinger [1].

Solar modules to generate electricity from available sunlight, rechargeable batteries needed to
store electricity for backup used at night and during insufficient sunshine periods, a Control
circuit which for this case a microcontroller is used for switching load, distribution system
which in this case the microcontroller, and finally Electrical appliances in this case a cluster of
LEDs being to make an aspect which consume the electric power and give out light [2].

A charge controller regulates the voltage coming from the solar panel. The regulated power
obtained is used to charge a battery [3.].

Although different projects are done on the applications of solar energy, it could not solve the
desired outputs. We could optimize the generated power and load (demand) using appropriate
software called’’NSOL”. We are also designed for DC electrical equipment’s. Finally we use’’
NSOL’’ software for system sizing.

The working method of solar street lights is: solar panel absorbs sunlight and converts it to
electricity to drive 120W LED Street light.

Automatic street light system is very common nowadays as it provides intelligent street
lighting mechanism. It provides light automatically during night without any human
interference. For this we have already done the simulation results and the hard ware
implementation.

6
 CHAPTER THREE

3. Sizing the PV Panel and Battery Stand alone

3.1 Solar PV System Sizing

PV system sizing involves determining how many solar PV panels and/or batteries you need,
choosing an appropriately-sized controller and/or inverter and experimenting with various
combinations to create a final design that fits our need and budget.
The general steps to design a solar PV system are:
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day
which must be delivered to the appliances.
1.2. Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules. Multiply the total
appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the system) to get the total Watt-
hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
2. Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing
of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on
size of the PV module and climate of site location. We have to consider “panel generation
factor” which is different in each site location. For our country, the panel generation factor is
5.5 sun shine duration per day. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules: Divide the total Watt-
hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by 5.5 to get the total Watt-peak
rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2. Calculate the number of PV panels for the system: Divide the answer obtained in item
2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules available to you. Increase any fractional
part of result to the next highest full number and that will be the number of PV modules
required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are
installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV 20

7
modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will
be shortened.
3. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or
cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large enough to
store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size
of battery, calculate as follows:
1. Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
2. Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
3. Divide the answer obtained in item 2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4. Divide the answer obtained in item 3 by the nominal battery voltage.
5. Multiply the answer obtained in item 4 with days of autonomy (the number of days that
you need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the
required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = (Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy)/
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
4. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select
the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify
which type of solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar charge
controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input
current which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration
(series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit
current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

5. Wire Sizing
 Usually copper wire are used
 For Indoor, ordinary PVC insulation wire are used
 For outdoor, UV resistant insulation wire are used

8
  The wire from the array to battery should have an ampere capacity rating of at least 4
times the array operating current

For DC wire calculation we need

 System voltage
 Total current(A)
 Length of wire
 Tolerance voltage drop (1%, 3% & 5%)

3.2 Stand-alone PV Systems

Stand-alone systems rely on PV power only. These systems can comprise only PV modules
and a load or can include batteries for energy storage. When using batteries charge regulators
are included, which switch off the PV modules when batteries are fully charged, and switch
off the load in case batteries become discharged below its limit. The batteries must have
enough capacity to store the energy produced during the day to be used at night and during
periods of poor weather.
Types of Stand-alone PV Systems

Each street light can have its own photo voltaic panel, independent of other street lights.
Alternately, a number of panels can be installed as a central power source on a separate
location and supply power to a number of street lights [17].

 Separate power source for each individual load has the following problems over
central power source
 Risk of theft is higher as equipment costs are comparatively higher.
 Snow or dust, combined with moisture can accumulate on horizontal PV-panels and
reduce or even stop energy production.
 Rechargeable batteries will need to be replaced several times over the lifetime of the
fixtures adding to the total lifetime cost of the light

9
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. Basic Lighting Laws and Pole Spacing Geometry

Consider the light coming from a lighting source or a fixture, such as a street light, and falling
on a surface such as the street pavement. The following definitions and lighting laws apply:
H = Mounting Height (MH) = the distance of the light above the surface.
D = distance from the source to where the light hits the surface.
Þ = angle between the vertical and the direction in question, that is, between the H and D lines.
For example, 0° is straight down and 90° is horizontal.
X = the distance from the position directly beneath the light source and the point where the
light hits the surface.
Note that X = H tan Þ
D = H / cos Þ
Sin Þ = X / D
4.1 Types of Lighting Laws
Inverse Square Law
The illumination E at a point on a surface varies directly with the luminous intensity I and
inversely as the square of the distance D between the source and the point. If the surface is
normal to the direction of the incident light, then E = I / D2. The light is getting spread out
over a larger area as one gets further from the source.
Cosine Law or Lambert’s Law
The Iluminance on any surface varies as the cosine of the angle of incidence. The light is
falling on a larger area than if it hit perpendicular to the surface. This can be combined with
the inverse square law to get:
E = I cos Þ / D2

4.2 Pole Spacing

Pole spacing is the distance between two adjacent poles holding lighting fixtures. The
optimum pole spacing is often considered to be the distance at which the maximum
candlepower outputs from two luminaires meet on the ground. The mounting height of the
lighting luminaire above the ground, the horizontal spacing of one pole to the next, and the
cut off angle of the luminaire are all important issues in outdoor lighting design, just as much
as is the choice of the luminaire, the lamp type, and the wattage.
10
4.3 Pole Height

Luminaire mounting height is defined as the actual distance from the roadway surface directly
under the luminaire to the luminaire itself. Use the actual mounting height at each location
when calculating light standard spacing. Pole height affects the illumination intensity,
uniformity of brightness, area covered, and relative glare of the unit. Higher mounted units
provide greater coverage, more uniformity, and a reduction of glare, but a lower foot candle
level. Standard pole heights (20-foot, 30-foot, 40-foot, or 50-foot) are readily available from
local distributors and manufacturers.
In almost all cases, use standard pole heights of 40 feet and 50 feet for roadway illumination.
Structure-mounted light standards may need to be shorter than the standard 40-foot or 50-foot
grade-mounted pole. It is acceptable to use 20-foot or 30-foot light standards on bridges,
retaining walls, or other structures to compensate for top-of-structure elevation above the
roadway surface. Use of these standard pole heights will result in variable mounting heights
for the luminaires.
For our project we select aluminium pole because aluminium pole has the following
advantages over others
 Corrosion resistance.
 Maintenance free.
 Lighter weight for easy and cost efficient installation
 Longer life than steel and fiberglass
 100% recyclable, aluminium melting temperature is low to save energy and reduce
emission.

4.4 Units

Candela (cd): A measure of luminous intensity (I). It is sometimes called candlepower, but
that is not quite correct. It compares to radiant intensity, but holds only for the energy to
which the eye is sensitive. It is a measure of radiant power, rather than energy, and it is
weighted in terms of the eye sensitivity curve.
Lumen: The unit of luminous flux. A source emitting a luminous intensity of 1 cd uniformly
in all directions will have a luminous flux of 1 lumen on a unit area of the sphere about it (the
area of the sphere is 4π square units). An isotropic source of luminous intensity of 1 cd
produces a total luminous
Iluminance: The amount of light falling on a surface.

11
Lux: The unit of Iluminance = the luminous flux per unit area of 1 square meter on a sphere
of radius1 meter.
Foot-candle (fc): The unit of Iluminance = the luminous flux per square foot on a sphere of
radius 1 foot. One foot candle is approximately 10 lux.
Luminance: The amount of light reflected from a surface. It is sort of the “brightness” we see,
i.e. the visual effect of the IL luminance. It depends on the amount of IL luminance and on the
reflective properties of the surface as well as on the projected area on the plane perpendicular
to the direction of view. The unit is candela per square meter (cd/m2), or candela per square
foot.

4.5 Lighting Efficacy

The ratio of lamp luminous flux divided by the power consumed by the lamp. The unit used is
lumens per watt (lm/W). Where control gear is taken into account the unit becomes lumens
per circuit watt. Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces visible
light. It is the ratio of luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces
visible light. It is the ratio of luminous flux to power. Depending on context, the power can be
either the radiant of the source's output, or it can be the total power (electric power, chemical
energy, or others) consumed by the source. Which sense of the term is intended must usually
be inferred from the context, and is sometimes unclear. The former sense is sometimes
called luminous efficacy of radiation, and the latter luminous efficacy of a source.

4.6 Lighting Efficiency

Lighting fixture efficiency is the ratio of the total lumens exiting the fixture to the total
lumens initially produced by the light source. For example, if a bare 100W incandescent
lamp (light bulb) produces 1,000 lumens, and it is put into a lamp fixture that delivers
700 lumens, this would be an example of a 70% efficient fixture.
It is the ability to do something well without a waste of time or money for a more technical
context, efficiency is the ratio of the effective or useful output to the total input in any system.

12
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. System Design and Analysis

5.1 Photovoltaic System Components

The primary components in standalone PV systems are input protection Solar panels, charge
controller, battery, DC load.
5.1.1 Solar Cell Overview
A solar cell is an electronic device that converts the light energy directly into electric energy
without any form of moving parts by using photovoltaic effect.

Fig.5.1: Solar cell

 A Solar cell is also calling Photovoltaic (PV) Cell.
 “Photo” means Light and “voltaic” means producing electricity.
 It is a solid state electronic device made of semiconductor materials like silicon.
 Solar cell converts energy of light directly into Direct Current (DC).
 Solar cell does not use heat of light to produce electrical energy.
Solar cells are made by two types of semiconductor materials one is N-type and other is P-
type semiconductor material for generation of electricity [2].
 When light strikes on semiconductor, it generates electrons (-) and holes (+) pairs.
 when electron and hole pair reaches between two different type of semiconductor's
joint surface then electron and hole are separated, electron is attached by N-type
semiconductor and hole is attached by P-type semiconductor. after that they are not

13
 region due to joint surface do not allow both way traffic.

Fig. 5.2: P-N junction illustration of PV cell

 Now electrons are contained by N-type semiconductor and holes are contained by P-
type semiconductor, an electro motive force (emf) is generated in electrodes. When
these electrodes are connected together by a conductor electrons run toward p-type
semiconductor and holes run toward N-type semiconductor.

Fig. 5.3: Flow of current

14
Solar Panel array

A solar array is a group of solar photovoltaic panels or modules connected electrically

together and mounted on a sustainable structure to produce higher amount of power. For this
project the main task is to design a stand-alone power generation system for a small load like
a house situated on hilly area or for any small load that is not connected to grid network.
Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sun light to electricity by the use of
photovoltaic effect are called Solar Cells. A single converter cell is called a solar cell or, more
generally, a photovoltaic cell, and combination of such cells. Photovoltaic cells are connected
electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power
levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally
protective laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems [7]. Photovoltaic
panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A
photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels. Centric power output is called a Solar Module or Solar Array

Fig.5.4: Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays.

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum
DC power output (watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions
are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of 250C (770F), and incident solar
irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these
conditions are not always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual
performance is usually 85 to 90 per cent of the STC rating. Today’s photovoltaic modules are
extremely safe and reliable products, with minimal failure rates and projected service
lifetimes of 20 to 30 years. Most major manufacturers offer warranties of 20 or more years for
maintaining a high percentage of initial rated power output. When selecting PV modules, look
for the product listing, qualification testing and warranty information in the module

15
manufacturer’s specifications [7]. Cells Semiconductor device that converts sunlight into
direct current (DC) electricity Modules PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate and are the fundamental building block of PV systems
Panels PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable
unit Array A PV array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV
modules and panels [8].
Photovoltaic Cell
A single PV cell is a thin semiconductor wafer made of two layers generally made of highly
purified silicon (PV cells can be made of many different semiconductors but crystalline
silicon is the most widely used). The layers have been doped with boron on one side and
phosphorous on the other side, producing surplus of electrons on one side and a deficit of
electrons on the other side. When the wafer is bombarded by sunlight, photons in the sunlight
knock off some of excess electrons; this makes a voltage difference between the two sides as
the excess electrons try to move to the deficit side. In silicon this voltage is .5 volt Metallic
contacts are made to both sides of the semiconductor. With an external circuit attached to the
contacts, the electrons can get back to where they came from and current flows through the
circuit. This PV cell has no storage capacity; it simply acts as an electron pump. The amount
of current is determined by the number of electrons that the solar photons knock off. Bigger
cells, more efficient cells, or cells exposed to more intense sunlight will deliver more
electrons.
Photovoltaic Modules
A solar panel or module is a group of connected solar photovoltaic cells electrically and
mounted on a sustaining structure. A photovoltaic module is a systematically arranged series
connection of solar cells.

A PV module consists of many PV cells wired in parallel to increase current and in series to
produce a higher voltage. 36 cell modules are the industry standard for large power
production. The module is encapsulated with tempered glass (or some other transparent
material) on the front surface, and with a protective and waterproof material on the back
surface. The edges are sealed for weather proofing, and there is often an aluminium frame
holding everything together in a mountable unit. In the back of the module there is a junction
box, or wire leads, providing electrical connections.

16
There are currently four commercial production technologies for PV Modules: Mono
Crystalline, Polycrystalline or Multi crystalline, String Ribbon and Amorphous or Thin Film
Photovoltaic Array.
For our project we choose mono crystalline PV module because it has the following
characteristics.
Characteristics of mono crystalline PV module:
 Mono crystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are
made out of the highest-grade silicon.
 Mono crystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar
panels yield the highest power outputs, they also require the least amount of
space compared to any other types. Mono crystalline solar panels produce up
to four times the amount of electricity as thin-film solar panels.
 Mono crystalline solar panels live the longest.

Tend to perform better than similarly rated polycrystalline solar panels at low-light conditions.
A PV Array consists of a number of individual PV modules or panels that have been wired
together in a series and/or parallel to deliver the voltage and amperage a particular system
requires. An array can be as small as a single pair of modules, or large enough to cover acres.
12 volt module is the industry standard for battery charging. Systems processing up to about
2000 watt-hours should be fine at 12 volts. Systems processing 2000 - 7000 watt-hours will
function better at 24 volt. Systems running more than 7000 watt-hours should probably be
running at 48 volts [8].

Solar Cell Connections

Solar cell connection is just like battery connection. When positive terminal of one solar cell
is connected to negative terminal of another solar cell then they form series connection. In
series connection current is same for all cells and voltage is added by each cell shown in
figure 5.5.
Complete the diagrams below by wiring the solar panels together in series or parallel to
generate the required voltage. Connect positive leads (+) to positive leads and negative leads
(-) to negative leads to wire the PV circuits in parallel. Connect positive leads to negative
leads to wire the PV circuits in series.
As shown in figure 5.6 here current is added and voltage is same for all cells.

17
 Fig. 5.5: Series connection of solar cell

Fig. 5.6: Parallel connection of solar cell

Solar Cell Technologies

Solar cell is manufacturing by different materials. The two major technologies are wafer-
based silicon and thin-film [4].Crystalline silicon solar cell is more efficient than thin-film
solar cell but that is more expensive to produce. They are most commonly uses in large to
medium electric applications like grid connected PV power generation. Mono-crystalline solar
cell is manufactured by pure semi-conducting materials so it has higher efficiency (above 17%
in industrial production and 24% in research laboratories [5]. Poly-crystalline solar cell is
slightly less efficient than Mono-crystalline but less in cost. In thin-film solar cell very thin
layers of semiconducting materials are uses so they can be produces in large quantity at lower
cost but it efficiency is less. This technology is uses in calculators, watches and toys etc.
There are too many other PV technologies available like Organic cells, Hybrid PV cells
combination of both mono crystalline and thin film silicon etc.

18
5.1.2 Charge Controller

The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone PV system is to protect the

battery from overcharge and over discharge. Any system that has unpredictable loads, user
intervention, optimized or undersized battery storage (to minimize initial cost), or any
characteristics that would allow excessive battery overcharging or over discharging requires a
charge controller and/or low-voltage load disconnect. Lack of a controller may result in
shortened battery lifetime and decreased load availability. Systems with small, predictable,
and continuous loads may be designed to operate without a battery charge controller. If
system designs incorporate oversized battery storage and battery charging currents are limited
to safe finishing charge rates (C/50 flooded or C/100 sealed) at an appropriate voltage for the
battery technology, a charge controller may not be required in the PV system.

Fig.5.7: Diagram of Charge Controller

19
5.1.3 Battery

Batteries store the electrical energy generated by the modules during sunny periods, and
deliver it whenever the modules cannot supply power. Normally, batteries are discharged
during the night or cloudy weather. But if the load exceeds the array output during the day,
the batteries can supplement the energy supplied by the modules. Since we do not have
sunlight 24 hours a day, a storage system is needed to extend the working hours of a solar
energy plant to satisfy demand during the night time, so the battery provides DC voltage to
the load.

Fig. 5.8: Lead acid battery

For our project we select lead acid (deep cycle) battery.

Lead-acid batteries
The most commonly available lead-acid battery is the car battery, but these are designed
mainly to provide a high current for short periods to start engines, and they are not well suited
for deep discharge cycles experienced by batteries in PV systems. Car batteries are sometimes
used for small PV systems because they are cheap, but their operational life in PV
applications is likely to be short.
The most attractive lead-acid battery for use in most PV systems is the flooded tubular plate
design, with low antimony plates. Good quality batteries of this type can normally be
expected to have operational life of 5 - 7 years if they are properly maintained and used in a
PV system with a suitable charge controller. Longer operational life may be achieved if the
maximum depth of discharge is limited, but shorter lifetimes must be expected if the batteries
20
are mistreated. Flat plate lead-acid batteries with low antinomy are frequently used as
stationary batteries for stand-by applications. However, these batteries are not designed for
deep cycling and are therefore not the best choice for most PV applications.

A relatively recent development is the sealed lead-acid battery, which is designed mainly to
avoid problems of spillage and the need to top up the electrolyte. Some batteries of this type
are sold specifically for use in PV systems, and may be attractive for applications in remote
regions where transport to site is a problem. However, they are typically less resistant to
extreme temperatures than conventional flooded batteries, and are considerably more
expensive.

The following factors should be considered when choosing a battery for a PV application:
 Operating temperature range (e.g.: -15°C to 50°C)
 Self-discharge rate (% per month)
 Cycle life to 80% depth of discharge (DOD)
 Charge efficiency from 20% discharged
 Capacity (Ah) at 10 hr & 100 hr rates (C10 & C100)
 Required frequency for topping up the electrolyte
 Lifespan of battery is 5-7 years.
 Robustness for transport to site
 Resistance to overcharging
 Cost
Characteristic of deep cycle lead acid battery

Excellent safety performance: No electrolyte leakage, battery swelling and cracking under
normal use.
Good discharging performance: With smooth discharging voltage and mild discharging
platform.
Good shock-proof performance: The fully charged and completely fixed battery,
with 4mm amplitude and 16.7Hz frequency do have a normal open circuit voltage without
leakage, batteries swelling or cracking problem after one-hour vibration.
Good resistance to over discharge: In temperature of 25 degrees Celsius, the fully charged
battery discharges with fixed resistance and it can restore capacity over 75%.

21
 Good impact-proof performance: The fully charged battery is proved to maintain normal
open circuit voltage and be without leakage or batteries swelling or cracking after dropping
three times from 20cm height naturally to a 1 cm-thick hardwood board.
Good resistance to overcharge: The fully charged battery is proved to maintain normal
open circuit and be without leakage or batteries swelling or cracking in temperature of 25
degrees Celsius.

5.1.4 LED Solar Street Lighting

An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product that is assembled into a lamp (or light
bulb) for use in lighting fixtures. LED lamps have a lifespan and electrical efficiency that is
several times better than incandescent lamps, and significantly better than most fluorescent
lamps, with some chips able to emit more than 100 lumens per watt.

Some LED lamps are made to be a directly compatible drop-in replacement for incandescent
or fluorescent lamps. An LED lamp packaging may show the lumen output, power
consumption in watts, color temperature in kelvins or description (e.g. "warm white"),
operating temperature range, and sometimes the equivalent wattage of an incandescent lamp
of similar luminous output.

LED chips need controlled direct current (DC) electrical power; an appropriate circuit is
required to convert alternating current from the supply to the regulated low voltage direct
current used by the LEDs. LEDs are adversely affected by high temperature, so LED lamps
typically include heat dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins

Advantages of LED Solar Street Lighting

 Lower power consumption

 Higher power, higher intensity
 Save all your electricity cost. Save electric transformer and cable cost. Free
maintenance
 Environmental Impact - Eliminate Hazardous Disposal
 Longer lifetime: Lifespan of LED street lights is 6-8 years.
 Improved Safety – The solar powered street light does not require connection to an
electrical grid. It is safer and easier to install. In the event of a power outage, the light

22
 remains on. This reduces the chance of car accidents and the constant light deters
theft/vandalism from nearby businesses.
 Lower Operating Cost – It is less expensive to operate a solar powered street light than
a traditional street light.
 No Insect Swarming – The solar powered street light uses LED street lighting which
does not produce Infrared light, and therefore will not attract insects. (No more moths
and other flying insects swarming around the light.)

LED Lights and Energy Efficiency- why LED lights are better than their current lighting and
what could make them change? Because LED lights do not draw energy in the same way that
incandescent lights do, they cost about 80% less to operate. LED lights are even more energy
efficient than CFL bulbs which contain toxic mercury. This means that by switching all of the
light bulbs in a home over to LED lights, a person will realize a sizable decrease on the cost
of lighting his/her home. In some cases, people have reported as much a 50% reduced electric
bill as a result of using LED lights instead of other lighting sources.

5.1.5 DC wiring cable.

Electrical cable is an assembly consisting of one or more conductors with their own
insulations and optional screens, individual covering(s), assembly protection and protective
covering(s). Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this
process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that
are more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric
stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be
plated with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some
other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may
lengthen wire life, and makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication
between strands. Tinning was used to help removal of rubber insulation.

When it comes to cable and its ability to carry the power generated by the panels to the
battery system and to the load, we have two enemies:

1. The cables physical ability to carry the current without excessive heating.
2. The voltage drop (or loss) over the length of the cable.

23
Cable heating
Power flowing through a cable will cause that cable to heat up. The amount of heat is directly
proportional to the size of the cable and the amount of power (amps) we are pushing down it.
If you went to an auto-electrician and asked for 10 amp cable – he would sell you a length of
cable that would not get too hot (well not hot enough to melt) when carrying 10 amps. If you
put 20 amps down this cable, it would get very hot indeed.
This heating is due to what is known as “I squared R losses“ because the formula for the
amount of heat generated is (I2*R)
Where I = current and R = resistance
As the diameter (and thus the square mm of copper) of a cable decreases, its resistance
increases – a cable with a larger cross sectional area has less resistance. Cable heating is not
normally an issue for solar installations. The second factor (voltage drop) normally dictates
cables sizes large enough to prevent any cable heating issues.
Voltage Drop
Just as there are losses involved in pushing water through a pipe – there are losses involved in
pushing electrical current through a wire. The longer the wire, the greater the losses. This
increasing loss can be offset by increasing the diameter (and thus the cross sectional area) of
the wire. The longer the wire – the greater the diameter of the copper in the wire that is
required. As we increase the current (with say more or larger panels) we must also increase
the diameter of the copper in the cable to avoid excessive voltage drop.
For a solar installation the maximum advisable voltage drop is 3%. In a 12 volt system this is
just 0.42 volts – in a 24 volts system this is 0.84 (based on charge voltage of 14V and 28V
respectively).
The formula for calculating voltage drop is
Voltage drop equals (cable length (in metres) X current (in amps) X 0.017) divided by cable
cross-section (in mm2).
Vd= (L*I*0.017)/mm2 this is for all wires.

24
5.2 System Design Analysis

Table 5:1: Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) annual average weather condition data in 2014 [18].

Month Temp Wind Humid Air Avg Day length

,⁰c Km/h pressure sunshine
Pa
Sep 22 3.5 60 1015 6:20- 12hrs
18:03
Oct 20 3.6 40 10025 6:20- 11' 44''
18:04
Nov 20 10 61 1005 6:33 - 12' 28'’
18:00
Dec 14 9 55 1018 6:33- 11’35’’
18:10
Jan 20 6 30 1008 6:33- 11’35’’
18:10

Feb 20 5 45 1011 6:46- 11’52’’

18:38

March 27 5.5 31 1012 6:27- 12’14’’

18:41

April 24 18 55 1029 5:59- 12’35’’

18:35

May 23 16 40 1027 5:53- 12’50’’

18:43
Jun 26 18 58 1028 5:57- 12’54’
18:51

July 20 12 85 1019 6:08- 12’35’’

18:43
August 20 8 69 1014 6:10- 12’20’’
18:31

25
 Solar power street lighting design parameters
 Total distance the street covers 600 meter
 Standard pole height above ground 10 meter
 The pole should made up of aluminium.
 Standard LED lamp with ratings of 120W.
 The standard distance between two adjacent poles in meter
The standard illumination level required for street lighting is (5 – 20) lux at a standard pole
height of ranging from 10 meter to 12 meter. For our project we use 120W LED solar street
light lamp and efficacy range 110 to 120 lumens per watt. Then using these specifications we
will determine distance between two adjacent poles. The angle between mounting height and
the optimum slant distance that the intensity of lighting source falling on the ground is 45 .

Fig. 5.9: 120W Aluminium Shell LED Street Light lamp

Description LED Street Light

 Lamp power: 120W
 Bridge lux LED: 80pcs
 Working voltage: 85-264V AC, 48V DC
 LED luminous efficacy: 120LM/W
 Color temperature: 3,000-7,000K

26
  Size: 1,000x350x48(mm)
 Circular timer with DIP switch, set dimming model freely
 Aluminium shell, good for heat dissipation.

Warranty: 3 year

The figure below shows pole spacing geometry of the lighting system

45⁰ 450

H=10m D D H=10m

X/2 Mid-point X/2

Fig. 5.10: Pole spacing geometry

Where H=mounting height;

D=slant height;

X=horizontal distance between the two poles.

From Eq.2.2 Cos45 =H/D

Solving for D, so that D=H/Cos45 =10m/Cos45

D=14.14m

From Eq.2.3, X/2=Dsin45

X = 2*D*sin45 .

So that X=2*14.14*sin45

X =20m

27
Taking the efficacy of this LED lamp=120 lumens/watt so that total efficacy=120lm/w*120w
equals with 14400 lumens.
1 candela=4πlumens
I=efficacy/4π
Light intensity, I=14400lumens/4π, since A lamp with an intensity of 1 candela produces 4π
lumens of light flux. Then I =14400/4* π
I =1146.49 cd

Illumination (E) = (I/D^2) cos45

(1146.49/14.14^2)cos45

E =5.734 lux

The illumination level midpoint between two LED lamps is the sum of the two
lamps .Therefore,

Et =2 *E

Et= 11.5lux

Total poles required for six hundred meter (600m) street lighting road will be thirty (30). And
also a total of thirty (30) 120watt LED lamps are needed. By simple calculation for our street
lighting project, we need 3.6KW power.

Steps to install PV System

Determining how much electricity you want your PV system to generate
Step 1: Annual electrical power usage

Table 5:2: Electrical system loads

DC Device No.of wattage Total DC X hours of DC Watt-hrs.

fixture for each watt Daily use per Day
lamp
Lighting 30 120 3600 12:00 43200
fixture 1

Total DC watts-hrs. /day=43200 watts-hrs./day

Determine total DC load demands
28
Total DC watts-hrs. /day= 43200 watts-hrs./day*1.3

P = 56160 watts-hrs./day

P = 56.160Kwatt-hrs/day.

Step 2: Size the PV panel

Select PV Module Type
Photovoltaic Module Mono crystalline Solar Panel 200W 12V

PV module specification
 Model: Mono crystalline;
 Power peak: 200W
 Vm: 37.5v
 Im: 5.35A;
 Voc: 44.70V;
 Isc: 5.70A
 Dimension: 1581x809x35 mm.
 Nominal voltage output= 12V

Total peak power of PV panels capacity needed= (56160 watts-hrs./day)/5.5hrs per day

Where 5.5hrs/day is panel generation factor which is sun shine duration

P= 10210.909 watt
Step 3. calculate number of PV module needed
Number of PV panels needed= 10210.909 watt /200w
= 51.05 modules
= 52 modules

Because our energy demand is greater than 7000watt-hour, let’s take the system nominal
voltage is 48V.

No.modules in series= system nominal voltage/single module nominal voltage

=48V/12V
=4 modules
No. of module as in parallel =Total No. modules/No. of modules in series
=52/4
=13 modules

29
Implies four sets of modules in series and thirteen sets of modules in parallel. So that the total
short circuit current is the sum of all parallel connected modules. Total short circuit current
=5.70Amps*13=74.1Amps because the current is the sum of all parallel (branch) currents.

Step: 4 Battery size

Detailed specification
Solar lead acid battery (deep cycle) 24v 800ah
Nominal Capacity: 800ah
Brand Name: bosfa
Nominal battery Voltage: 24V
Life expectance:5-7 years
Warranty:3year
Usage: solar energy system
Size: 522x240x240mm
Model Number: Solar -24
Day of autonomy=2
Total watt hours used by appliances=No.of appliances*their wattages *hours usage

30*120watt*12hrs

Et =43200 watt- hrs.

Battery capacity= total watt hours per day used by appliance*day of autonomy
0.85*0.6*nominal battery voltage

Nominal battery voltage=24V

Battery capacity=43200Watt*2/0.85*0.6*24
=7058.820Ah
So the battery should be rated 24 volt 800 for 2 day autonomy.
Total No. of batteries =Total ampere-hours required/rated capacity of battery
=7058.820Ah /800amp-hrs
=8.8 batteries
= 9 batteries
No. of batteries in series=system nominal voltage/battery nominal voltage
=48V/24V
=2 batteries
No. of batteries in parallel =Total No. batteries/No. of batteries in series
30
 =9/2
=4.5
= 5 batteries

Step 5: Solar charge controller

Calculating the controller array current

Module short circuit current *modules in parallel*safety factor=array short circuit

current.
= 5.70 Amp*13*1.3=96.33 Amp(minimum controller input current)
This is the input current that comes from the solar array.

To be on the safe side, it is advised to multiply the result by a safety factor of 1.3.

Calculating the controller load current

Total dc connected Watts/dc system voltage=Max. DC load current

3600 w/48V=75 Amp(minimum controller output current)

This is output current that is pulled from the batteries through the controller.

It is calculated via dividing the total connected dc power by the dc system voltage.

Step 6: Cable sizing

For DC wire calculation we need

 System voltage v=48v
 Current in ampere I=96.33A
 Cable length l=700m
 Tolerance voltage drop ( 1%, 3% & 5%)
 To calculate the cable size(mm2):

cable size [mm2]=18*metres*amps/(V*1000)

=18*700m*96.33amps/(48v*1000)

=1213758/48000

=25.28mm2

NOTE - Always build a safety margin in to the cable sizes. i.e. increase the cable
size from the Calculated size by around 30%. Never try to run cables at their

31
maximum specified current limit.

cable size[mm2]=25.28+25.28*(30/100)

=25.28+7.59

=32.86mm2

 The formula for calculating voltage drop is:

Voltage drop equals:

(Cable length (in metres) X current (in amps) X 0.017) divided by cable cross-
section (in mm.sq).

=(700m/33 X96.33A X0.017)/ 32.86mm2

= 21.21X96.33A X0.017)/ 32.86mm2

= 34.74/32.86mm2

Vd=1.057V

Calculate the Array Load Ratio (ALR)

The PV array must have sufficient energy both to power the load, and to recharge
the battery after cloudy periods. The PV array is can be described either by its
power rating, its output amperage, or its power relative to the load (Array / Load
Ratio). In general, the ALR should be greater than 1.0, or the array will not
produce sufficient energy to supply the load for that month. Theoretically, a
system could continue to operate with an ALR less than one, as long as there is
enough battery storage available to supply the shortfall in energy.
In our case total array generated power is 10210.909 W and total load power
demand of 3600 W. So that
ALR= generated power/ load power
=10210.909 W/3600 W = 2.83.

32
Final design schematic diagrams for PV system

Fig.5.11:Final design schematic diagram of the pv system

5.3 Automatic Solar Street Light Control by Using Relay and

LDR Sensor

Automatic street light system is very common nowadays as it provides intelligent

street lighting mechanism. It provides light automatically during night without any
human interference .The circuit diagram present here is that of a street light that
automatically switches ON when the night falls and turns OFF when the sun rises.
So here we will show how to make an electronic circuit for street light automation.
The heart of this circuit is a LDR (Light Depended Resistor) which is connected
as a potential divider with a 100K resistor. The drop across LDR is used for
switching the transistor. Solar led street lighting systems are the advanced
versions of this ordinary automatic street light controller.

33
Fig.5.12: Shows the variations of the out puts of the comparator with the
variations of the inverting input.

The working of circuit is very much easy to understand. In this circuit, we used IC
LM358 which is basically an operational amplifier. Pins 2 and 3 of these IC are
used to compare the voltage and give us the output in return i.e it works as a
potential divider in its inverting and non-inverting inputs (pins 2 and 3). In this
LDR and VR1 form one potential divider which is used to provide a variable
voltage at the inverting input (that is 2) and the second potential divider is built
around non-inverting input (pin 3) with the help of R1 and R2 which will grant
half of the supply voltage to non-inverting pin.

34
Circuit diagram of Automatic Street light by using relay and LDR

Fig. 5.13: Shows the over all schematic diagram of the automatic lighting
control.

Working of Automatic Street Light Controller Switch Circuit:

As we know property of LDR that during the time of day resistance is low
therefore voltage at the inverting input ( IE pin 2) is higher than the voltage at the
non-inverting input (pin3) hence the output at the pin6 is low so the transistor goes
into the cut-off state which means LED or bulb will not glow.
But in dimness or in night we know that resistance of LDR is high hence voltage
at inverting input pin 2 of the IC LM358 decreases than the non-inverting input
pin 3 as a result output pin 6 moves to high state which make transistor to conduct
and the LED or bulb associated to it start simmering.

35
We need to pay attention while connecting relay with bulb. As different bulbs
have different wattage, so it must support the relay or else relay will not energize.

Importance of the Components used in this Circuit:

LDR: LDR is a device whose sensitivity depends upon the intensity of light
falling on it. When the strength of the light falling on LDR increases the LDR
resistance decreases, while if the strength of the light falls on LDR is decreased
resistance increased. In the time of darkness or when there is no light, the
resistance of LDR is in the range of mega ohms, while in the presence of light or
in brightness in decrease by few hundred ohms.
Testing of LDR- Before mounting any component in the circuit it is a good
practice to check whether a component works properly or not so that you can
avoid consumption of time in troubleshooting. For testing LDR set the range of
multi-meter in resistance measurement. After that put the lids on the legs of LDR
(as LDR have no polarity so you can connect any lid with leg). Measure the
resistance of LDR in the light or brightness, resistance must be low. Now cover
LDR properly so that no light beam fall in it, again measure the resistance it must
be high. If you got the same result means that LDR is good [1].
Resistor: It is a passive component having two terminals that are used to manage
the current flow in the circuit. A current that flows via a resistor is directly
proportional to the voltage that appeared into the resistor. The resistors we used
are fixed resistor having a fixed value of resistance. Value of resistance can be
calculated with the help of multi meter or with the color code that is visible on the
resistor.
Relay: The relay is extremely useful when you need to control a large amount of
current or voltage with the small electrical signal.
Comparators: It is essentially an operational amplifier operated in an open loop
configuration, which actually compares two voltages to determine the largest. It is
biased at voltages at positive source voltage and negative source voltage.
Transistor: Transistor (BC548) is a special type of transistor which used as
switch. The transistor switch ON when the base emitter voltage is greater than
threshold voltage and vice versa. Implies, in the day time base emitter voltage
(VBE) <0.7V the transistor is in the cut off state. In night time base emitter

36
voltage (VBE) >0.7V the transistor is in the active state.
Advantages:
 By using this Automatic system for street light controlling, we can reduce
energy consumption because the manually operated street lights are not switched
off properly even the sunlight comes and also not switched on earlier before
sunset.
 In sunny and rainy days, ON and OFF time differ noticeably which is one
of the major disadvantage of using timer circuits or manual operation for
switching the street light system.
Project Financial Requirement for each component

Table 5. 3: Financial data requirement

No. Materials needed Quantity Price in dollar/each Total price in
dollar
1. Pv module 52 0.28/watt=200*0.28 2912
=56
2. Charge controller 1 200 200
3. Battery 9 24v-800ah lead acid 900
battery =$100
4. Single core plastic 1 1.0/meter 700
coated dc wire =700meter*1.0
5. Poles( made in 30 54 1620
Aluminium)
7. LED lamps 30 35/piece 1050
8. SPDT Relay 1 6.2 6.2
9. Transistor(BC-548 1 0.2 0.2
NPN)
10. Resistor(100k) 1 1.63 1.63
11 Resistor(1k,1k,1k) 3 1.5 4.5
12 Torch LDR 1 0.9 0.9

13 LM358N amplifier 1 0.48 0.48

Total 129 7395.91

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To implement this project it requires a total initial investment of $7395.91only.
Actually its initial investment is too high but once the project is implemented it
does not require much extra cost as compare with other source of energy.
Although this prediction of cost estimation is specified, exact cost estimation that
we develop for the future may be vary (10-15) %.
General over view of Nsol!4
Sizing using Nsol!4 PV operation program
NSol! 4 is a sizing Software for off grid PV Systems from Orion Energy (USA).
The Software is about 10 years old. Nsol! a “project-based” approach to sizing PV
systems. Each system is stored in a separate file with the “PV4” extension.
Clicking on a “component” on the summary page opens a data or load data entry
form. Multiple documents can be open at the same time, allowing comparisons
between different system options.
The Software allows us to quickly size the main Parts of an off grid PV System,
which is the PV Panel and the Battery. When NSol is started, the window shown
below is displayed, allowing create a new file to or to open an already existing
file.

Fig.5.14: Shows to create a new file or to open an already existing file

The second option allows the user to open an existing file via a standard file
dialog box.

Fig. 5.15: Shows to open an existing file via a standard file dialog box

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The third option allows the user to start a new file, using an existing file as the
initial data. This is useful for analysing one system design at multiple locations, or
for looking at multiple options for a single site (e.g. hybrid vs. standalone).

Fig.5.16: Shows the user to start a new file, using an existing file as the initial
data.
The first page is the summary page, which is used to enter site information, loads
and components. The second page is the Array Tilt page, used for calculated the
insolation on the tilted / tracking array surface. Standalone PV systems include the
“Sizing (ALR)” page, the “LOLP Analysis page, and the “BSOC” page.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6. Result and Discussion

The graph shown indicates the comparison of the global horizontal and array
insolation by month. The array insulation is almost near to the global horizontal
insulation.

Fig. 6.1: Shows the array vs. Global horizontal insolation by month.
The graph shows below indicates the array load ratio and normalized load for each
month. The array load ratio should be greater than one for continuous lighting
system. As we have seen below the array load ratio is greater than the full load
ratio.

Fig. 6.2: Indicates the array load ratio and normalized load for each month.

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The figure below shows the relationship of current, voltage and power for each
month. For example as current increase or decrease power also increase or
decrease simultaneously.

Fig.6.3: Shows the relationship of current, voltage and power for each
month.
The figure below shows loss of load probability analysis for each month. As we
have seen maximum loss of load probability is around 0.02%. All of these losses
are occurred during summer due to the cloud coverage’s of the season.

Fig.6. 4: Show loss of load probability analysis for each month.

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The graph shown below indicates the battery state of charging for each month.
The minimum state of charge 85% in July and maximum state of charge is 87%,
because in these months solar irradiation too small, implies in our country Jun,
July and August are summers that the sun is covered by cloud.

Fig. 6.5: Indicates the battery state of charging for each month.
The figure below shows the simulation result of the street lighting control. It is the
result of the integration of LDR sensor, amplifier ,NPN transistor and relay switch

Fig.6.6: Shows the simulation result of the street lighting control.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
7. Conclusion and Recommendations for future work
7.1 Conclusion

In the current situation of the weather’s unexpected behaviour and shortage of rain, it is
becoming challenge to gate the required amount of water in the reservoirs of the hydroelectric
plants. Including the society’s ever growing demand of electrical energy is difficult to satisfy
this by the hydroelectric plants only. But there is other better choice especially for medium
level generation of electrical energy. Therefore, to come up the above power scarcity, PV
system has a powerful attraction to produces electrical energy for the desired load demand
matching from free exhaustible sources energy (solar radiation that radiate from the sun).
The wondering of a PV system by the following advantage such as: consuming no fossil fuels,
no need of huge installation, no much transmission losses, applicable every environment (like
desert areas, mountainous areas or remote areas) and creating no pollution or environmental
effect during the power generation. These all together can be decrease PV module costs and
increase the reliability and efficiency power production, so that PV system getting choose
able than ever. The overall cost of a stand-alone PV system can be reduced with proper
battery-charging control techniques, which achieve high battery state of charge and lifetime,
under continuously varying atmospheric conditions, which give rise to intermittent PV energy
production.

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7.2. Recommendations for Future work

We hereby recommend that due to insufficient hydro power electric source it is better to use
the PV system as alternative source of energy. This work site is rich of solar energy
throughout the year because our country is located at the tropical region so that solar energy is
an effective source of electric energy. As a result the government should emphasize for this
type of energy source. Generally we suggest the following additional research tips:
Because of shortage of time we don’t finish the overall processes of the project. So the
followings are put as a future work.
1. Implement the hard ware implementations properly using real components.
2. Ensure reliable electrical power source for Zenzelma street road and also the town.
3. Design cheap and efficient PV panel system that can be accessed easily .In this case a
great attention has to be given; because the cost of PV panel is high to afford it.
4. Investigation on the application of solar energy for water pumping and rural
electrification purpose.
5. Use of the excess solar power for home lighting after for o clock at night.

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