Chapter Two: Pipe Flow Hydraulics: Hydraulics-II Lecture Notes

Hydraulics-II Lecture Notes 2016
CHAPTER TWO: PIPE FLOW HYDRAULICS
2. PIPE FLOW HYDRAULICS

2.1 Introduction
A pipe is a closed conduit through which fluids can flow. The flow in a pipe is
termed pipe flow only when full water flow in closed conduits of circular cross sections
under a certain pressure gradient. Pipes flowing partially full, with a free surface are
the categories of open channel flow. For a given discharge (𝑄), pipe flow at any
location can be described by the pipe cross section, pipe elevation, the pressure, and
the flow velocity in the pipe.
 Elevation Head (𝒛): This is an amount of flow potential energy in one cross
section defined by elevation, and is usually measured with respect to a
horizontal reference datum such as mean sea level (MSL).
𝑷
 Pressure Head ( 𝜸 ): it an amount of the flow potential energy in one cross
section defined by the water pressure.
𝑷
 Piezometric Head (𝒛 + ): the sum of elevation and pressure head in one cross
𝜸
section.
𝒗𝟐
 Velocity Head (𝟐𝒈): it an amount of flow kinetic energy in one cross section
defined by the water velocity.
Figure 2-1. Energy gradient line (EL) and Hydraulic grade line (HGL) in pipe flow
ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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Bernoulli’s equation for pipe flow between section 1 and 2:
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + + 𝐻𝐿 (2.1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Where 𝐻𝐿 = Head losses in the pipe between section 1 and 2.
2.2 Energy Gradient Line and Hydraulic Gradient Line

Total head (which is also equal to total energy per unit weight) with respect to any
arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation (potential) head, pressure head and
velocity head, i.e.
𝑃 𝑣2
𝐻=𝑧+ + (2.2)
𝛾 2𝑔
 Energy Gradient Line (E.G.L): If the total energy at various points along the axis
of the pipes is plotted and joined by a line, the line so obtained is called ‘energy
gradient line’ (E.G.L). This line is also known as the total energy line (T.E.L).
 Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L): The sum of potential head and pressure head
𝑃
(𝑧 + 𝛾 ) at any point is called the piezometric head. If a line is drawn joining the
piezometric head levels at various points, the line so obtained is known as the
hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L).
Note. E.G.L always drops in the direction of flow because of loss of head, where as
H.G.L may rise or fall depending upon the pressure changes. Moreover, H.G.L is
always below the E.G.L. The vertical difference between H.G.L and E.G.L is equal to
𝑣2
the velocity head (2𝑔). EGL and HGL are coincident and lie at the free surface for
water at rest (reservoir)
𝑣2
𝐸. 𝐺. 𝐿 − 𝐻. 𝐺. 𝐿 = (2.3)
2𝑔
The slope of energy gradient line is given by:
ℎ𝑓
𝑆= (2.4)
𝐿

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Where ℎ𝑓 = the head loss due to friction. For pipe of uniform cross section, the slope
of the hydraulic gradient line is equal to the slope of the energy gradient line.
2.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: In laminar flow the particles of fluid move in orderly manners & the
steam lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section. Laminar
flow is associated with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.
Turbulent flow: the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying different
relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is associated with high
velocity flows.
Reynolds (1883) established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent flow, using
the dimensionless number called Reynolds’s number, 𝑁𝑅 . Reynolds number is the ratio
of inertia force to viscous force.
V D ρ 𝑉𝐷
NR = = (2.5)
𝜇 𝑣
𝑁𝑠
Where 𝑉 = mean velocity (m/s), 𝐷 = diameter (m) of pipe 𝜇 = Dynamic viscosity (𝑚2 )
𝑚2
and 𝑣 = kinematic viscosity ( ).
𝑠
NR < 2000 → 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
2000 ≤ NR ≤ 4000 → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
NR > 4000 → 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
2.4 Head losses

Mainly there are two types of head losses in the pipe:
1. Major loss (𝒉𝒇 ): head loss resulting from friction between the fluid and pipe
wall.
2. Minor head Loss (𝑯𝒎 ): Head loss resulting from pipe entrance, transition, exit,
valve and other inline structures.
𝐻𝐿 = ∑ ℎ𝑓 + ∑ 𝐻𝑚

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2.4.1 Major Loss
2.4.1.1 Darcy-Weiscback Equation

The most popular pipe flow equation was derived by Henry Darcy (1803 to 1858) and
Julius Weiscback (1806 to 1871). The equation takes the form and is commonly known
as the equation is known as Darcy-Weiscback equation.
𝐿 𝑣2 𝐿𝑓
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝑄 2 = 𝐾𝐷𝑊 𝑄 2 (2.6)
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷2𝑔𝐴2
/Where 𝑓 = friction factor, 𝐿 = pipe length, 𝐷 = pipe diameter, 𝑣 = mean flow

𝑓𝐿
velocity, 𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity, 𝐾𝐷𝑊 = 2𝑔𝐷𝐴2 = Darcy- Weiscback Resistance
coefficient.
When Reynolds Number (𝑁𝑅 ) is less than 2000, flow in the pipe is laminar and
friction factor is calculated with the following formula:
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𝑓= (2.7)
𝑁𝑅
When Reynolds Number (𝑁𝑅 ) is greater or equal to 2000, the flow in the pipe
becomes practically turbulent and the value of friction factor (𝑓) then becomes less
dependent on the Reynolds Number but more dependent on the relative roughness
𝑒
(𝐷) of the pipe. The roughness height (𝑒) for certain common commercial materials
is proved in table 2.1.
Table 2-1. The roughness height (e) for certain common commercial materials

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The Darcy-Weiscback friction factor (𝑓) When Reynolds Number (𝑁𝑅 ) is greater or
equal to 2000 can be found in three ways:
1. Graphical solution: Moody Diagram

2. Implicit equation: Colebrook-White Equation
3. Explicit equation: Swamee-Jain Equation
Graphical Solution: Moody Diagram:

𝑒
Step1: Determine relative roughness of the pipe (𝐷), which is ratio of roughness height
(𝑒) (see table 2-1) to pipe diameter.
Step2: Determine Reynolds Number (𝑁𝑅 ) using equation 2.5.
Step3: Read friction factor (𝑓) from Moody diagram shown in figure 2-3.
Figure 2-2. Friction factor for pipe flow: the Moody diagram

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Implicit Equation: Colebrook-White Equation
𝑒
1 𝐷 2.51
= −2𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) (2.8)
√𝑓 3.7 𝑁𝑅 √𝑓
𝑒
Where 𝑓 = friction factor, = relative roughness, 𝑁𝑅 = Reynolds number.
𝐷
Swamee -Jain Equation
0.25
𝑓= (2.9)
𝑒 2
𝐷 + 5.74
[𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3.7 )]
𝑁𝑅0.9
2.4.1.2 Empirical Equation for Friction Heal Loss
2.4.1.2.1 Hazen-Williams Equation

It was developed for water flow in large pipes (𝐷 ≥ 5 𝑐𝑚) within a moderate range of
𝑚
water velocity (𝑣 ≥ 3 𝑠 ). The Hazen-Williams equation in SI units is written in the form
of:
𝑣 = 0.849𝐶𝐻𝑊 𝑅 0.63 𝑆 0.54 (2.10)
Where 𝑣 = velocity (m/s), 𝑆 = slope of the energy grade line, which is the head loss
ℎ𝑓
per unit length of the pipe (𝑆 = ), 𝐶𝐻𝑊 = Hazen-Williams coefficient (See table 2-2).
𝐿
𝑅 = Hydraulic radius (m), defined as the water cross sectional area (𝐴) divided by
wetted perimeter (P). For circular pipe, the hydraulic radius is:
𝜋𝐷2
𝐴 𝐷
𝑅= = 4 = (2.11)
𝑃 𝜋𝐷 4
0.54
𝑄 𝐷 0.63 ℎ𝑓
= 0.849𝐶𝐻𝑊 ( ) ( )
𝜋𝐷2 4 𝐿
4
10.64𝐿
ℎ𝑓 = [ 1.85 4.87 ] 𝑄1.85 = 𝐾𝐻𝑊 𝑄1.85 (2.12)
𝐶𝐻𝑊 𝐷
10.64𝐿
Where 𝐾𝐻𝑊 = [𝐶 1.85 𝐷4.87 ] = Hazen William resistance coefficient.
𝐻𝑊

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Table 2-2. Hazen-William Coefficient for different type of pipes
2.4.1.2.2 Manning Equation

Manning equation has used extensively in open channel designs. It is also quite
commonly used in pipe flows. The Manning equation may be expressed in the
following form:
1 2 1
𝑣= 𝑅3𝑆 2 (2.13)
𝑁
Where 𝑣 = mean velocity (m/s), 𝑆 = slope of the energy grade line, which is the
ℎ𝑓
head loss per unit length of the pipe (𝑆 = ), 𝑁 = Manning roughness coefficient
𝐿
(See table 2-3), 𝑅 = Hydraulic radius (m).
2 1
𝑄 𝑄 1 𝐷 3 ℎ𝑓 2
= = ( ) ( )
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2 /4 𝑁 4 𝐿
10.29𝐿𝑁 2
ℎ𝑓 = [ ] . 𝑄 2 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑄 2 (2.14)
𝐷5.33
10.29𝐿𝑁 2
Where 𝐾𝑚 = [ ] = Manning resistance coefficient.
𝐷 5.33

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Table 2-3. Manning Roughness coefficient for Pipe flows
2.4.2 Minor Head Losses

For real pipe systems in addition to friction head loss, there are additional loss so
called minor head loss due to:
 Entrance and exit effects

 Expansions and contractions
 Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
 Valves (open or partially closed)
𝑣2
𝐻𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 (2.15)
2𝑔
Where 𝐻𝑚 = minor head loss, 𝐾𝑚 = minor head loss coefficient, 𝑣 = mean velocity.
2.4.2.1 Loss of Head at Entrance

A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause an appreciable head loss. Across section
with maximum velocity and minimum pressure occurs at B shown in figure 2-3. This
minimum flow area is known as the vena contracta.
It is seen that the loss of energy at entrance is distributed along the length AC, a
distance of several diameters. The increased turbulence and vortex motion in this
portion of the pipe cause the friction loss to be much greater than in a corresponding

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length where the flow is normal, as it is shown by the drop of the total-energy line.
Out of the total energy loss, a small portion ℎ𝑓 would be due to the normal pipe
friction (See figure 2-3).
Figure 2-3. Head loss due to entrance
The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as
𝑣2
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 (2.16)
2𝑔
Where ℎ𝑖 = head loss due to entrance, 𝑣 = mean flow velocity in the pipe, 𝑘𝑖 = loss
coefficient.
Figure 2-4. Entrance Loss Coefficient (𝒌𝒆 )
2.4.2.2 Exit Head loss (𝒉𝒆 )

When the fluid with a velocity 𝑣 is discharged from the end of a pipe into a large
reservoir, (𝑣 = 0), the entire kinetic energy of the coming flow is dissipated (lost). This

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may be shown by writing an energy equation between (a) and (b) in Figure 2-5.
Taking the datum plane through (a) and recognizing that the pressure head of the fluid
at (a) is 𝑦, it is depth below the surface:
𝑣2
𝐻𝑎 = 0 + 𝑦 +
2𝑔
𝐻𝑏 = 0 + 𝑦 + 0
𝑣2
ℎ𝑒 = 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑏 = (2.17)
2𝑔
Figure 2-5. Head loss due to exit into submerged discharge
2.4.2.3 Head Loss due to contraction (𝒉𝒄 )

A). Sudden contraction
There is a marked drop in pressure due to increase in velocity and the loss of
energy in turbulence. The loss of head for sudden contraction may be represented by:
𝑣22
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑘𝑐 (2.18)
2𝑔
Where ℎ𝑐 = head loss due to sudden contraction, 𝑘𝑐 = contraction loss coefficient.

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Figure 2-6. Head loss due to sudden contraction
Table 2-4. Loss coefficient for sudden contraction

𝐷2
𝐷1
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
KC 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
B). Gradual contraction
In order to reduces high losses, abrupt changes of cross section should be avoided.
This is accomplished by changing from one diameter to the other by means of a
smoothly curved transition or by employing the frustum of a cone. By using smooth
curved transition a loss coefficient (𝑘𝑐 ) of 0.05 is possible. For conical reducers, a
minimum 𝑘𝑐 of about 0.10 is obtained, with a total cone angle of 20-400. Smaller or
larger total cone angle results in higher values of kc.
A nozzle at the end of a pipe line is a special case of gradual contraction. The head
loss through a nozzle at the end of a pipeline is given by equation (2.19), where kc
is the nozzle loss coefficient whose value commonly ranges from 0.04 to 0.20 and vj
is the jet velocity. The head loss through a nozzle cannot be regarded as a minor
loss because the jet velocity head is usually quite large.

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𝑣𝑗2
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑘𝑐 (2.19)
2𝑔
2.4.2.4 Head Loss due to Expansion (𝒉′𝒆 )

A). Sudden Expansion
The experiments show that the loss due to sudden expansion is greater than the loss
due to a corresponding contraction. This is so because of the inherent instability of
flow in an expansion where the diverging paths of the flow tend to encourage the
formation of eddies within the flow. Moreover, separation of the flow from the wall of
the conduit induces pockets of eddying turbulence outside the flow region. In
converging flow, there is a dampening effect on eddy formation, and the conversion
from pressure energy to kinetic energy is quite efficient.
Figure 2-7. Head loss due sudden expansion
After the flow enters expanded pipe, there is excessive turbulence and formation of
eddies which causes loss of energy. The loss due to sudden enlargement in a pipe
line system can be calculated with the application of energy and momentum equations
by neglecting the small shear force exerted on the walls of between sections 1 and 2
(see figure 2-7) for steady incompressible turbulent flow.

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From point 1 to 2 the velocity decreases and so the pressure increases. At 1’

turbulent eddies are formed. We will assume that the pressure at 1 is the same as
the pressure at 1’ ()𝐴1 = 𝐴2 ). Apply the momentum equation between 1 and 2:
The rate of change in momentum between sections (1) and (2):

𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝐴2 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 = 𝑔 𝑄(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑔 (𝐴2 𝑣22 − 𝐴1 𝑣12 )
Using continuity equation, 𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 and rearranging the variables:
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝑣2
= (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝜌𝑔 𝑔
Energy equation between sections (1) and (2) become:
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ = + + ℎ𝑒′
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃2 −𝑃1
Solving for in each equation and equating the results:
𝛾
𝑣22 − 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣12 − 𝑣22

= − ℎ𝑒′
𝑔 2𝑔
Noting that from continuity equation 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 and that:
𝐴1 𝑣12 = (𝐴1 𝑣1 )𝑣1 = (𝐴2 𝑣2 )𝑣1
Substituting in the above equation:

2 2
𝑣12 − 𝑣22 𝐷12 𝑣12 𝐷22 𝑣22
ℎ𝑒′ = = (1 − 2 ) = ( 2 − 1) (2.20)
2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔
B). Gradual Expansion
To minimize the loss accompanying a reduction in velocity a diffuser may be used.

Diffuser is a curved outline, or it may be a frustum of cone. In figure (2-8) the head
loss will be some function of the angle of divergence and also of the ratio of two
areas, the length of the diffuser being determined by these two variables.

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Figure 2-8. Loss due to gradual enlargement
In flow through a diffuser, the total loss may be considered as made up of two
components. One is the ordinary pipe-friction loss, which may be represented by:
𝑓 𝑣2
ℎ𝑔𝑒 =∫ 𝑑𝐿
𝐷 2𝑔
In order to integrate, it is necessary to express the variables f, D, and 𝑣 as functions

of L. For our present purpose, it is sufficient, however, merely to note that the friction
loss increases with the length of the cone. Hence, for given values of D1 and D2, the
larger the angle of the cone, the less its length and the less the pipe friction.
The other is turbulence loss due to divergence. Turbulence loss increase with the
degree of divergence, if the rate of divergence is great enough then there may be a
separation at the wall and eddies flowing backward along the walls.
The loss due to a gradual enlargement is expressed as:
𝑣12 − 𝑣22
ℎ𝑔𝑒 = 𝑘 ′ (2.21)
2𝑔
Where K’ loss coefficient which is a function of cone angle, .
Table 2-5. Loss Coefficient for gradual expansion
K’ 0.4 0.6 0.95 1.1 1.18 1.09 1.0 1.0
 200 300 400 500 600 900 1200 180

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2.4.2.5 Head Loss in pipe fittings

The loss of head in pipe fittings (ℎ𝑝𝑓 ) is expressed as:
𝑣2
ℎ𝑝𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 2𝑔 (2.22)
Where 𝑣 = the velocity in a pipe of the nominal size of the fitting. The values of 𝑘𝑓
values are given in table 2-6.
Table 2-6. Values of 𝒌𝒇 loss for pipe fittings
Fitting 𝑘𝑓
Globe valve, wide open 10
Angle valve, wide open 5
Close –return bend 2.2
T-through side outlet 1.8
Short-radius elbow 0.9
Medium radius elbow 0.75
Long radius elbow 0.60
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
Half open 2.06
Pump foot value 5.60
Standard branch flow 1.80
2.4.2.6 Head Losses in Bend & Elbow

In flow around a bend or elbow, because of centrifugal effects, there is an increase in
pressure along the outer wall and a decrease in pressure along the inner wall. Most
of the loss of head in a sharp bend may be eliminated by the use of a vane elbow.

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The vane tends to impede the formation of the secondary flow that would otherwise
occur. The head loss produced by a bend or elbow is:
𝑣2
ℎ𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 (2.23)
2𝑔
kb - depends on the ratio of curvature r to pipe diameter D.
Figure 2-9. Secondary flow in bend
Figure 2-10. Vaned Elbow
2.5 Pipe Line with Pump or Turbine

If a pump lifts a fluid from one reservoir to another, as in figure 2-11a, not only does
it do work in lifting the fluid with the height (∆𝑧), but also it has to overcome the
frictional loss in the suction and discharge piping. This friction head is equivalent to

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some added lift, so that the effect is the same as if the pump lifted the fluid with a
height, ∆𝑧 + ∑ 𝐻𝐿 . Hence the power delivered to the liquid by the pump is 𝛾𝑄(∆𝑧 +
∑ 𝐻𝐿 ). The power required to run the pump is greater than this, depending on the
efficiency of the pump. The total pumping head (ℎ𝑝 ) for this case is:
ℎ𝑝 = ∆𝑧 + ∑ 𝐻𝐿 (2.24)
If the pump discharges a stream through a nozzle, as shown in Figure 2-11b, not only
has the liquid been lifted with a height ∆𝑧, but also it has received a kinetic energy
𝑣2
head of , where 𝑣 is the velocity of the jet. Thus the total pumping head (ℎ𝑝 ) is
2𝑔
as follow:
𝑣22
ℎ𝑝 = ∆𝑧 + + ∑ 𝐻𝐿 (2.24)
2𝑔
In any case the total pumping head may be determined by writing the energy equation
between any point upstream from the pump and any other point downstream.
Figure 2-11. Pipeline with turbine and pipeline
2.6 Compound Pipe Flow Systems

When two or more pipes with different diameters are connected together head to tail
(in series) or connected to two common nodes (parallel), the system is known as
compound pipe flow.

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2.6.1 Flow through Pipes in Series

When pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected end to end (in
series) to form a pipeline, the pipe system is known as pipe in series.
When pipes are connected in series as shown in figure 2-12:
 Discharge (𝑸): The discharge through each pipe is the same:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 (2.25)
 Head loss (𝑯𝑳 ): The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of
the total head loss in the pipes:
ℎ = 𝐻𝐿 1 + 𝐻𝐿 2 + 𝐻𝐿 3 (2.26)
Figure 2-12. Pipes Connected in Series
Note. The energy gradient line always slopes down in the direction of flow, whereas
the hydraulic gradient line may rise or fall depending upon the velocity and pressure
changes (see figure 2-12).
There are two types of problems in the pipe system consisting of pipes in series:
a. The discharge (𝑄) is known and the head loss is required:

 Velocity in different pipes can be calculated from known discharge using
equation (2.25).
 The loss of head is obtained from velocity using equation (2.26).
b. The loss of head (H) is known and discharge (Q) is required
 All the head loss can be expressed in terms of the velocity in all pipes

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 The relation between the velocities in different pipes can be obtained using
equation (2.25)
 Velocity can be obtained from head loss.
 Discharge can be obtained from velocity.
2.6.2 Flow through Parallel Pipes

If a main pipeline divides into two or more branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe, then the branched pipes are said to be connected
in parallel (compound pipes). Points A and B are called nodes.
Figure 2-13. Pipes Connected in Parallels
 Discharge (𝑸): The sum of discharge through each branch pipe is equal to the
discharge through main pipe:
𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = ∑ 𝑄𝑖 (2.27)
𝑖
 Head loss (𝑯𝑳 ): The head loss for each branch pipe is the same:
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3 = ( + 𝑍𝐴 ) − ( + 𝑍𝐵 ) (2.28)
𝛾 𝛾
𝐿1 𝑣12 𝐿2 𝑣22 𝐿3 𝑣32
𝑓1 = 𝑓1 = 𝑓3 (2.29)
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
In analyzing parallel pipe systems, it is assumed that the minor losses are added into
the lengths of each pipe as equivalent lengths.
As in pipes in series, in parallel pipe system two types of problems occur:

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1. The head loss (𝐻) is given and the discharge (Q) is required
 The velocity in each pipe is obtained from the known head loss (H)
𝐿1 𝑣12
𝐻 = ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓 ( )
𝐷1 2𝑔
𝐿2 𝑣22
𝐻 = ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑓 ( )
𝐷2 2𝑔
𝐿2 𝑣22
𝐻 = ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓 ( )
𝐷2 2𝑔
 The discharge through each pipe is obtained from the calculated velocity
2. The discharge is given (𝑄) is given and the head loss and the distribution of
discharge in different branches is required.
The second type of problem is more complex, as neither the head loss nor the
discharge for any one pipe is known. There are two methods to solve this types of
problems:
Method 1
1) Assume a discharge 𝑄1′ through pipe 1;
′
2) Solve for ℎ𝑓1 using assumed discharge,
′
3) Using ℎ𝑓1 , find 𝑄2′ and 𝑄3′
4) With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given
Q is split up among the pipes in the same proportion as 𝑄1′ 𝑄2′ and 𝑄3′ ,Thus,
𝑄1′ 𝑄2′ 𝑄3′

𝑄1 = , 𝑄2 = , 𝑄3 = (2.30)
∑ 𝑄′ ∑ 𝑄′ ∑ 𝑄′
5) Check the correctness of these discharges by computing ℎ𝑓1 , ℎ𝑓2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓3 for the
computed 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 .
Method 2
1) Discharges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 can be expressed in terms of H.

60
𝐿1 𝑣12 2𝑔
𝐻 = 𝑓1 ⇒ 𝑣1 = √ √𝐻
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐿1
𝑓1 (𝐷 )
1
2𝑔
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴1 √ √𝐻 = 𝑘1 √𝐻
𝐿1
𝑓1 (𝐷 )
1
2𝑔
𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴2 √ √𝐻 = 𝑘2 √𝐻
𝐿2
𝑓2 (𝐷 )
2
2𝑔
𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = 𝐴3 √ √𝐻 = 𝑘3 √𝐻
𝐿3
𝑓3 (𝐷 )
3
𝑄 = 𝑘1 √𝐻 + 𝑘2 √𝐻 + 𝑘3 √𝐻 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )√𝐻 (2.31)

2) The values of H may be obtained from equation (2.31) as Q is known
and 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘3 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
3) The discharge in the individual pipes may be obtained from calculated value of
H.
2.6.3 Branching Pipes

Let us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs as in Figure 2-14 and
connected together or branching at the common junction point J. Actually, any of the
pipes may be considered to be connected to some other destination than a reservoir
by simply replacing the reservoir with a piezometer tube in which the water level is
the same as the reservoir surface. We shall suppose that all the pipes are sufficiently
long that minor losses and velocity heads may be neglected.

61
Figure 2-14. Branching Pipe Systems
The continuity and energy equations require that the flow entering the junction equal
the flow leaving it and that the pressure head at J (with open piezometer tube water
at elevation P) be common to all pipes.
There being no pumps, the elevation of P must lie between the surfaces of reservoirs
A and C.
 If P is level with the surface of reservoir B, then 𝑄1 is equal to 𝑄2 .

𝑄1 = 𝑄3
 If P is above the surface of reservoir B, then water must flow into B and;
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
 If P is below the surface of reservoir B, then the flow must be out of B.
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
The three types of problems which commonly occur in practice are given below:
Case 1
 Given: all pipe data (length, diameter, and the material for values), the surface
elevations of two reservoirs (A and B), and the flow to or from one of these
two (let 𝑄1 ),
 Required: find the surface elevation of the third reservoir (C).

62
Calculation procedures
𝑃
Step1: Calculate the loss of head in pipe 1 and the pressure head (𝛾 ) at J
𝐿1 𝑣12
ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓
𝐷1 2𝑔
𝑃
+ 𝑧𝐽 = 𝐻𝐴 + 𝑧𝐴 − ℎ𝑓1
𝛾
Step2: From water surface elevations at point J and that at reservoir B, find direction
of flow and the difference of heads (ℎ𝑓1 ), and hence calculate the discharge (𝑄2 ).
𝐿2 𝑣22
ℎ𝑓2 =𝑓
𝐷2 2𝑔
Step3: Calculate 𝑄3 from the continuity equations depending upon the direction of flow
Step4: Compute the head loss in pipe 3 using calculated value of 𝑄3 .
Step5: Determine surface elevation of reservoir 2.
Case 2
 Given: all pipe data, the surface elevations of two reservoirs (A and C), and the
discharge (𝑄2 ),
 Find the surface elevation of the third reservoir (B).
Calculation Procedures
The problem is solved by trial and error method. From the given data, the sum of
losses (ℎ𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓3 ) and the difference of discharge (𝑄1 − 𝑄3 = 𝑄2 ) is known.
Step1. Assume a suitable distribution of 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 satisfying the condition 𝑄1 − 𝑄3 = 𝑄2
Step2: Compute the loss of head ℎ𝑓1 and ℎ𝑓3 and see whether they satisfy the
requirement:
ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝐴 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝐶
Repeat the procedure till a satisfactory solution is obtained.

63
Alternative method
Step1: Assume some suitable elevation of the piezometer level at J to distribute the
sum (ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 ) into two parts ℎ𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓3 .
Step2: Compute the discharge 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 for values of ℎ𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓3 , and see if the
continuity equation 𝑄1 − 𝑄3 = 𝑄2 is satisfied.
Repeat the procedure till the continuity equation is satisfied
Case 3
 Given: all pipe lengths and diameters and the elevations of all three reservoirs.
 Required: find the flow (discharge) in each pipe.
This is the classic three – reservoir problem, and it differ from the forgoing cases in
that it is not immediately evident whether the flow is into or out of reservoir B.
Procedures
Step1: Assume that no flow occur in pipe 2, i.e., the piezometric level at J is
assumed at the elevation of the reservoir B.
Step2: Compute the discharge 𝑄1 and 𝑄2
Step3: If 𝑄1 > 𝑄3, the liquid flows from J to B, and the continuity equation is 𝑄1 =
𝑄3 + 𝑄2. If 𝑄1 < 𝑄3, the liquid flows from B to J, and the continuity equation is 𝑄3 =
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 .
Step4: when the direction of flow in pipe 2 has been established, the problem
becomes rather simple. Let us assume that the direction of flow is from J to B.
Step5: the problem can also be solved analytically once the direction of flow in pipe 2
is known. Let us say the direction of flow is from J to B. We have the equations:
𝐿1 𝑣12 𝐿2 𝑣22
𝐻1 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑓 +𝑓 (𝑎)
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷2 2𝑔

64
𝐿1 𝑣12 𝐿3 𝑣32
𝐻1 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓3 = 𝑓 +𝑓 (𝑏)
𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷3 2𝑔
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ⇒ 𝐷12 𝑣1 = 𝐷22 𝑣2 + 𝐷32 𝑉3 (𝑐)
Solving equations (a), (b) and (c) simultaneously, 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 can be obtained. Then
𝑄1 , 𝑄2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 can be obtained from velocity.
2.6.4 Equivalent Pipes

Series pipes can be solved by the method of equivalent lengths. Pipe systems are
said to be equivalent when the same head loss produces the same discharge in both
systems. From Darcy-Weiscbach formula:
𝐿 8𝑄 2 𝐿 8𝑄 2 𝐿 8𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓1 𝐷15 𝜋2 𝑔1 , ℎ𝑓2 = 𝑓2 𝐷25 𝜋2 𝑔2 ,…, ℎ𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛5 𝜋2 𝑔𝑛
1 2 𝑛
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3
𝐿𝑒 8𝑄 2 𝐿1 8𝑄 2 𝐿2 8𝑄 2 𝐿𝑛 8𝑄 2
𝑓𝑒 = 𝑓1 5 2 + 𝑓2 5 2 + 𝑓𝑛 5 2
𝐷𝑒5 𝜋 2 𝑔 𝐷1 𝜋 𝑔 𝐷2 𝜋 𝑔 𝐷𝑛 𝜋 𝑔
𝑓1 𝐷𝑒 5 𝑓2 𝐷𝑒 5 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑒 5
𝐿𝑒 = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) ( ) (2.32)
𝑓𝑒 𝐷1 𝑓𝑒 𝐷2 𝑓𝑒 𝐷𝑛
2.6.5 Pipe Network Analysis

The city water supply system consists of several loops and branches of pipes. The
system is known as pipe network, shown in figure 2-15. The solution of pipe network
is very time consuming. Professor Hardy Cross developed an ingenious method of
successive approximation. By this method, the distribution of discharge amongst various
pipes can be easily obtained.
Figure 2-15. Hydraulic analysis of Pipe Networks

65
A pipe network must satisfy the following 3 basic conditions:
1. At any junction, the total inflow must be equal to the total outflow.
2. The algebraic sum of the head losses around any closed circuit must be zero.
3. The head loss equation must be satisfied for each pipe. For pipe network
problems, the head loss is usually expressed as:
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛
Where 𝑘 = constant for the pipe, 𝑄 = discharge, 𝑛 = Constant, which depend on the
formula used. For Darcy-Weiscbach and Manning equations, n = 2. For Hazen-William
Equation, n =1.85.
Assumptions/ Steps of this Method
1. Assume that the water is withdrawn from the nodes only; not directly from
pipes.
2. The discharge (Q) entering the system will have (+) value, and the discharge
(Q) leaving the system will have (-) value.
3. Usually neglect minor losses since these will be small with respect to those in
long pipes, i.e., or could be included as equivalent lengths in each pipe.
4. Assume flows for each individual pipe in the network (𝑄0 ).
5. At any junction (node), as done for pipes in parallel:
∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝑄 = 0
6. Around any loop in the grid, the sum of head losses must equal to zero;
∑ ℎ𝑓 = 0
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝
 Conventionally, clockwise flows in a loop are considered (+) and produce
positive head losses; counterclockwise flows are then (-) and produce
negative head losses.
 This fact is called the head balance of each loop, and this can be valid only
if the assumed Q for each pipe, within the loop, is correct. The probability of
initially guessing all flow rates correctly is virtually null. Therefore, to balance
the head around each loop, a flow rate correction (∆𝑄) for each loop in the
network should be computed, and hence some iteration scheme is needed.

66
7. After finding the discharge correction (∆𝑄) (one for each loop), the assumed discharge
(𝑄0 ) are adjusted and another iteration is carried out until all corrections (values of
∆𝑄) become zero or negligible. At this point the condition of:
∑𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 ℎ𝑓 ≅ 0 is satisfied.
To find the correction value (∆𝑸)
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑄0 + ∆𝑄
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛 = 𝑘(𝑄0 + ∆𝑄)𝑛 = 𝑘 [𝑄0𝑛 + 𝑛𝑄0𝑛−1 ∆𝑄 + 𝑄0 ∆𝑄 + ⋯ ]
2
Neglecting the higher order terms
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛 = 𝑘[𝑄0𝑛 + 𝑛𝑄0𝑛−1 ∆𝑄]
Since for each loop in the grid
∑ ℎ𝑓 = ∑ 𝑘𝑄 𝑛 = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 𝑛 = 𝑘[𝑄0𝑛 + 𝑛𝑄0𝑛−1 ∆𝑄] = 0
∑ 𝑘𝑄0𝑛 ∑ ℎ𝑓
∆Q = − = − (2.32)
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑛𝑘 |𝑄0 | ℎ𝑓
𝑛 ∑ |𝑄 |
0
 Note that if Hazen-Williams is used to find the head losses, then

𝐿 𝑄 1.85
ℎ𝑓 = 10.7 4.87 ( ) = 𝑘𝑄1.85
𝐷 𝐶𝐻𝑊
∑ ℎ𝑓
∆𝑄 = −
ℎ𝑓
1.85 ∑ |𝑄 |
0
 If Darcy-Weiscbach is used to find the head losses, then
𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝑘𝑄 2
𝐷 2𝑔
∑ ℎ𝑓
∆𝑄 = −
ℎ𝑓
𝑛 ∑ |𝑄 |
0

67

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Hydraulics-II Lecture Notes 2016

CHAPTER TWO: PIPE FLOW HYDRAULICS

2. PIPE FLOW HYDRAULICS

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Bernoulli’s equation for pipe flow between section 1 and 2:

Where 𝐻𝐿 = Head losses in the pipe between section 1 and 2.

2.2 Energy Gradient Line and Hydraulic Gradient Line

The slope of energy gradient line is given by:

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

NR < 2000 → 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤

2000 ≤ NR ≤ 4000 → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

NR > 4000 → 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤

2.4 Head losses

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.4.1 Major Loss

2.4.1.1 Darcy-Weiscback Equation

/Where 𝑓 = friction factor, 𝐿 = pipe length, 𝐷 = pipe diameter, 𝑣 = mean flow

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Graphical solution: Moody Diagram

Graphical Solution: Moody Diagram:

Step2: Determine Reynolds Number (𝑁𝑅 ) using equation 2.5.

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Implicit Equation: Colebrook-White Equation

Swamee -Jain Equation

2.4.1.2 Empirical Equation for Friction Heal Loss

2.4.1.2.1 Hazen-Williams Equation

𝑣 = 0.849𝐶𝐻𝑊 𝑅 0.63 𝑆 0.54 (2.10)

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Table 2-2. Hazen-William Coefficient for different type of pipes

2.4.1.2.2 Manning Equation

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Table 2-3. Manning Roughness coefficient for Pipe flows

2.4.2 Minor Head Losses

 Entrance and exit effects

2.4.2.1 Loss of Head at Entrance

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Figure 2-3. Head loss due to entrance

The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as

Figure 2-4. Entrance Loss Coefficient (𝒌𝒆 )

2.4.2.2 Exit Head loss (𝒉𝒆 )

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Figure 2-5. Head loss due to exit into submerged discharge

2.4.2.3 Head Loss due to contraction (𝒉𝒄 )

Where ℎ𝑐 = head loss due to sudden contraction, 𝑘𝑐 = contraction loss coefficient.

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Figure 2-6. Head loss due to sudden contraction

Table 2-4. Loss coefficient for sudden contraction

B). Gradual contraction

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.4.2.4 Head Loss due to Expansion (𝒉′𝒆 )

Figure 2-7. Head loss due sudden expansion

ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVETERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

From point 1 to 2 the velocity decreases and so the pressure increases. At 1’

The rate of change in momentum between sections (1) and (2):

Using continuity equation, 𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 and rearranging the variables:

Energy equation between sections (1) and (2) become: