Antennas

Introduction
• If the sources are time varying, EM waves
propagate away from the sources and radiation is
said to have taken place.
• Radiation may be thought of as the process of
transmitting electric energy.
• The radiation or launching of the waves into space
is efficiently accomplished with the aid of
conducting or dielectric structures called antennas.
• Theoretically, any structure can radiate EM waves
but not all structures can serve as efficient
radiation mechanisms.
 Introduction
• An antenna may be viewed as a transducer in
matching the transmission line or waveguide to
the surrounding medium or vice versa.
• The antenna is needed for two main reasons:
– Efficient radiation
– Matching wave impedances to minimize reflection.
• The antenna uses voltage and current from the
transmission line to launch an EM wave into the
medium.
• An antenna may be used for either transmitting or
receiving EM energy.
 Antenna as a Matching Device
EM Wave

Transmission Line
~
Generator
Antenna

Surrounding Medium
 Typical Antennas
• The dipole antenna consists of two straight wires
lying along the same axis.
• The loop antenna consists of one or more turns of
wire.
• The helical antenna consists of a wire in the form
of a helix backed by a ground plane.
• Wire antennas are used in automobiles, buildings,
aircraft and ships.
• The horn antenna is a tapered section of
waveguide providing a transition between a
waveguide and the surroundings. It is used in
aircraft.
 Typical Antennas

Pyramidal Horn

Dipole
Radiating
Dipole

Loop

Reflector

Helix Parabolic Dish Reflector

 Common Applications: Set-top TV Antenna
The most common dipole antenna is the type used with
televisions, often colloquially referred to as “rabbit
ears” or “bunny ears”. While in most applications the
dipole elements are arranged along the same line, rabbit
ears are adjustable in length and angle. Larger dipoles are
sometimes hung in a V shape with the center near the
radio equipment on the ground or the ends on the ground
with the center supported. Shorter dipoles can be hung
vertically. Some have extra elements to get better
reception such as loops (especially for UHF
transmissions), which can be turnable around a vertical
axis, or a dial, which modifies the electrical properties of
the antenna at each dial position.
 Common Applications: Folded Dipole

Another common place one can see

dipoles is as antennas for the FM band -
these are folded dipoles. The tips of the
antenna are folded back until they almost
meet at the feed point, such that the
antenna comprises one entire wavelength.
This arrangement has a greater bandwidth
than a standard half-wave dipole. If the
conductor has a constant radius and cross-
section, at resonance the input impedance
is four times that of a half-wave dipole.
 Parabolic Antenna
• The parabolic dish reflector utilizes the fact that
EM waves are reflected by a conducting sheet.
• When used as a transmitting antenna, a feed
antenna such as a dipole or horn, is placed at the
focal point.
• The radiation from the source is reflected by the
dish and a parallel beam results.
• Parabolic dish antennas are used in
communications, radar, and astronomy.
 Radiation of an Antenna
Steps to determine the radiation fields:
1. Select an appropriate coordinate system and
determine the magnetic vector potential A.
2. Find H from B = H =   A.
E
3. Determine E from  H =  or E = H  ak,
assuming a lossless medium (t = 0).
4. Find the far field and determine the time-average
power radiated by using
Prad =  Pave  dS
where 1
Pave = Re(Es  Hs )
2
 Hertzian Dipole
• Hertzian dipole is commonly defined as an
infinitesimal current element I dl, where dl ≤ λ/10.
• It is located at the origin of a coordinate system
and carries a uniform current I = I0cos t.
• The retarded magnetic vector potential at the field
point P, due to the dipole, is given by
  I  dl
A= az
4 r
• The retarded current
 r
 I  = I 0 cos   t −  = I 0 cos (t −  r )
 u
= Re  I 0e j (t −  r ) 
 2 1
where  = = , u =
u  
 Hertzian Dipole
z
P

r


dl O y

x
 Magnetic Field of Hertzian Dipole
• The current is said to retarded at point P because
there is a propagation time delay r/u or phase
delay r from O to P.
 I 0 dl − j r
• Write A in phasor form as: Azs = e
4 r
• Transform it from Cartesian to spherical
coordinates As = (Ars, As, As)
where Ars = Azs cos , A s = − Azs sin  , A s = 0
• But B = H =   A. The H field is
I 0 dl  j  1  − j r
H s = sin   + 2 e
4  r r 
H rs = 0 = H s
 Electric Field of Hertzian Dipole
E
• To find E, using  H =  or  H = j Es
t
 I 0 dl 1 j  − j r
Ers = cos   2 − 3  e
2 r r 
 I 0 dl  j 1 j  − j r
E s = sin   + 2 − 3 e
4  r r r 
E s = 0
 
where  = =
 
 Radiation of Hertzian Dipole
• The 1/r3 term is called the electrostatic field.
• The 1/r2 term is called inductive term. This term is
important only at near field.
• The 1/r term is called the far field or radiation
field. The only term that remains at the far zone.
• At far field, H = jI 0  dl sin  e− j r , E =  H
s s s
4 r
H rs = H s = Ers = E s = 0
• Hs and Es are in time phase and orthogonal.
• It is considered as near zone if r << 1 and far
zone if r >> 1.
2d 2
• The boundary between near and far zones: r =
where d is the largest dimension of the antenna. 
 Radiation Resistance of Hertzian Dipole
• The time-average power density
Pave = Re ( Es  H s ) = Re ( E s H s ar ) =  H s ar
1  1  1 2

2 2 2
• The time-average power
I 0   dl 
2 2

Prad =  Pave  dS =
3   
• In free space
2
 dl  2
Prad = 40   I 0
2

 
1 2
Prad = I 0 Rrad
2 2
 dl 
where the radiation resistance is Rrad = 80  
2

 
 Limitation of Hertzian Dipole
• It requires antennas with large radiation
resistance to deliver large amounts of power
to space.
• Hertzian dipole is assumed to be
infinitesimally small. Consequently, its
radiation resistance is very small and
difficult to match the real transmission line.
 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
• The half-wave dipole derives its name from the
fact that its length is half a wavelength.
• It consists of a thin wire fed or excited at the
middle point by a voltage source connected to the
antenna via a transmission line.
• The field due to dipole can be obtained by
consider it as consisting of a chain of Hertzian
dipoles.
 Half-Wave Dipole
z
Current Distribution
I = I0 cosz  r
P

Transmission dz
I
Line r

~

I l =/2

Dipole
Antenna
 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
• The magnetic vector potential at P due to
differential length dl (= dz) of the dipole carrying
 I cos  z dz − j r
a phasor current Is = I0cosz is dAzs = 0 e
4 r 
• If r >> l, r = r − zcos
 I 0  /4 − j ( r − z cos )
Azs =
4 r −  /4
e cos  z dz
 /4
 I 0e − j r
e j  z cos
( j  cos  cos  z +  sin  z )
=
4 r −  2 cos 2  +  2 −  /4

 
 I 0e cos  cos  
− j r

=  2 
2 r  sin 2 
 Magnetic and Electric Fields of
Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
• Using Bs = Hs =   As and   H s = j Es to get
the magnetic and electric fields at far zone
(discarding the 1/r3 and 1/r2 terms) as
 
cos  cos  
− j r
jI 0 e
H s =  2  , E =H
s s
2 r sin 
• The radiation terms Hs and Es are in time phase
and orthogonal.
 Power of Half-Wave Dipole
Antenna
• The time-average radiated power
Prad =  Pave  dS
 
 I cos  cos  
2
0
2

= 
2 
2  r 2 sin  d d
 =0  =0 8 2 r 2 sin 2 
2  
cos  cos  
 I 02   2  d
= 2 2 
8 0 sin 
2  
cos  cos  
= 60 I 0 
2
 /2 2  d
0 sin 
 Radiation Resistance of Half-Wave
Dipole Antenna
• The time-average radiated power:

2 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 )
 2 4 6 8

Prad = 15I 0  − + − + ...
 2(2!) 4(4!) 6(6!) 8(8!) 
 36.56 I 02
• The radiation resistance of half-wave dipole
antenna:
2 Prad
Rrad = 2 = 73 
I0
 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna
• A significant increase in the radiation resistance of
half-wave dipole over that of the Hertzian dipole.
• Half-wave dipole is capable of delivering greater
amounts of power to space than the Hertzian
dipole.
• The total input impedance is Zin = 73 + j42.5  for
a dipole length l = /2.
• The inductive reactance drops rapidly to zero as the
length of the dipole is slightly reduced.
• For l = 0.485 , the dipole is resonant, with Xin = 0.
• In practice, a /2 dipole is designed such that Xin
approaches zero and Zin  73 .
Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna
• Basically, the quarter-wave monopole antenna
consists of one-half of a half-wave dipole antenna
located on a conducting ground.
• The monopole antenna is perpendicular to the
plane.
• It is fed by a coaxial cable connected to its base.
• The field produced in the region above the ground
plane due to /4 monopole with its image is the
same as the field due to /2 wave dipole.
Monopole Antenna

Infinite Conducting
Ground Plane
I
l = /2
~

Image
Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna
• Monopole radiates only half as much power as the
dipole with the same current.
Prad  18.28I 02
2 Prad
Rrad = 2 = 36.5 
I0
• The input impedance for /4 monopole is Zin =
36.5 + j21.25 .
 Small Loop Antenna
• The loop antenna is of practical importance.
• It is used as a directional finder in radiation
detection and as a TV antenna for ultrahigh
frequencies.
• The term “small” implies that the dimensions of
the loop are much smaller than .
• Consider a small filamentary circular loop of
radius 0 carrying a uniform current, I0cost.
• The loop may be regarded as an elementary
magnetic dipole.
 Small Loop Antenna
P
z

r
r

 dl
0
y

I
x Transmission Line
 Small Loop Antenna
• The magnetic vector potential at the field point P
due to the loop is   I  dl
A= 
L 4 r 
• A in phasor form:
 I 0 e− j r dl
4  L r 
As =
• For a small loop (0 << ), r replaced by r and As
has only  component given by
 I0 S
A s = (1 + j  r ) e − j r
sin 
4 r 2

where S = 02 = loop area. For a loop of N turns,

S = N02 .
 Electric and Magnetic Fields of
Small Loop Antenna
• Using Bs = Hs =   As and   H s = j Es , the
magnetic and electric fields can be obtained.
− j I 0 S  j  1  − j r
E s = sin   + 2 e
4  r r 
j I 0 S 1 j  − j r
H rs = cos   2 − 3  e
2 r r 
j I 0 S  j 1 j  − j r
H s = sin   + 2 − 3 e
4  r r r 
Ers = E s = H s = 0
 Radiation Resistance of Small Loop
Antenna
• At far field,
120 2 I 0 S − j r
E s
E s = sin  e , H s = −
r  2

Ers = E s = H rs = H s = 0
where  = 120  for free space.
• The far field expressions can be used for a small square
loop with one turn (S = a2) or with N turns (S = Na2)
provided the loop dimensions are small (d  /10,
where d is the largest dimension of the loop).
• The radiation resistance of a small loop antenna is
320 4 S 2
Rrad =
4
 Example 1
A magnetic field strength of 5 A m-1 is required at a
point on  = /2, which is 2 km from an antenna in
air. Neglecting ohmic loss, how much power must the
antenna transmit if it is
(a) a Hertzian dipole of length /25?
(b) a half-wave dipole?
(c) a quarter-wave monopole?
(d) a 10-turn loop antenna of radius 0 = /20 ?
 Solution 1
(a) For a Hertzian dipole, dl = /25, dl = 2/25.
I 0  dl sin 
H s =
4 r
 2    
I0   sin  
5 10 =−6  25   2 
4 (2 103 )
I 0 = 0.5 A

2
 
2 2
dl 40 (0.5)
Prad = 40 2   I 02 = = 158 mW
 
2
(25)
 Solution 1
(b) For a /2 dipole,
 
I 0 cos  cos  
H s =  2 
2 r sin 
   
I 0 cos  cos   
−6  2  2 
5 10 =
 
2 (2 10 ) sin  
3

2
I 0 = 20 mA
1 2 1(20 10−3  ) 2
Prad = I 0 Rrad = (73) = 144 mW
2 2
 Solution 1
(c) For a /4 monopole,
I 0 = 20 mA
1 2 (20 10−3  ) 2
Prad = I 0 Rrad = (36.56) = 72 mW
2 2
 Solution 1
(d) For a loop antenna,
 I0 S
H s = sin 
r  2

 
2

10  
−6  I0  20   
5 10 = sin  
2 10 3
 2
2
I 0 = 40.53 mA
320 4 S 2
Rrad = = 192.3 
 4

1 2 1
Prad = I 0 Rrad = (40.53 10−3 )2 (192.3) = 158 mW
2 2
 Example 2
An electric field strength of 10 V m-1 is to be
measured at an observation point  = /2, 500 km
from a half-wave (resonant) dipole antenna operating
at 50 MHz in air.
(a) What is the length of the dipole?
(b) Calculate the current that must be fed to the
antenna.
(c) Find the average power radiated by the antenna.
(d) If a transmission line with Z0 = 75  is
connected to the antenna, determine the standing
wave ratio.
 Solution 2
c 3 108
(a) The wavelength  = = =6 m
f 50 10 6

Hence, the length of the half-dipole is 3 m.

(b) To find the current
 
0 I 0 cos  cos  
E s = 2 
2 r sin 
E s 2 r sin  10 10−6 2 (500 103 )(1)
I0 = =
  (120 ) (1)
0 cos  cos  
2 
= 83.33 mA
 Solution 2
(c) Average power radiated by the antenna:
1 2 1
Pave = I 0 Rrad = (83.33 10−3 )2  73 = 253.5 mW
2 2
(d) Standing wave ratio
Z L − Z0
= (Z L = Zin = 73 + j 42.5)
Z L + Z0
73 + j 42.5 − 75 −2 + j 42.5
= = = 0.2763(76.67)
73 + j 42.5 + 75 148 + j 42.5
1 +  1 + 0.2763
s= = = 1.763
1 −  1 − 0.2763
 Antenna Characteristics
• Some important characteristics of antennas
as a radiators of electromagnetic energy.
• The characteristics include:
(1) antenna patterns.
(2) radiation intensity.
(3) directive gain.
(4) power gain.
 (1) Antenna Patterns
• An antenna pattern or radiation pattern is a three-
dimensional plot of its radiation at far field.
• When the amplitude of a specified component of
the E field is plotted, it is called the field pattern
or voltage pattern.
• When the square of the amplitude of E is plotted,
it is called the power pattern.
• A three-dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is
avoided by plotting separately:
• The normalized |Es| versus  for a constant  is
called an E-plane pattern or vertical pattern.
• The normalized |Es| versus  for a constant  =
π/2 is called the H-plane pattern or horizontal
pattern).
 Antenna Patterns of Hertzian Dipole
• For Hertzian dipole,
jI 0  dl
H s = sin  e − j  r , E s =  H s
4 r
H rs = H s = Ers = E s = 0
• The normalized |Es| is obtained as f() = |sin|,
which is independent of .
• The E-plane pattern as the polar plot of f() with 
varying from 0° to 180°.
• The plot of E-plane pattern is symmetric about the
z-axis ( = 0).
 Antenna Patterns of Hertzian Dipole
• For the H-plane pattern,  is set to /2, so that f()
= 1, which is a circle of radius 1.
• When the two plots are combined, a three-
dimensional field pattern has the shape of a
doughnut.
• A plot of time-average power |Pave| = Pave for a
fixed distance r is the power pattern of the
antenna.
• It is obtained by plotting separately Pave versus 
for constant  and Pave versus  for constant .
• For Hertzian dipole, the normalized power pattern
f2() = sin2 
Field Patterns of the Hertzian Dipole
Normalized E-plane or Normalized H-plane or
Vertical Pattern Horizontal Pattern
z y

 P

x x
O

 Three-dimensional
Pattern

Power Patterns of the Hertzian Dipole
Polar Axis

30 30 y

60 45° 60
Q 
90 90 x
1

120 120

150 150
180
 = constant = 0  = constant = /2
 (2) Radiation Intensity
• The radiation intensity of an antenna is defined as
U ( ,  ) = r 2Pave
• The total average power radiated
Prad =  Pave dS =  Pave r 2 sin  d d
S S
2 
=  U ( ,  ) sin  d d =   U ( ,  ) d 
S  =0  =0

where d  = sin  d d .
• Radiation intensity U(, ) is measured in Watts
per steradian (W sr-1)
• The average value of radiation intensity is
Prad
U ave =
4
 (3) Directive Gain
• The directive gain Gd(, ) of an antenna is a
measure of the concentration of the radiated power
in a particular direction (, ) .
• It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to
direct radiated power in a given direction.
• It is the ratio of radiation intensity in a given
direction (, ) to the average radiation intensity.
U ( ,  ) 4 U ( ,  )
Gd ( ,  ) = =
U ave Prad
 (3) Directive Gain
• Pave may be expresses in terms of directive gain
Gd
Pave = P
4 r 2 rad

• The directive gain depends on the antenna pattern.

• For an isotropic antenna Gd = 1.
• The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the
maximum radiation intensity to the average
radiation intensity.
• D is the maximum directive gain Gd.
U max 4 U max
D= = Gd,max or D =
U ave Prad
 (3) Directive Gain
• For Hertzian dipole,
Gd ( ,  ) = 1.5sin 2  , D = 1.5
• For /2 dipole,

Gd ( ,  ) = f 2 ( ), D = 1.64
 Rrad
where  = 120, Rrad = 73  and
 
cos  cos  
f ( ) =  2 
sin 
 (4) Power Gain
• The directive gain does not account for the
ohmic power loss Pl of the antenna.
• Pl is due to conductor of finite conductivity.
• Total input power to the antenna is
1 2
Pin = Pl + Prad = Iin ( Rl + Rrad )
2
• The power gain Gp(, ) of the antenna is
4 U ( ,  )
G p ( ,  ) =
Pin
 (4) Power Gain
• The ratio of the power gain in any specified
direction to the directive gain in that direction is
referred to as the radiation efficiency r of the
antenna. G p Prad Rrad
r = = =
Gd Pin Rrad + Rl
• For many antenna, r is close to 100%.
• It is customary to express directivity and gain in
decibels (dB).
D (dB) = 10 log10 D
G (dB) = 10 log10 G
• The far field region is commonly taken as r  rmin,
where rmin = 2d 2 /  and d is the largest dimension of
the antenna.
Half-Wavelength Dipole Antenna
Half-Wavelength Dipole Antenna
Yagi Antenna
Yagi Antenna
Log Periodic Antenna
Log Periodic Antenna
 Example 3
Show that the directive gain of the Hertzian
dipole is Gd(, ) = 1.5 sin2 and that of the
half-wave dipole is
 
cos  cos  
2

Gd ( ,  ) = 1.64  2 
sin 2 
 Solution 3
For Hertzian dipole,
4 f 2 ( ) 4 sin 2 
Gd ( ,  ) = = 2 
 f ( )d    sin 3  d d
2

=0 =0

4 sin 2 
= = 1.5sin 2 
2 ( 4 / 3)
= 1.5sin 2 
 Solution 3
• For the half-wave dipole,
 
4 cos 2  cos  
2 
4 f ( )
2

Gd ( ,  ) =
2
= sin
 ( )d  2  cos2   cos 
2
f
2  d d
 =0  =0 sin 
2  
4 cos  cos  
 2   1 
=  
sin 2   2  (1.2188) 
2  
cos  cos  
= 1.64  2 
sin 2 
 Example 4
Determine the electric field intensity at a
distance of 10 km from an antenna having a
directive gain of 5 dB and radiating a total
power of 20 kW.
 Solution 4
Gd (dB) = 10 log10 Gd = 5
Gd = 100.5 = 3.162
2
Gd Prad Es
Pave = =
4 r 2
2
 Gd Prad 120 (3.162)(20 103 )
= =
2
Es
2 r 2
2 (10 103 ) 2
Es = 0.1948 V m-1
 Example 5
The radiation intensity of a certain antenna is
2sin  sin 3  , 0     , 0    
U ( ,  ) = 
 0, elsewhere

Determine the directivity of the antenna.

 Solution 5
U max
Directivity D=
U ave
U max = 2
1 1  
=     =     sin  d d
3
U ave U ( , ) d 2sin sin
4 4  = 0  = 0

1  
=      d
3 2
sin d sin
2  =0  =0

1   1
=  (1 − cos  ) d (− cos  )  (1 − cos 2 ) d
2

2  =0  =0 2
 
1  cos  3
 1  sin 2  1
=  − cos    2  − 2  =
2  3 0   0 3
2
D= =6
1/ 3
 Antenna Arrays
• In many applications, it is necessary to design
antennas with more energy radiated in some
particular directions and less in other directions.
• Requiring the radiation pattern be concentrated in
the direction of interest.
• This is hardly achievable with a single antenna
element.
• An antenna array is used to obtain greater
directivity than can be obtained with a single
antenna element.
Two Small Dipoles
Two Small Dipoles
Steer the Beams
Two Half-Wavelength Dipoles
Two Half-Wavelength Dipoles
Four Half-Wavelength Dipoles
Four Half-Wavelength Dipoles
An Array with Thin Wires that are End-Fed
An Array with Thin Wires that are End-Fed
Four Wires Connected to Form a Rhombic
Four Wires Connected to Form a Rhombic
A Rhombic Antenna with Conducting Ground
A Rhombic Antenna with Conducting Ground
 Antenna Arrays
• An antenna array is a group of radiating
elements arranged so as to produce some
particular radiation characteristics.
• It is practical and convenient that the array
consists of identical elements, but this is not
fundamentally required.
• Consider the simplest case of a two-element
array and extend it to an N-element array.
 Antenna Arrays
• Consider an antenna consisting of two Hertzian
dipoles placed in free space along the z-axis but
oriented parallel to the x-axis.
• Assume the dipole at (0, 0, d/2) carries current I1s
= I0Δ and the one at (0, 0, −d/2) carries current
I2s = I00, where Δ is the phase difference
between the two currents.
• By varying the spacing d and phase difference Δ,
the fields from the array can be made to interfere
constructively in certain directions and interfere
destructively in other directions.
 A Two-Element Array
P
z r1
1
r

r2
d x

2
 Antenna Arrays
• If P is in the far zone, the total electric field at P
Es = E1s + E2 s
j I 0 dl  e− j r1 j e− j  r2 
= cos 1 e a 1 + cos  2 a 2 
4  r1 r2 
• Since P is far from the array, 1    2, a1  a 
a2, and r1  r  r2.
d d
r1 = r − cos  , r2 = r + cos 
2 2
j I 0 dl
Es = cos  e − j  r e j /2 e j (  d cos )/2 e j /2 + e − j (  d cos )/2 e − j /2  a
4 r
j I 0 dl 1 
= cos  e e
− j  r j  /2
2 cos  (  d cos  +  )  a
4 r 2 
 Antenna Arrays
• Comparing with single element, the field is
multiplied by an array factor given by
1 
AF = 2 cos  (  d cos  +  )  e j /2
2 
• The field of two-element array is given by
E (total) = E (single element)  (array factor)
• Note that |cos| is the radiation pattern due to
single element, whereas the normalized array
factor, |cos[1/2(dcos+Δ)]| is the radiation
pattern the array would have if the elements were
isotropic.
 Antenna Arrays
• These may be regarded as “unit pattern” and
“group pattern”, respectively.
resultant pattern = unit pattern  group pattern
• Unit pattern depends on the type of elements the
array is composed.
• Group pattern is independent of the element type as
long as the spacing d, phase difference Δ, and the
orientation of the elements remain the same.
 Antenna Arrays
• Next, extend the results to the general case of an
N-element array.
• Assume that the array is linear and spaced equally
along a straight line and lie along z-axis.
• Each element is fed with current of the same
magnitude but of progressive phase shift Δ.
• That is, I1s = I00, I2s = I0Δ, I3s = I02Δ, and
so on.
• The main interest is to find the array factor.
• The array factor is the sum of the contributions by
all the elements.
An N-Element Uniform Linear Array
z


N


3
d

2

d
1 x
d cos
 Antenna Arrays
• AF = 1 + e j + e j 2 + e j 3 + ... + e j ( N −1)
where  =  d cos  +  .
• AF is a geometric series.
1 − e jN e jN − 1 e jN /2 e jN /2 − e− jN /2
AF = j
= j = j /2
1− e e −1 e e j /2 − e− j /2
j ( N −1) /2 sin ( N / 2 )
=e
sin( / 2)
• If the array were centered about the origin,
N
sin
AF = 2 ,  =  dcos + 

sin
2
 Antenna Arrays
1. Since |AF| has the maximum value of N, the
normalized |AF| is obtained by dividing |AF| by N.
The principal maximum occurs when  = 0. That
is, 0 = d cos + Δ or cos = −Δ /(d).
2. |AF| has nulls (or zeros) when |AF| = 0,
N/2 =  k, k = 1, 2, 3, …
3. A broadside array has its maximum radiation
directed normal to the axis of the array; that is, 
= 0,  = 90° so that Δ = 0.
4. An end-fire has its maximum radiation directed
along the axis of the array.
 Array Factors for Uniform Linear
Arrays
|AF| |AF| |AF|

2 3 4

1 1.08

  
0  2 0  2 0  2
2/3 4/3 /2 3/2
N=2 N=3 N=4
 Example 6
For the two-element antenna array, sketch the
normalized field pattern when the currents
are:
(a) fed in phase (Δ = 0), d = /2.
(b) fed 900 out of phase (Δ = /2), d = /4.

z
d
 Solution 6
(a) Normalized field as
1 
f ( ) = cos  cos  (  d cos  +  ) 
2 
If Δ = 0, d = /2, d = (2/)(/2) = . Hence,
 
f ( ) = cos  cos  (cos  ) 
2 

resultant pattern = unit pattern  group pattern

To sketch a group pattern, we must first
determine the nulls and maxima.
 Solution 6
• For the nulls (or zeros),
   
cos  cos   = 0 → cos  = 
2  2 2
 = 0, 180
• For maxima,
 
cos  cos   = 1 → cos  = 0
2 
 = 90
 Field Patterns
z

z z


x  x = x

Group Pattern Resultant Pattern

Unit Pattern
 Solution 6
(b) If Δ = /2, d = /4, d = (2/)(/4) = /2
 
f ( ) = cos  cos  (cos  + 1) 
4 

resultant pattern = unit pattern  group pattern

To determine the group pattern, first determine

the nulls and maxima.
 Solution 6
• For the nulls,
   
cos  (1 + cos  )  = 0 → (1 + cos  ) =
4  4 2
cos  = 1, →  = 0
• Maxima and minima occur when
d    
 cos (1 + cos  )  = 0 → sin  sin (1 + cos  ) = 0
d  4  4
sin  = 0 →  = 0,180

sin (1 + cos  ) = 0 → cos = −1 or  = 180
4
 Field Patterns
z

z z

x  x = x

Unit Pattern Group Pattern Resultant Pattern

 Example 7
Consider a three-element array that has
current ratio 1:2:1. Sketch the group pattern in
the plane containing the axes of the elements.

I0 2I0 I0

z
/2 /2
 Solution 7
• For analysis, split the middle element
carrying current 2I0 into two elements,
each carrying current I0. This results in
four elements instead of three.
• Consider elements 1 and 2 as a group and
elements 3 and 4 as another group.
• Each group is a two-element array with d =
/2, Δ = 0.
• The final resultant pattern is shown.
 Field Patterns

 =

Unit Pattern Group Pattern Resultant Pattern

Effective Area and the Friis Equation
• Incoming EM wave is normal to the entire surface
of a receiving antenna, the power received is
Pr =  Pave  dS = Pave S
S
• In most cases, the incoming EM wave is not
normal to the entire surface of the antenna.
• The concept of effective area or effective aperture
is employed.
• The effective area Ae of a receiving antenna is the
ratio of the time-average power received Pr to the
time-average power density Pave of the incident
wave at the antenna. Pr
Ae =
Pave
 Effective Area and the Friis Equation
• The effective area is a measure of the ability of the
antenna to extract energy from a passing EM
wave.
• Derive the formula for calculating the effective
area of the Hertzian dipole acting as a receiving
antenna.
• The Thévenin equivalent circuit for the receiving
antenna is shown.
• Voc is the open-circuit voltage induced on the
antenna terminals, Zin = Rrad + jXin is the antenna
impedance, and ZL = RL + jXL is the external load
impedance.
Thévenin Equivalent of a Receiving
Antenna
Zin

Voc ∿ ZL
 Effective Area and the Friis Equation
• For maximum power transfer, Z L = Zin* and XL = −Xin.
• The time-average power delivered to the matched load
is 1 V 
2
V
2

Pr = 
oc
 rad
R = oc

2  2 Rrad  8 Rrad
• For Hertzian dipole, Rrad = 802(dl/)2 and Voc = E dl,
where E is the effective field strength parallel to the
dipole axis.
E 2 2 E2 E2 E2
Pr = , Pave = = =
640 2
2 20 240
Pr 3 2  2 2
Ae = = = D= Gd ( ,  )
Pave 8 4 4
Effective Area and the Friis Equation
• Suppose two antennas separated by distance
r in free space.
• The transmitting antenna has effective area
Aet, directive gain Gdt and transmits a total
power Pt (= Prad).
• The receiving antenna has effective area of
Aer, directive gain Gdr and receives a total
power of Pr.
Transmitting and Receiving Antennas
in Free Space

Aet, Pt, Gdt Aer, Pr, Gdr

Transmitter Receiver

r
Effective Area and the Friis Equation
• At the transmitter,
4 U 4 r 2Pave Pt
Gdt = = or Pave = Gdt
Pt Pt 4 r 2

• The time-average power received:

2
Pr = Pave Aer = GdrPave
4
  
2

Pr = Gdr Gdt   Pt
 4 r 
• This is the Friis transmission formula. It relates
the power received to the power transmitted,
provided that the two antennas are separated by r
≥ 2d2/, where d is the largest dimension of either
antenna.
 Example 8
Find the maximum effective area of a /2 wire
dipole operating at 30 MHz. How much
power is received with an incident plane wave
of strength 2 mV m-1?
 Solution 8
2
Ae = Gd ( ,  )
4
c 3 108
= = = 10 m
f 30 10 6

 120 2
Gd ( ,  ) = f ( ) =
2
f ( ) = 1.64 f 2 ( )
 Rrad 73
Gd ( ,  ) max = 1.64
102
Ae,max = (1.64) = 13.05 m 2
4
E02 (2 10−3 ) 2
Pr = Pave Ae = Ae = (13.05) = 71.62 nW
2 240
 Example 9
The transmitting and receiving antennas are
separated by a distance of 200 and have
directive gains of 25 dB and 18 dB,
respectively. If 5 mW of power is to be
received, calculate the minimum transmitted
power.
 Solution 9
• Gdt(dB) = 25 dB = 10 log10 Gdt, Gdt = 102.5 = 316.23.
• Gdr(dB) = 18 dB = 10 log10 Gdr, Gdr = 101.8 = 63.1.
  
2

Pr = Gdr Gdt   Pt
 4 r 
 4 r 
2
1
Pt = Pr 
   Gdr Gdt
 4  200 
2
−3 1
= 5 10   (63.1)(316.23)
 
= 1.583 W
 The Radar Equation
• Radars are electromagnetic devices used for
detection and location of objects.
• Radar is derived from the phase radio detection
and ranging.
• In a typical radar system, pulses of EM energy are
transmitted to a distant object. The same antenna
is used for transmitting and receiving, so the time
interval between the transmitted and reflected
pulses is used to determine the distance of the
target.
 Radar System
Typical radar system.
Pt Gdt = Gdr Target

Transmitter
Aet = Aer
r
Receiver
Pr

Simplified version of the radar system.

Es Ei

O T
r
 The Radar Equation
• If r is the distance between the radar and target
and c is the speed of light, the elapsed time
between the transmitted and received pulse is 2r/c.
• By measuring the elapsed time, r is determined.
• The ability of the target to scatter (or reflect)
energy is characterized by the scattering cross
section  of the target.
• The scattering cross section has the units of area
and can be measured experimentally.
• The scattering cross section is the equivalent area
intercepting that amount of power that, when
scattering isotropically, produces at the radar a
power density that is equal to that scattered (or
reflected) by the actual target.
 The Radar Equation
  Pi   2 Ps 
Ps = lim  or  = lim  4 r 
r → 4 r 2 
  r →
 Pi 
where Pi is the incident power density at the
target T while Ps is the scattered power
density at the transceiver O.
• The incident power density at the target T is
Gd
Pi = Pave = P
4 r 2 rad
 The Radar Equation
• The power received at the transceiver O is
Pr
Pr = AerPs or Ps =
Aer
• Since Gdr = Gdt = Gd and Aer = Aet = Ae.
Pr 1
 = (4 r )
2 2

Prad AeGd
Ae Gd Prad (Gd ) 2  Prad
Pr = =
(4 r )
2 2
(4 )3 r 4
1/4
  G  Prad 
2 2
r= d
 
 (4 )
3
Pr 
• This is called the radar range equation.
 The Radar Equation
• The radar considered so far is the monostatic type.
• A bistatic radar is one in which the transmitter and
receiver are separated.
• If the transmitting and receiving antennas are at
distance r1 and r2 from the target and Gdr  Gdt.
2
Gdt Gd r   
Pr =    Prad
4  4 r1r2 
• Radar transmission frequencies range from 25 to
70000 MHz.
Designations of Radar Frequencies
Designation Frequency
UHF 300 – 1000 MHz
L 1000 – 2000 MHz
S 2000 – 4000 MHz
C 4000 – 8000 MHz
X 8000 – 12500 MHz
Ku 12.5 – 18 GHz
K 18 − 26.5 GHz
Millimeter > 35 GHz
 Example 10
An S-band radar transmitting at 3 GHz radiates 200
kW. Determine the signal power density at ranges
100 to 400 nautical miles if the effective area of the
radar antenna is 9 m2. With a 20 m2 target at 300
nautical miles, calculate the power of the reflected
signal at the radar.

1 nautical mile = 1852 m

 Solution 10
c 3 108
= = = 0.1 m
f 3 10 9

4 4
Gdt = 2 Aet = (9) = 3600
 (0.1) 2

• For 100 nautical miles = 1.852 105 m

Gdt Prad 3600  200 103
P= = = 5.248 mW m -2

4 r 2 4 (1.852 105 )2

• For 400 nautical miles = 4(1.852 105) m

Gdt Prad 3600  200 103
P= = = 0.328 mW m -2

4 r 2 4 (4 1.852 105 ) 2
 Solution 10
where r = 300 nautical miles = 5.556  105 m.
Ae Gd Prad 9  20  3600  200 103
Pr = 2
= 2
 4 r 
2
 4 (5.556 10 )  5 2

= 2.706 10−14W
Antenna Air Search Radar
The radar antenna sends out a short, high-power pulse of
radio waves at a known frequency. When the waves hit an
object, they echo off of it and the speed of the object
Doppler-shifts the echo. The same antenna is used to
receive the much-weaker signals that return.
Two Different LIDAR Gun Designs
Patriot Missile
 Summary
1. Discussed the fundamental ideas and definitions in
antenna theory.
2. If know the current distribution, can find the
retarded magnetic vector potential A, and from it
can find the electromagnetic fields E and H.
3. The radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole is very
small and limits the practical usefulness.
4. The half-wave dipole is more popular and more
practical use. Its input impedance is 73 + j42.5 .
5. The quarter-wave monopole is essentially half a
half-wave dipole placed on a conducting plane.
 Summary
6. The radiation patterns commonly used are the
field intensity, power intensity, and radiation
intensity patterns. The field pattern is usually a
plot of |Es| or its normalized form f(). The power
pattern is usually a plot of Pave or its normalized
form f2().
7. The directive gain is the ratio of U(, ) to its
average value. The directivity is the maximum
value of the directive gain.
 Summary
8. An antenna array is a group of radiating elements
arranged so as to produce some particular
radiation characteristics. The radiation pattern is
obtained by multiplying the unit pattern with the
group pattern.
9. For N-element linear uniform array,
N
sin( )
AF = 2

sin
2
where  = d cos  + Δ .
 Summary
10. The Friis transmission formula characterizes the
coupling between two antennas in terms of their
directive gains, separation distance and
frequency of operation.
11. For a bistatic radar, the power received is
2
Gdt Gdr   
Pr =    Prad
4  4 r1r2 
For a monostatic, r1 = r2 = r and Gdt = Gdr.
GPS