PROCESSES INVOLVED IN GAS
EXCHANGE
The major function of the respiratory system is
to supply the body with oxygen and to dispose
of carbon dioxide. To do this, at least four
distinct events, collectively called respiration,
must occur:
1. Pulmonary ventilation. Air must move
into and out of the lungs so that the gases
in the alveoli of the lungs are continuously
refreshed. This process of pulmonary
ventilation is commonly called breathing.
2. External respiration. Gas exchange
(oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading)
between the pulmonary blood and alveoli
must take place. Remember that in external
respiration, gas exchanges are being made
between the blood and the body exterior.
3. Respiratory gas transport. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide must be transported to and
from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via
the bloodstream.
4. Internal respiration. At systemic
capillaries, gas exchange occurs between the
blood and cells inside the body.
• inspiration, when air is flowing into
the lungs, and expiration, when air is
leaving the lungs.
• external respiration is the actual
exchange of gases between the
alveoli and the blood (pulmonary gas
exchange), and internal respiration
is the gas exchange process that
occurs between the blood and the
tissue cells
Mucus- traps microorganisms in respiratory
and digestive tracts.
The major function of mucus is usually to coat
the passageways of the nose area, throat,
sinuses, lungs as well as digestive system and
have them from getting dry off. If these types
of pathways dried up, their walls could
damage, most certainly giving you pathogens
with an entryway into the entire body.
1. The mucosa is the innermost layer, a moist
mucous membrane that lines the hollow cavity,
or lumen, of the organ. It consists primarily of
surface epithelium plus a small amount
of connective tissue (lamina propria) and
a scanty smooth muscle layer. Beyond the
esophagus, which has a friction-resisting
stratified squamous epithelium, the epithelium
is mostly simple columnar.
2. The submucosa is found just beneath the
mucosa. It is soft connective tissue containing
blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa
associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), and
lymphatic vessels.
3. The muscularis externa is a muscle layer
typically made up of an inner circular layer
and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth
muscle cells.
4. The serosa is the outermost layer of the
wall. As half of a serous membrane pair, the
visceral peritoneum consists of a single layer
of flat, serous fluid–producing cells. The
visceral peritoneum is continuous with the
slippery parietal peritoneum, which lines the
abdominopelvic cavity by way of a membrane
extension, the mesentery.
ALVEOLI
Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs of the lungs,
called alveoli, and at capillary beds around the
body.
Gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion through
the respiratory membrane—oxygen passes from
the alveolar air into the capillary blood, and carbon
dioxide leaves the blood to enter the alveoli.
The walls of the alveoli are composed largely of a
single, thin layer of simple squamous epithelial
cells. The thinness of their walls is hard to imagine,
but a sheet of tissue paper is much thicker.
The external surfaces of the alveoli are covered
with a “cobweb” of pulmonary capillaries.
Together, the alveolar and capillary walls, their
fused basement membranes, and occasional
elastic fibers construct the respiratory membrane.
Capillary bed is the network of capillaries
supplying the organ. A capillary bed is a
concentration of capillaries which supply blood
to a specific organ or area of the body. The
density of the capillaries in a given bed can
vary, depending on the requirements of the
area it supports
Ingestion-Food must be placed into the mouth
before it can be acted on. This is an active,
voluntary process called ingestion.
Propulsion-To be processed by more than one
digestive organ, foods must be propelled from one
organ to the next. Swallowing is one example of
food movement that depends largely on the
propulsive process called peristalsis.
Peristalsis- is involuntary and involves alternating
waves of contraction and relaxation of the
longitudinal muscles in the organ wall. The net
effect is to squeeze the food along the tract.
Food breakdown: Mechanical breakdown-
Mechanical breakdown physically fragments food
into smaller particles, increasing surface area and
preparing food for further degradation by
enzymes. Chewing and mixing of food in the
mouth by the teeth and tongue, and churning of
food in the stomach are examples of processes
contributing to mechanical food breakdown.
*segmentation in the small intestine moves food
back and forth across the internal wall of the
organ, mixing it with the digestive juices. Although
segmentation may also help to propel foodstuffs
through the small intestine, it is more an example
of mechanical digestion than of propulsion.
Food breakdown: Digestion-The sequence of steps
in which large food molecules are chemically
broken down to their building blocks by enzymes
(protein molecules that act as catalysts) is called
digestion
Absorption- the transport of digestive end
products from the lumen of the GI tract to the
blood or lymph. For absorption to occur, the
digested foods must first enter the mucosal cells
by active or passive transport processes. The small
intestine is the major absorptive site.
Defecation-the elimination of indigestible residues
from the GI tract via the anus in the form of feces

DIFFERENT ENZYMES FOR DIGESTION

Parts of the Kidney
*nephron
- filter the blood and form urine
- composed of a renal corpuscle that filters
blood and a renal tubule that modifies
the filtrate to form urine
- urine-forming structure of the kidney
2types of nephrons:
cortical nephrons
-have short loops of henle that descend slightly
into the medulla
juxtamedullary nephrons
-have long loops of henle that extend deep into the
medulla
*glomerulus
-capillary network
-it consists the renal corpuscle together with
glomerular capsule
*glomerular (bowman's capsule)
-a cup-shaped epithelial membrane
surrounding
the glomerulus
*renal cortex
-outermost region of the kidney, contains
renal corpuscles
-smooth area, the most superficial region
*renal medulla
-the deeper region in the kidney
*arteries and veins

right kidney
right ureter
urinary bladder
urethra
renal medulla
renal cortex
renal column
renal capsule
renal pyramid
renal papilla
minor calyx
major calyx
renal artery
renal vein
renal hilum
renal pelvis in renal sinus
 internal urethral sphincter

internal urethral sphincter internal urethral orifice

ureters urethra
detrusor muscle of
urinary bladder external urethral sphincter

Ureteral openings external urethral orifice

trigone
glomerular capsule
proximal convoluted tubule
ascending limb of loop of Henle
descending limb of loop of Henle
distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
papillary duct
glomerulus
glomerular capsule
renal corpuscle
peritubular capillary
efferent arteriole
afferent arteriole
afferent arteriole segmental artery

efferent arteriole renal artery

vasa recta renal vein

peritubular capillary interlobar vein

interlobular artery arcuate vein

arcuate artery interlobular vein

interlobar artery
proximal and distal convoluted tubules (outer cortex)
glomerulus
glomerulus parietal layer of glomerular capsule
(simple squamous epithelium)
loop of Henle and collecting ducts
capsular space
 Nephron

Renal medulla

Renal columns

Papillary duct

Adipose capsule

Renal papilla
Major calyx
Renal hilum

Renal capsule

Renal fascia

Renal pelvis

Renal sinus

Minor calyx

Renal pyramids

Renal cortex